J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2009) 11:96103 DOI 10.

1007/s10163-008-0231-3

Springer 2009

SPECIAL FEATURE: ORIGINAL ARTICLE Agamuthu Periathamby Fauziah Shahul Hamid Kahlil Khidzir

Solid Waste Management in Asia and Pacic Islands 1

Evolution of solid waste management in Malaysia: impacts and implications of the solid waste bill, 2007

Received: April 28, 2008 / Accepted: November 23, 2008

Abstract Solid waste generation and its implications for people and the environment are global issues. The complexity of the waste composition and the ever-increasing percapita waste generation is a challenge for waste managers, particularly in developing countries. Thus, the need to have a clear policy on waste management and legislation to realize that policy is imperative. Malaysia is developing rapidly and problems such as the waste generation associated with development and industrialization are evident. The Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Bill, which was approved in August 2007 after a 10-year delay, is envisaged to have serious consequences in waste management practices and implementation in Malaysia. This article explores the main features of this all-encompassing bill and its impacts on the waste management scenario in Malaysia. In addition, a comparative evaluation is also discussed to explore the policies/legislation of selected countries vis-vis the Malaysian bill. Key words MSW management Developing countries Malaysia SWPCM Bill

agement systems that make continuous improvement feasible. In contrast, weak enforcement, lack of technology, and ineffective policy implementation make the management of waste in developing countries inefcient with a very low possibility of improvement. Various factors contribute toward the status of waste management in a given country. Being a rapidly developing country, Malaysia faces similar problems: technologies and facilities are insufcient to cope with the ever-increasing rate of waste generation.2 This article discusses trends and the current waste management system in Malaysia, presents critical views on the impacts and implications of the newly approved solid waste Bill 2007, and compares the future waste management scenario in Malaysia with those of three other Asian countries.

Malaysias waste generation trends

Malaysia, with an area of 329 750 km2, had a population of approximately 24.8 million in 2007, with a per-capita GDP of $14 400.3 In Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia), the daily generation of waste escalated from 13 000 tonnes in 1996 to 19 100 tonnes in 2006.4,5 Generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Malaysia has increased more than 91% over the past 10 years, due, in particular, to the rapid development of urban areas, ruralurban migration, increase in per-capita income, and the change in consumption patterns brought about by development. The urban population, which constitutes more than 65% of the total population, is the main waste generator. Table 1 shows the trends of waste generation in major urban areas in Peninsular Malaysia from 1970 to 2006. The MSW generated increased to 6.0 million tonnes in 1998 due to the average per-capita generation of 0.50.8 kg/ day (Fig. 1).6,7 By the year 2000, production of domestic and commercial waste reached 8.0 million tonnes/year, and onequarter of the total solid waste was generated in the Klang Valley.8,9 The solid waste generation rate in the 1980s was 0.5 kg/ day, and this had increased to 1.3 kg/day by 2006. The

Introduction
The increase in the worlds population has resulted in a tremendous amount of solid wastes being generated. In 2000, the estimated global waste generation was 318 million tonnes.1 With an annual increase of approximately 6%, global solid waste generation is expected to reach about 518 million tonnes in 2008 and 585 million tonnes in 2010. However, due to the lack of proper data collection, the actual gures for worldwide waste generation are not available. Data from developed countries are more accessible due to their well-established policies and proper waste manP. Agamuthu (*) S.H. Fauziah K. Khidzir Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel. +603-7967-6756; Fax +603-7967-4178 e-mail: agamuthu@um.edu.my

97 Table 1. Generation of municipal solid waste in major urban areas in Peninsular Malaysia (19702006) Urban centre Solid waste generated (tonnes/day) 1970 Kuala Lumpur Johor Bharu (Johor) Ipoh (Perak) Georgetown (P. Pinang) Klang (Selangor) Kuala Terengganu (Terengganu) Kota Bharu (Kelantan) Kuantan (Pahang) Seremban (N. Sembilan) Melaka
a

1980 310.5 99.6 82.7 83.0 65.0 61.8 56.5 45.2 45.1 29.1

1990 586.8 174.8 162.2 137.2 122.8 121.0 102.9 85.3 85.2 46.8

2002 2754 215 208 221 478 137 129.5 174 165 562

2006a 3100 242 234 249 538 154 146 196 186 632

98.9 41.1 22.5 53.4 18.0 8.7 9.1 7.1 13.4 14.4

Estimated gures

Table 2. Waste composition (percentage of wet weight) in Malaysia from 1975 to 2005 Waste composition Organic Paper Plastic Glass Metal Textiles Wood Others NA, not available 1975 63.7 7.0 2.5 2.5 6.4 1.3 6.5 0.9 1980 54.4 8.0 0.4 0.4 2.2 2.2 1.8 0.3 1985 48.3 23.6 9.4 4.0 5.9 NA NA 8.8 1990 48.4 8.9 3.0 3.0 4.6 NA NA 32.1 1995 45.7 9.0 3.9 3.9 5.1 2.1 NA 4.3 2000 43.2 23.7 11.2 3.2 4.2 1.5 0.7 12.3 2005 44.8 16.0 15.0 3.0 3.3 2.8 6.7 8.4

1.6 per capita generation of waste (kg/day) 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
198 5 1 99 5

Year

200 0

2 0 03

20 07

Fig. 1. Increasing trend in per-capita generation of municipal solid waste from 1985 to 2007

current rate is expected to reach 1.5 kg/day in most cities.10 This increasing trend could be the result of changes in consumption habits as well as the increasing affordability of consumer goods. Waste in Malaysia is dominated by organic waste, which comprises more than 40% of the total waste stream. The average organic waste content was approximately 50% in the 1980s and 1990s and mainly consisted of processed kitchen waste and food waste. Table 2 depicts the composition of waste generated in Malaysia from 1975 to 2005. The generation of plastic and paper waste was high in 1985 due to the implementation of the Malaysian Food Regulations (1985), which recognized the use of various types of plastics and paper as safe and suitable packaging materials.11 The

trend decreased slightly from 1990 to 1999 due to the economic downturn, but shot up again in 2000 with the introduction of more hygienic types of plastic- and paper-based packaging materials into the market. This resulted in a decreasing percentage of organic waste in the MSW stream. However, in 2007, putrescible waste contributed approximately 46%, followed by paper waste (14%) and plasticbased waste (15%).2,6 Solid waste management programs in Malaysia have developed in phases. Municipal solid waste management was quite primitive until the late 1970s. The local district health ofces cleaned only the streets and hauled away household wastes to municipal disposal sites assigned as authorized dumping grounds. However, with the rapid increase in MSW generation, the collection frequency improved slightly to prevent detrimental health impacts to the community. At this phase, the waste management system was still unsatisfactory. In order to increase efciency further, the government delegated waste management to four private consortia. The privatization of urban solid waste management in Malaysia was initiated in 1993 with the objective of providing an integrated, effective, efcient, and technologically advanced solid waste management system. It was also expected to resolve the problems of solid waste management faced by the local authorities (LAs) such as nance, lack of expertise, illegal dumping, open burning, and a lack of proper solid waste disposal sites. However, privatization did not really solve the issues, but only transferred the problems from LAs to the private companies.

98 Table 3. Methods of waste disposal in Malaysia10 Treatment Percentage of waste disposed 2002 Recycling Composting Incineration Inert landll Sanitary landll Other disposal sites Total 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 90.0 100.0 2006 5.5 1.0 0.0 3.2 30.9 59.4 100.0 Target 2020 22.0 8.0 16.8 9.1 44.1 0.0 100.0

waste management from Japan, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, and the United States, focused mainly on public cleanliness management. The main strategies are to implement efcient solid waste treatment, interim treatment, and nal disposal of solid waste. Also integrated in the strategies are the 3R issues, which cover the management and regulations.13 The Bill includes the management of amenities from roads and toilets to drains, food courts, and grassed areas by the roadside. The Bill covers the management of solid waste from commercial centers, public sites, construction sites, households, industrial zones, and institutions, as well as imported solid wastes. Main features of the SWPCM Bill Prior to the implementation of the bill, solid waste management and public cleansing were the responsibility of the LAs, and were normally subcontracted to smaller waste management service providers. Having smaller designated parties to service specied areas resulted in more efcient management at the early stages of implementation. However, with the increasing costs of waste management, the situation resulted with subcontractors not being paid promptly, leading to drastically reduced efciency. With the passing of the Bill, the authority governing solid waste and public cleansing is shifted from state governments and LAs to the federal government. The management cost will be shared between these two former parties. LAs will direct funds to a federal corporation that directly manages solid wastes. This avoids the unsustainable system encompassing subcontractors and unprofessional contractors. The function of the appointed federal corporation encompasses every aspect that is deemed necessary to ensure the implementation and success of an effective and integrated solid waste management plan. It includes recommending and implementing policies and strategies pertaining to solid waste management services, implementing improvement measures for existing solid waste management services, enforcing the law, and establishing institutions to undertake research activities. It also covers the recommendation and implementation of relevant standards, monitoring of compliance, and promoting participation and awareness among the public. Funding In order to cope with expenditure in waste management costs, a fund has been administered. The Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Corporation Fund consists of: The corporations income from investments allocations provided by the parliament to manage solid waste and public cleansing income sourced from property of the corporation consultancy fees from services provided by the corporation interest on money loaned by the corporation

The steady increase in MSW generation over the years resulted in government-funded public information campaigns to establish awareness and to create environmental consciousness among the general public. In 1988, the government introduced the Action Plan for a Beautiful and Clean (ABC) Malaysia, and recycling campaigns followed in consecutive years. However, due to minimal responses from the general public, the campaigns failed, although environmental awareness and knowledge on waste management among the public did increase slightly. A survey carried out in 1999 showed that 59% of respondents were moderately aware with some basic knowledge and were mildly alert to solid waste issues.12

Current waste generation in Malaysia

Daily MSW generation in Peninsular Malaysia today exceeds 19 000 tonnes. Approximately 75% of this is collected and disposed off in 130 landlls and dumps.10 An estimated 20% is burned or dumped into rivers or at illegal sites, while 5% is recycled. Malaysias main option of waste disposal has been landlling, although alternatives have been explored. Table 3 indicates the current waste management methods in practice since 2002 and it also indicates the proposed technologies to be used by 2020. The Malaysian government proposes to gradually establish several MSW incineration plants, simultaneously emphasizing the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle) in the future, as envisioned in Part X of the solid waste bill. The Malaysian government has been debating a solid waste bill for 10 years but only put forward the bill in 2007. The Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management (SWPCM) Bill 2007 is expected to bring major changes and new challenges in waste management in Malaysia.

Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Bill

The 88-page SWPCM Bill had been under review for 10 years before it was approved in August 2007. The Bill is administered by the Ministry of Housing and local government. The main objective of the Bill is to improve and ensure high-quality services in solid waste management. The Bill, adapted from best management practices in solid

99

prot from the operation of projects donations and contributions received from any source other money lawfully obtained by the corporation other sources.

The nance issues are tackled proactively to ensure that it will not become a stumbling block toward an effective waste management system. This is a lesson learned from failed privatization of the solid waste management systems from the 1980s to early 2007. The failure was attributed to the lack of funds and the inability among some of the concessionaires to generate income to cover their expenditure. The interim agreement with the concessionaires prevented the companies from expanding investment and obtaining bank nancing.14 It is hoped that the inclusion of the nancial section in the Bill will overcome this problem.

examine, copy, and extract any information pertaining to the matters covered by the act; visit, enter, inspect, and examine with or without previous notice any solid waste management facility; investigate to ensure proper maintenance and sanitation, matters related to safety and health; the effects of any operation or practice; and the presence and accumulation of noxious gas in any solid waste management facility, land, or other premises; and take samples of any material found at solid waste management facilities on land, in water, or in the air. On failure to comply with the regulations stated in the act, the convicted solid waste management facility can be ordered by the court to cease operation. Stricter regulations are imposed on the licensees that undertake or provide any solid waste management services. Among others, the act requires the licensees to comply with all provisions under the act and the condition of the license, including assigning, sublicensing, or transferring of the granted license. Noncompliance will result in suspension or revocation of the license. This regulation will prevent problems of illegal subcontracting of services by unethical licensees. The authorized ofcers are also empowered to stop, search, and seize vehicles suspected of carrying anything prohibited by the regulations to curb the increasing rate of illegal dumping faced by the LAs. A stricter penalty can be imposed on a person who is convicted of this offence, which includes a ne of up to RM10 000 (US$2632), up to 6 months imprisonment, or both. For continued offences, the offender is liable to a ne of up to RM1000 (US$263) for every day or a part of a day during which the offence continues after conviction. The 3Rs: reduce, reuse, and recycle The implementation and enforcement of the 3Rs are also listed in the Bill under Part X, in which solid waste generators are required to reduce the generation of solid waste; to use environmentally friendly materials; to limit the generation, import, use, discharge, and disposal of specied products; to implement coding and labeling on products to promote recycling; and to utilize any method to reduce the adverse impacts of MSW on the environment, i.e., to reduce, reuse, and recycle MSW. Although waste minimization is emphasized in the Bill, the techniques to reduce waste generation are not specied and the options are too generalized. Failure to comply will make the offender liable to a ne of up to RM10 000 (US$2632) or up to 6 months imprisonment, or both. The Bill also introduced the take-back and depositrefund systems. These apply to the manufacturer, assembler, importer, or dealer and oblige them to take back specied products for the purpose of recycling or disposal. The deposit-refund system can be implemented in order to ensure the efciency of the take-back system. Failure to comply can result in a ne of up to RM10 000 (US$2632) or up to 6 months imprisonment, or both.

Payment Punitive measures are provided in the Bill to tackle the problem of consumers who refuse to pay waste disposal fees. The failure to settle the collection fees will allow the licensed concessionaire to take the case to the Tribunal for Solid Waste Management. A ne of up to RM5000 (US$1316) and RM50 (US$13) for each day of the continuation of the offence is proposed. Charges will be imposed on the owners of facilities, the occupiers of residents, LAs, or any individual who receives solid waste management services.

Responsibilities of waste generators The Bill also listed the responsibility of the waste generator to conduct waste separation in order to promote recycling and retrieving valuable components from the waste stream. Under clause 74 of the Bill, it is an offence if a person fails to separate solid waste generated by the premises. On conviction for the offence, the person is liable to a ne of up to RM1000 (US$263). The act denes solid waste as unwanted material generated by any process that requires disposal by the act or any written law. The denition excludes scheduled wastes that are prescribed under the Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Act 127).15 The term controlled solid waste, utilized throughout the Bill, includes waste generated from the commercial and construction sectors, households, industry, institutions, and the waste import sector. It also covers the waste generated in public places under the LAs. Therefore, parties involved in generating these wastes are liable under the approved Bill.

Enforcement Enforcement is improved by the enforcement provision clause in part IX of the SWPCM Bill. According to the clause, an authorized ofcer has the right to:

100

Table 4. Comparison of solid waste management policies implemented in Asian countries Singapore 700 4.516 49 00016 52.4 (2000)28 54.9 (2001)29 Waste Treatment and Public Cleansing Law24 33 80027 330039 10.7 (2001)40 10.0 (2003)41 Ecological Solid Waste Management Act (Republic Act 9003)42
16

Malaysia 377 835 127.427

27

Japan 300 00039 91.039

Philippines

329 750 24.8

Size (km ) Population (2007, in million people) GDP (2007, in US dollars) Solid waste generation (in million tonnes) Name of legislation

14 400

6.0 (1998) 8.0 (2000) Solid Waste Management and Public Cleansing Management Bill

Date of implementation Authority responsible

March 2009 Solid Waste Management Corporation

197030 Ministry of Environment31

200042 National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC)42

Distinction between various types of solid wastes Education campaigns a. Minimization of solid wastes (implemented in 2006) b. Recycling awareness programs (implemented in 2001)20 Culminating in zero landll and zero waste generated campaign19

Yes

2.5 (2001)17 5.2 (2006)18 a. Environmental Pollution Control Act, Cap. 94A19 b. Environmental Public Health Act, Cap. 95A19 c. Hazardous Waste (Control of Export, Import and Transit) Act, Cap. 122A19 Various dates Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources and the National Environmental Agency of Singapore19 Yes Yes32 Yes

None are planned for now

Existing. Japan is working toward becoming a Sound Material Cycle Society and education plays an important role33

3R issues addressed Options used in solid waste treatment

Yes Landlls, recycling

Several government units are tasked with incorporating waste management education in the school syllabus and addressing the public43: a. Departments of Education and Environmental and Natural Resources b. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority c. Commission on Higher Education d. Department of Interior and Local Governments Yes43,44 Landlls, recycling

Rate of recycling (stated % of total solid waste generated)

5.0 (2002) 5.5 (2006)

Yes34,35 Incineration, recycling, landlls. Waste minimization is extensively practiced 3 (1989)34 16.8 (2003)36

In Metro Manila only45: 13 (2000) 25 (2003)

Waste separation practiced?

Yes. Noncompliance will result in nes

Yes21,22 Incineration,19 recycling, landlls. Waste minimization is extensively practiced 48.0 (2004)23 49.0 (2005)23 51.0 (2006)23 Increasing recycling rates are positive indicators of successful education campaigns Yes. Encouraged by conveniently located waste separation bins Yes manufacturers take back recyclable material from consumers18

Yes

Encourage producer/ manufacturers responsibility?

There are laws encouraging this but exact program schematics have yet to be announced

Japan is working toward becoming a Sound Material Cycle Society and industrial waste generators are required to recycle and be responsible for their wastes37

Segregation at source and segregation of household waste is mandated by law44,45 The National Ecological Center and waste manufacturers were charged with recyclable waste reclamation programs43,44

Source of funding Operations are funded by the state government

In general, funding is provided by the federal government46 and endowments but operations are also funded by nes collected and proceeds from the issuance of permits or licenses47

Outsourcing of operations? In the form of nes24

There will be funds from the federal and state governments for managing the wastes but income is also expected from project implementation, investment prots, rent and consultations Possible this aspect has yet to be nalized Waste collection is outsourced2022 Yes Operations of municipal waste treatment facilities are funded by the local municipalities. The construction of these facilities may subsidize a part of the cost while the operational cost is the responsibility of the local government32 Yes. Recent revisions to legislation allow more exibility in contracting operations38 In the form of nes and penalties, including remediation costs In the form of nes

Deterrence options

Enforcement

Reliable and efcient enforcement exists24 Existing

Local governments can create specic local ordinances for effective enforcement.43,44 Qualied individuals and organizations can be deputized by the NSWMC as Solid Waste Management Ofcers.

Plight of scavengers addressed?

In the form of nes that compound in value for every day of the offence Fines imposed for: a. Nonauthorized transportation of solid wastes b. Not separating solid wastes c. Manufacturers not taking back recyclable wastes Issuing of licenses will be controlled. Ofcers have right to: a. Inspect premises without warning b. Collect waste samples for analysis or evidence Not explicitly addressed but law prohibiting unauthorized transportation could affect scavenging activities Only one existing landll which is offshore25 and only accessible by motor vehicle there is no scavenging, due to effective waste separation and policy favoring incineration26 Effective None existing

Effectiveness of waste management policy

Implementation expected in March 2009

Effective

Is not explicitly addressed but cannot be avoided due to the low income levels of certain groups, especially in urban areas. There is a law authorizing a study of the health of waste collectors and scavengers to be conducted by the Department of Health43 Hindered by nancial/technical constraints, lack of enforcement, fragmented/overlapping responsibilities, poor agency coordination,48 bureaucracy and emphasis on infrastructural development49 December 2007: Philippines Senate resolved to investigate NSWMC for failing to develop the Solid Waste Management Framework50

3R, reduce, reuse, and recycle 101

102

Under the control of the waste generation clause, unauthorized persons are not allowed to deposit, transport, separate, or store MSW, or to allow the escape of solid waste from their possession. A ne of between RM10 000 (US$2632) and RM100 000 (US$26 320) or a jail term for up to 5 years can be imposed on offenders. This clause has removed the role of scavengers in increasing the rate of recycling in the country. Positively, this would prevent the adverse impacts related to the unsanitary conditions faced by scavengers and curb the theft of materials such as aluminum- and iron-based components that can be sold as scrap metal. In general, the Bill is postulated in a manner such that it should tackle the main issues attributed to inefcient solid waste management in Malaysia and allow drastic improvement in the current solid waste management system. However, implementation of the Bill has been postponed March 2009. It is hoped that improvements in the integrated waste management system will drive the current Malaysian scenario to emulate the success stories achieved in Japan, Singapore, and Denmark. Table 4 compares the SWPCM with the solid waste management policies of three Asian countries. This shows the current scenarios in Malaysia, Singapore, Japan, and the Philippines. In Malaysia, there is no incineration of MSW except on selected islands, and there is also currently no waste segregation. Although the solid waste Bill specically mentions waste minimization with a recycling target of 22% by 2020, the current rate of recycling in Malaysia is only 5%.

Conclusion
Generally, the SWPCM has many similar traits to the successful waste management policies of Asian countries such as Japan and Singapore. However, the SWPCM does lack two important measures: incentives for waste separation and the pay as you throw approach. The inclusion of these measures is essential if any integrated waste management strategy is to be successful. Low levels of legislative enforcement and administrative inefciencies are important issues that must be avoided. This may be possible because the Malaysian Solid Waste Management Corporation is a private business that expects to operate protably. While the SWPCM is expected to have serious implications on waste management in Malaysia, it remains to be seen what kind of changes will evolve in the Malaysian waste management scenario when the Bill is implemented.

References
1. United Nations Environmental Programme (2002) Waste generation how many million tonnes, really? http://www.vitalgraphics. net/waste/html_le/08-09_waste_generation.html. Accessed January 19, 2009

2. Fauziah SH, Simon C, Agamuthu P (2004) Municipal solid waste management in Malaysia possibility of improvement? Malays J Sci 23(2):6170 3. Central Intelligence Agency, United States of America (2008) The world factbook: Malaysia. https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/geos/my.html. Accessed April 15, 2008 4. Agamuthu P, Fauziah SH (2006) MSW disposal in Malaysia: landll management. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Expert Meeting on Solid Waste Management in Asia and the Pacic Islands, Kitakyushu, November 2324, 2006 5. Agamuthu P, Khan N (1997) Solid waste characteristic and quantication in effective solid waste management. Ecotone Management, Kuala Lumpur, pp 210 6. Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia (2002) Waste generation statistics. http://www.kpkt.gov.my/statistik/ perangkaan2002. Accessed April 15, 2008 7. Sekarajasekaran A, Lum WK (1982) Sanitation and waste disposal treatment methods: planning and implementation. Development and the environmental crisis a Malaysian case. Consumers Association of Penang, Penang, pp 305315 8. Agamuthu P (2001) Solid waste: principle and management. University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, pp 927 9. Nasir H, Theng LC, Rahman M (2000) Solid waste management what is the Malaysian position? In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Environmental Management issues and challenges in Malaysia, National University of Malaysia, Bangi, July 2526, 2000 10. Agamuthu P, Fauziah SH, Noorazamimah Aiza A, Suhaila MO (2006) Recycling of municipal solid waste: is it sustainable? Presented at: The Green Chemistry Conference, Malaysian Institute of Chemistry, Kuala Lumpur, September 1921, 2006 11. Neilsen CR, Ng ML (2004) Update of regulation of food packaging in the Pacic Rim corporations must adapt to a myriad of regulatory systems to ensure compliance. http://www.packaginglaw.com/ index_mf.cfm?id=159. Accessed September 3, 2008 12. Irra MS (1999) Sustainable waste management: an awareness study on cleaner technologies in the Klang Valley. Masters Thesis, University of Malaya 13. Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Corporation Bill 2007. http://www.parlimen.gov.my/billindexbi/pdf/ DR%20262007E.pdf. Accessed January 19, 2009 14. Tan CL (2007) Cautious Act. StarTwo. http://www.reach.org.my/ index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=530&Itemid=57. Accessed January 19, 2009 15. Environmental Quality Act (1974) (Act 127) & subsidiary legislation: as at 5 May 2007. International Law Book Services, Kuala Lumpur 16. Central Intelligence Agency, United States of America (2008) The world factbook: Singapore. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sn.html. Accessed April 4, 2008 17. World Health Organization (2005) Environmental health country prole: Singapore. http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/ 578F1583-1B04-4FB8-9DA0-28B47234D985/0/singapore_ehcp_ ehds28April05.pdf. Accessed April 7, 2008, p 11 18. Bhojwani V (2007) Singapores waste management policies. Presented at: The International Solid Waste Association Pre-General Assembly, Amsterdam, September 22, 2007 19. Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (2005) State of the environment 2005 report. http://app.mewr.gov.sg/view. asp?id=CDS2078. Accessed April 7, 2008, pp 99 20. Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources and National Environmental Agency (2006) Integrated solid waste management in Singapore. Presented at: The Asian 3R Conference, Tokyo, October 30 to November 1, 2006 21. Khoo CH (1991) Environmental management in Singapore. Environ Monit Assess 19:127130 22. Jothieswaran P (2008) Urban waste management in Singapore. Presented at: The Regional and Sub-Regional Capacity-Building Workshops on Implementing National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans and Mainstreaming Biodiversity South, Southeast, and East Asia, Singapore, January 1418, 2008

103 23. Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (2007) Key environmental statistics 2007. http://app.mewr.gov.sg/data/images/ KES_2007_Final.pdf. Accessed April 7, 2008, pp 6 24. Bergman J (2008) A vision from Singapore. Waste Management World 9(1) htp://www.waste-management-world.com/display_ article/321575/123/CRTIS/none/none/1/A-vision-from-Singapore. Accessed April 16, 2008 25. Yan YH (2002) Recycling as a sustainable waste management strategy for Singapore: an investigation to nd ways to promote Singaporeans household waste recycling behaviour. Masters Thesis, Lund University, p 4 26. Bai R, Sutanto M (2002) The practice and challenges of solid waste management in Singapore. Waste Manag 22(5):557567 27. Central Intelligence Agency, United States of America (2008) The world factbook: Japan. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html. Accessed April 8, 2008 28. United Nations Statistics Division (2007) Environmental indicators and selected time series: municipal waste collection. http:// unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/qindicators.htm. Accessed February 25, 2008 29. World Health Organization (2005) Environmental health country prole: Japan. http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/3B2DC7496C0D-4B6D-8C7D-70851B7ADDE4/0/JapanEHCPEHDS.pdf. Accessed April 5, 2008, p 5 30. Ministry of the Environment, Japan (2006) Waste Management and Public Cleansing Law 1970. www.env.go.jp/en/laws/recycle/01. pdf. Accessed September 3, 2008, p 1 31. Matsumoto K (2001) Solid waste administration reform. Japan Society of Waste Management Experts: Q Newsl 37. www.jswme. gr.jp/international/pdf/News37.pdf. Accessed April 7, 2008 32. Yamamura K (1983) Current status of waste management in Japan. Waste Manag Res 1(1):115 33. Moriguchi Y (2006) Establishing a sound material cycle society in Asia. Presented at: The Asia 3R Conference, Tokyo, October 30 to November 1, 2006. http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/asia.html. Accessed April 1, 2008 34. National Renewable Energy Laboratory USA (1993) Integrated solid waste management in Japan. CSI Resource Systems Incorporated, Boston, pp 26 35. Tanaka M (1992) Reduction of and resource recovery from municipal solid waste in Japan. Waste Manag Res 10:453459 36. United Nations Statistics Division (2007) Environmental indicators and selected time series: municipal waste treatment. http:// unstats.un.org/unsd/ENVIRONMENT/wastetreatment.htm. Accessed February 25, 2008 37. Japan Containers and Packaging Recycling Association (2008) What is the Containers and Packaging Recycling Law? www.jcpra. or.jp/association/pamph/pdf/guide_eng_02.pdf. Accessed April 16, 2008 38. Kawagoe K (2003) Privatization of public services: agenda and expectations. Nomura Res Inst Pap 70(1):112 39. Central Intelligence Agency, United States of America (2008) The world factbook: Philippines. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html. Accessed April 10, 2008 40. World Bank (2001) Philippines environmental monitor 2001. http://www.worldbank.org.ph/external/default/main?pagePK=511 87349&piPK=51189435&theSitePK=332982&menuPK=333010&s earchMenuPK=333010&theSitePK=332982&entityID=000094946 _02010711090330&searchMenuPK=333010&theSitePK=332982. Accessed April 10, 2008 41. World Health Organization (2005) Environmental health country prole: Philippines. http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/ FA5CA9AA-B230-4863-837D-A0709ECAA514/0/philippines_ ehcp_18Nov2004.pdf. Accessed April 7, 2008, p 16 42. United Nations (2002) Agenda 21 Johannesburg Summit 2002: country proles Philippines. http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/ natlinfo/wssd/philippines.pdf. Accessed April 7, 2008, p 35 43. Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide (2003) Implementing rules and regulations of the Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. http://www.elaw.org/resources/text. asp?ID=1574. Accessed April 10, 2008 44. Asian Development Bank (2002) Proposed technical assistance to the Republic of the Philippines for metro Manila solid waste management (TAR: PHI-35164). www.adb.org/Documents/TARS/ PHI/tar_35164.pdf. Accessed April 10, 2008, p2 45. Andin ZL Jr (2006) Implementation of the 3Rs in the Philippines. Presented at: The Senior Ofcials Meeting on the 3R Initiative, Tokyo, March 68, 2006 46. National Solid Waste Management Commission (2001) http://eia. emb.gov.ph/nswmc/res/irr.PDF. Accessed April 10, 2008 47. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2004) Sanitation and country prole: Philippines. http://www.un.org/esa/ agenda21/natlinfo/countr/philipi/sanitation2004.pdf. Accessed April 10, 2008, p 13 48. Muego AE, Mende EIM (2006) UEM related policies and good practice in the Philippines. Presented at: The Experts Meeting on UEM Policies in Southeast Asia, Bangkok, October 3031, 2006. www.sea-uema.ait.ac.th/SNP/ExpertsMeeting1/Philippines.pdf. Accessed April 10, 2008 49. Sapuay GP (2005) Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003): a major step to better solid waste management in the Philippines. Presented at: The International Conference on Integrated Solid Waste Management in Southeast Asian Cities, Siem Reap, July 57, 2005. http://www.sea-uema.ait.ac.th/ DOWNLOAD/ARL/ISWM_Conference/ISWM_July05.pdf. Accessed April 10, 2008, pp 5159 50. Senate of the Philippines: 14th Congress, Resolution 258 (2007) http://www.senate.gov.ph/lis/Bill_res.aspx?congress=14&q=SRN258. Accessed April 10, 2008