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Habitat International 29 (2005) 469491

Understanding urban residential water use in Beijing and Tianjin, China

Henry H. Zhanga,*, David F. Brownb
a

The Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission, 14741 Governor Oden Bowie Drive, Upper Marlboro, MD 20772, USA b School of Urban Planning, McGill University, Macdonald Harrington Building, 815 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2K6 Canada Received 20 October 2003; received in revised form 11 February 2004; accepted 11 April 2004

Abstract Residential water use (RWU) is directly linked with the health of the general public and constitutes well over half of the total municipal water use in many countries. Because RWU is the most important component of municipal water use, it is always being given the top priority in municipal water supply and planning. But little is known about RWU in developing economies, especially in the Chinese context. In order to obtain the determinants of water use and consumption, empirical study is widely pursued. In a transition economy, rapidly changing socioeconomic conditions profoundly alter household water use in Beijing and Tianjin. A social survey on urban household water use and consumption is judged as a necessary starting point to an efcient municipal water planning and management in the two cities. A total of 806 in-house interviews were completed in Beijing and Tianjin by using stratied sampling method based on the predominant housing typologies. A multivariate analysis has also been performed in order to reveal the structured relationship between the water use and consumption and postulated explanatory variables in various urban households. For the rst time, this empirical study will bridge the information gaps regarding urban household water use patterns and compositions, household water amenities and facilities, household water using habits and behaviors, household water perceptions and environmental attitudes as well as a households capacity and willingness to respond to water conservation policy in different housing typologies in the Chinese context. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Beijing; Tianjin; Household; Residential water use (RWU); Housing typology; Survey

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-301-952-4151; fax: +1-301-952-3749. E-mail address: henry.zhang@ppd.mncppc.org (H.H. Zhang). 0197-3975/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2004.04.002

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1. Introduction Residential water use (RWU) can constitute over half of total municipal water use and consumption in many developed countries (Howe & Linaweaver, 1967; Grima, 1972). RWU requires higher quality and reliability, which in turn leads to higher costs. Historically, RWU is directly linked with the health of the general public (Lee, 1969; Grima, 1972) and is crucial to the well being of a society. RWU shows a strong positive correlation with living standards and is one of the important proxies for economic development. Many factors affect residential water demand. Both empirical investigations and analytical studies of industrialized countries suggest several determinants of RWU: policy variables, such as water price or water rate; household economic variables, such as income; physical features and technological variables, such as water amenities and metering, or water-saving plumbing xtures; environmental variables, such as temperature and precipitation; and demographic variables, such as household size and attitudinal variables (Howe & Linaweaver, 1967; Lee, 1969; Grima, 1972; Katzman, 1977; Holtz & Sebastin, 1978; Danielson, ! , 1982; Jones & Morris, 1984; Jones, Boland, 1979; Clouster & Miller, 1980; Hanke & de Mare Crews, DeKay, & Morris, 1984; Vickers, 1991; Baumann, Boland, & Hanemann, 1998). Specically, water demand has an inverse relationship with the price charged per unit of water. Income, which is usually surrogated by market value/assessed value of residence (Howe & Linaweaver, 1967; Grima, 1972; Camp, 1978) or purchasing power (Lee, 1969), has a positive correlation with household water use.1 Indoor use is less price-responsive than outdoor use. Annual and domestic water demand is inelastic, but shows higher elasticity for peak summer demand (Jones et al., 1984). Comparisons between metered and unmetered water use suggest that consumers tend to alter their water use behavior to avoid extra charges and choose water-saving alternatives when they make water use decisions. This is especially apparent when consumers are facing conservation-oriented water rates (for example in Cuthbert, 1989). In addition, per capital use is inversely correlated with household size (Danielson, 1979). Water use per residence is inversely correlated with rainfall per unit of time and is positively correlated with average temperature (see, for example, Morgan & Smolen, 1976). Water use per residence is positively correlated with irrigable area, i.e. lot size (Linaweaver, Geyer, & Wolfe, 1967). However, little is known about RWU in developing economies, and especially in the Chinese context. One reason may be that most of the developing economies are in transition. Swiftly changing demand patterns usually make the study very difcult. Many former studies suggest that projections of future residential water demand should not be based solely upon historical per capita use, which is the widely accepted method, but should incorporate a range of variables that inuence water demand. In order to obtain these determinants of water consumption, empirical study is widely pursued. The basic hypothesis is that a good understanding of residential water requires the inventory and analysis of household water use and consumption patterns. This premise is particularly relevant to Beijing and Tianjin, where rapidly changing socioeconomic conditions have profoundly altered household water use. A social survey on urban household water use is judged as a necessary starting point in order to understand RWU. Empirical study is
1 See, for example, summary of the price and income elasticity study in North America from the 1950s to the 1990s in Baumann et al., 1998, pp. 6772.

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needed to provide information regarding urban household water use and consumption pattern, household water amenities and facilities, water using habits and behaviors, perceptions of water, environmental attitudes, and households capacity and willingness to respond to water conservation policy in different housing typologies in the Chinese context. For years, municipal water planners and engineers in Beijing and Tianjin have relied on simplistic assumptions about what determines per capita water use to plan municipal water use. The current standards were adopted in 1986, when water shortages were not a prevailing phenomenon among Chinese cities. With the rapid improvement of living standards in Beijing and Tianjin seen in recent years, as well as the increasing water shortages in the region, municipal water planning and management is facing a growing need for more empirical and behavioral data in water use and consumption in order to carry out efcient water planning, balance supply and demand, and facilitate a move towards a sustainable water use. Due to the lack of adequate data, many urban water schemes and water-saving initiatives have failed to achieve their goals. By empirical investigation and analytical study, this research will, for the rst time, bridge urban RWU information gaps and provide data for demand estimation and municipal water planning in Beijing and Tianjin.

2. Methodology The major concern of this study is the consumers aspects of urban RWU. The study focuses on the behaviors and perceptions of households that affect their water use and consumption. Residential water use and consumption, in the context of this survey, refers to the water from both household faucets and shared taps that are used for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing clothes and similar purposes, such as watering owers or washing cars. Pattern and behavior of water use refers to the water use and consumption habits of household members. It includes information such as bathing frequency, laundry method and frequency, the amount of drinking water consumed, and so on. The survey also elicited the consumers opinions on present water supply in order to close the information gap between the decision-making and quality of the service delivered. Most of the studies on RWU in the past three decades were carried out in developed countries, and looked at water use and consumption patterns from the economic point of view. As a result, pricing was found to be one of the most important policy variables in managing water demand (Linaweaver et al., 1967; Baumann et al., 1998). In developing countries, however, the context for water use and consumption studies is quite different. The relevant studies therefore concluded that access to water rather than pricing, is the most important variable in determining water use and consumption (Lee, 1969). Meanwhile, the sampling criteria differ between developed and developing economies. For example, many foregoing studies used metered account (for example, Danielson, 1979) meterreading route (for example, Camp, 1978) or geographic location (for example, Morgan, 1982) as the criteria to obtain samples. In most developing economies, water is not universally metered. In Beijing and Tianjin, even though municipal water is metered, the management and reading of meters is performed over an aggregated base rather than by individual household meter. Furthermore, Beijing and Tianjin exhibit less spatial segregation than cities in developed

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countries, making a tight association between social position and physical location difcult. The peculiarities in Beijing and Tianjin make the popular sample criteria in the prior studies such as metered account, meter-reading route and geographic location no longer valid. For this study, housing typology was chosen as a surrogate of household water. Policy variables such as price, or socioeconomic variables such as income and size of household, were found to have limited impacts on RWU in Beijing and Tianjin. Other conditions that are unique in this study are as follow: Urban residential water fees usually form a very low portion of monthly household expenses. Chinese water facilities are publicly owned, unlike those in developed countries and the supply is limited even if user can pay for it. Time-series data are almost impossible to obtain because meter reading is not primarily on an individual household base. There is no great difference in the number of family members among urban households, due in part to the governments one child policy. It is difcult to measure the real income level of Chinese urban households due to the large share of gray income and many subsidies. Thus, caution should be given to the interpretation of income data, which is normally lower than the reality. A pilot study obtained information on the correlation between water use and housing type. Stratied random sampling was performed to obtain representative samples from each housing type. Four residential building types, which represent the major urban settlement patterns in Chinese cities, were selected as the classication criteria for the stratied random sample. They are: high-rises (H) of seven or more stories with an elevator; multi-story buildings (M) of four to seven stories; courtyard or two to three story pre-unit style apartment buildings (L) of less than three stories; and inll housing (MI), primarily multi-story buildings (Fig. 1). While the multistory category originally consisted of two separate categories, inll and new development, few differences in water use were noted and these categories have been collapsed in regression analysis. According to Chinese housing design standards and long term housing policy, multi-story and high-rise buildings will remain the major urban housing patterns. The four types of housing were chosen for study on the assumption that they would provide insight into the current and future water consumption, and reect the wide range of urban residential environments and water amenities present in the study area. The inclusion of traditional courtyard housing provides a base line for water use against which development trends may be measured. A total targeted random sample of 4002 households was carried out in each city. Individual households were asked to provide information by answering 52 questions3 on the following ve aspects concerning household water use and consumption: (1) household housing environment; (2) household socioeconomic data; (3) household water amenities and facilities; (4) household water use behavior and perception; and (5) household environmental attitude. In the pilot study, it was proved very difcult to undertake a systematic sampling procedure in Beijing and Tianjin. Even though meters are almost universal in residential districts, water utilities directly bill only a few individual households. Instead, water utilities usually read the building meters of multi-family apartments, and households are charged by averaging this gure. Most of the meters are read every 2 months. As the result, household water use and consumption levels are based on a monthly average in this study.
2 3

For more information on sample size and population, refer to Chapter 3 (pp. 3139) of Sheskin, 1985. For a complete survey questionnaires, refer to http://www.chs.ubc.ca/china/index.html.

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Fig. 1. Typical housing typologies in Beijing and Tianjin. (Source: Zhang & Brown, 2000). High-rise housing (H); Multi-story housing (M); Multi-story: inll (MI); Traditional courtyard/two or three-story pre-unit apartment (L).

As ofcial statistics of housing types are not available in Beijing, the proportion of the housing stock in each category was estimated by the author.4 The author estimates that in 2000, 2530% of housing units in Beijing were in high-rises, 5560% in multi-story buildings, and 1015% in courtyard and old low-rise apartments. In Tianjin the master plan indicates that the housing stock is 10% high-rise, 80% multi-story and 10% low-rise or courtyard units. The proportions were used as a guide to develop the stratied random sample for each city. Random households in each category then were visited by referring to their geographic locations and period of construction until sufcient observations were accumulated in each
On May 10th, 2000, the author had a personal interview with Mr. Sun, a senior civil engineer at the Beijing Construction Commission. According to Mr. Sun, there is no ofcial statistics on total municipal housing stock and its composition in Beijing. The percentages presented in the text are calculated by the author, based on data from yearbooks of Beijing and data of various building oor areas provided by Mr. Sun.
4

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474 Table 1 Sample distribution Housing typology High-rise (H) Multi-story (M) Low-rise (L) Total Beijing 114 225 57 396 Percentage 29 57 14 100 Tianjin 48 291 71 410 Percentage 12 71 17 100 Total 162 516 128 806 H.H. Zhang, D.F. Brown / Habitat International 29 (2005) 469491

category. Following a pilot study in 1999, a total of 806 in-house personal interviews were completed between May and June 2000 by the trained interviewers with the help of Neighborhood Committee. A valid sample of 396 in Beijing and 410 in Tianjin was obtained (Table 1).

3. Overview of study areas Beijing and Tianjin are two largest cities in Hai Basin region (Fig. 2). Economically, Beijing and Tianjin are the second and third largest economies in China, after Shanghai and not including Hong Kong and Macao. Politically, Beijing and Tianjin are two of the ve cities and districts directly under the administration of the State Council. Traditionally, Beijing has been the political center and capital of the nation, while Tianjin has been the commercial center and biggest port city in northern China. Beijing. Beijing the nations capital is also its political and cultural center, hosting numerous national organizations and a large number of civil servants. The special position of Beijing in nations political life differentiates it from nearby Tianjin and graces it with the widest streets and highest per capita green space in the country (Sit, 1995). But before economic reform, under the ideology of converting consumptive cities into productive centers, industrial development was also a major driven force in the development of Beijing, just like in any other Chinese cities. In 1958, the value of Beijings heavy industrial output, mostly metallurgical industries, outweighed the output of other industrial sectors. In 1991, the gross heavy industrial output of Beijing accounted for 3.4% of the nations total (Beijing Statistics Bureau (BSB), 1992). The latest Master Plan (19902010) refocused urban development on the characteristics of Beijing as the nations capital. Major urban planning policies are directed toward the structural adjustment of industry, land use and of the economy with an emphasis on the development of high-tech and tertiary sectors, and the relocation of energy-intensive, water-intensive, landintensive and highly polluting industries. Improving the quality of life and of the environment are the major objectives of this plan. By 1998, the tertiary sector accounted for 56.6% of total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Beijing and has become the dominant force in Beijings economy (Fig. 3). Beijing has a registered population of 10.85 million, and covers an area of 16,807.8 km2 (Beijing Statistics Bureau (BSB), 1999). For a long time, growth control has been the top priority of urban policies. By 1998, the registered population had grown to 262.2% of that in 1949. Beijing, which includes a rural area, has an urbanization level of 66.29%, much higher than the national average of 23.9%. The average urban household size is only 2.89 persons in Beijing. Between its symbolic

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Location Map of Beijing and Tianjin

Tianjin Beijing Hai River Basin

Fig. 2. Location map of Beijing and Tianjin in Hai River Basin. (Source: Zhang & Brown, 2000).

The Composition of Beijing's Economy

80 Percentage 60 40 20 0 1952 1957 1962 1965 1970 1975 1978 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Primary Secondary Tertiary

Year

Fig. 3. The composition of Beijings economy. (Source: BSY 19821999).

role and strong economic growth, Beijing attracts one of the largest oating populations, or unofcial migrants, among Chinese cities, peaking at 3.29 millions in 1994 (Beijing Statistics Bureau (BSB), 1995). Economically, urban households in Beijing have been better off after the economic reform. Per capita annual disposable income increased more than 23 times, from 365.4 yuan in 1978 to 8,471.98 yuan in 1998. The possession rate of household water-consuming appliances as the result

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of the improved living standards also grew rapidly. In 1998, there were 102.2 washing machines per 100 households; while in 1978 there was only 0.1; water heaters and showers were unheard-of in 1978, while there were 65.4 water heaters per 100 households in 1998 (Beijing Statistics Bureau (BSB), 1999). In 1998, Beijing had 24 water plants, of which 13 are located in city proper and near suburbs with a daily supply capacity of 3.3 million cubic meters. Every year approximately 759.68 million m3 of water were sold, of which 75% was for domestic use and was 18.4% for industrial use. Meanwhile, self-managed water supplies produced another 472.43 million m3, 45.9% for domestic use and 54.1% for industrial use (Beijing Statistics Bureau (BSB), 1999). In 1998, municipal tap water utilities produced 72.4% of domestic water. Per capita water use was 238.2 l per day. Tianjin. As a traditional commercial and port city, Tianjins was historically a light-industrial economy with a strong textile industry. Gross heavy industrial output did not surpass that of light industry until 1991 (Tianjin Statistics Bureau (TSB), 2000). After the economic adjustment, Tianjin relies on the automobile, machinery and equipment industry, the electronic industry, the chemical industry, and the metallurgical industry as four pillar industries (Tianjin Statistics Bureau (TSB), 1999). The Master Plan (19952015) of Tianjin is based on this economic structure (Fig. 4). According to the Master Plan, Tianjin will be an international port city by the end of its planning time frame. Tianjin has a registered population of 9.05 million in an administration area of 11,919.7 km2 (Tianjin Statistics Bureau (TSB), 2000). In the past 50 years, the registered population grew by 225%. Average household size dropped more than 30%, from 4.75 persons per family in 1949 to 3.14 in 1998. 57% of Tianjins population lives in urban areas. Compared to households in Beijing, families in Tianjin are a little behind economically. Per capita annual disposable income increased 18.3 times, from 388 yuan in 1978 to 7,111 yuan in 1998. The possession rate of household water consuming appliances is also lower than that of Beijing. In 1998, only 96.6% of Tianjin families had washing machines, and 56.4% had water heaters and showers (Tianjin Statistics Bureau (TSB), 2000). By the end of 1998, there were 5 water plants in Tianjin with a daily water supply capacity of 2.03 million m3. Annual water sales were 388.6 million m3, consisting of 82% of the total supply. According to Tianjin Water Supply Companys statistics, water for industrial use accounted for 45.4% while domestic use shared 54.6% in 1999 (Interview May, 1999). Per capita water use was 144.7 l per day.

The Composition of Tianjin's Economy

80 Percentage 60 40 20 0 1952 1957 1962 1965 1970 1975 1978 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Primary Secondary Tertiary

Year

Fig. 4. The composition of Tianjins economy. (Source: Tianjin fty years 1999).

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4. Findings and discussion The different visions that the nation has on two cities greatly differentiate Beijing from Tianjin in many aspects. As the nations capital, Beijing has a much higher daily per capita domestic water use than that of Tianjin. In 1978 when the economic reform was just initiated, Tianjins daily per capita domestic water use (L/p/c/d) was less than 50% of Beijings (65.7 L/p/c/d vs. 138.7 L/p/c/d). In 1988, Tianjins domestic consumption reached 136.1 L/p/c/d, 86% of Beijings 157.9 L/p/c/d. By 1998, the gap between Beijing and Tianjin had opened up again, with Tianjins use at approximately 60% of Beijings (Tianjins 144.7 L/p/c/d vs. Beijings 238.2 L/p/c/d) (Fig. 5). From 1978 to 1998, the annual average growth rate of per capita water use of Beijing was only 2.83%, while in Tianjin it was 4.33% (Fig. 6). RWU, which accounts for more than one third of domestic uses in both Beijing (35.5% in 1997) and Tianjin (67% in 1997) (The Department of Planning and Finance, Ministry of Construction (MOC), 1998), is the major cause of the discrepancy in water consumption levels in the two cities as revealed by the Urban Household Water Use Survey (Zhang & Brown, 2000). On average, monthly water use in households in Tianjin is only 63.25% of Beijings households. Low residential waster use and consumption levels are found in all four housing typologies in Tianjin (Table 2). Tianjins households consume 64.9% of the amount consumed by Beijings (Table 3). What explains such a great discrepancy in RWU and consumption between Beijing and Tianjin? Are the historical residuals in domestic water use still determining the consumption level? Are there additional factors that account for differences in the two cities? 4.1. Understanding the differences in residential water use In order to understand these dissimilarities, six aspects of urban household water use and consumption in Beijing and Tianjin have been compared: socioeconomic characteristics, household housing environment, household water amenities and facilities, household water use habits and behaviors, household water use perception, and household environmental attitudes. 4.1.1. Household socioeconomic characteristics The general socioeconomic characteristics of the sampled households in Beijing and Tianjin in the survey conformed to the census data. Given the one-child policy and a low annual growth
Per Capita Daily Water Use
250 Volume (Liter) 200 150 100 50 0 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Beijing Tianjin

Year

Fig. 5. Per capita daily water use. (Source: BESDYB 1998, BSYB 1999, Tianjin fty years 19491999).

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Annual Growth Rate of Per Capita Water Use

20.0% Beijing AGR. 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 -5.0% -10.0% Year 1998 Tianjin AGR.

Fig. 6. Annual growth rate of per capita water use. (Source: BESDY 1998, BSY 1999, Tianjin fty years 19491999). Table 2 Water use at household level (m3/month) Typology Beijing household water use and consumption H N of case 114 Mean 15.4 M 211 13.5 L 57 12.1 MI 14 14.5 Average 396 13.88 Tianjin household water use and consumption H 48 11.2 M 283 9.13 L 71 5.85 MI 8 7.5 Average 410 8.78

Source: Zhang and Brown (2000).

Table 3 Per capita residential water use Typology No. of member/per household H (a) Beijing N of case Mean (b) Tianjin N of case Mean 114 3.31 M 211 3.36 L 57 3.61 MI 14 3.14 Average 396 3.37 Per capita water use (L/daily) H 114 155.09 M 211 133.93 L 57 111.73 MI 14 153.9 Average 396 137.53

Percentage

47 3.06

283 3.35

71 3.16

8 3

409 3.28

47 122

283 90.85

71 61.71

8 83.33

409 89.22

Source: Zhang and Brown (2000).

rate (Beijings 1.9% vs. Tianjins 5.9%) the size of families in Beijing is comparable to that of Tianjin. Among sampled households, Tianjins have more extended family (8.54% more), which consists of more than two generations than those living in Beijing.

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Heads of household in Beijing are younger and better educated than those in Tianjin. Male and female heads of household in Beijing are on average more than 2.6 years younger than those of Tianjin. More than 82% of Beijings heads of households have pursued education beyond the polytechnic school level, while in Tianjin this number is only 66.9%. Almost 65% of household heads in Beijing are either professionals or ofce workers and clerks. In Tianjin, the percentage of sampled household heads in the same occupation categories is only 37. Most of the sampled households in either city have an annual income between RMB 11,000 and 30,000 yuan. Among ve annual family income brackets, Beijing has a higher percentage of households in every income category above RMB 11,000 yuan per year. Families in Beijing also spend more on utilities than those in Tianjin. Fees paid for household water, electricity, telephone, television, and property services in Beijing on average are approximately 200% higher than those in Tianjin. A higher family income results in a higher level of household water use and consumption (Table 4). Across all housing categories, households in Beijing consume more water than their counterparts in Tianjin. Even in the same income category, households in Tianjin use only 68.43% of water of those in Beijing. As the income elasticity index shows, water consumption in both cities is income inelastic, even a wealthy family can only consume so much water, and successive unit increases in income yield smaller and smaller unit increases in household water consumption. This can be explained by the facts that almost all the water uses in Beijing and Tianjin are indoor and as the basic requirements of living.

4.1.2. Household housing environment Household housing conditions in Beijing and Tianjin are comparable in many aspects, as construction was standardized between 1949 and 1978. In Beijing and Tianjin, high-rises and multi-story unit type apartments are the dominant housing forms, built in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. The majority of apartments, 78.1% in Beijing and 79.2% in Tianjin have between 3 and 5 rooms. High-rise buildings account for more than 25% of Beijings housing stock, while Tianjins master plan envisions high-rises forming only 10% of the housing stock by 2015. Meanwhile, housing tenure in Beijing is becoming more diversied. Publicly owned housings account for 43.8% of the units surveyed in Beijing; 36.4% was privately owned. In Tianjin, publicly owned units form 58.7% of the housing stock, while privately owned units account for only 32.9%. On average, families in Beijing move house more often than those in Tianjin (10.6 years vs. 13.6 years). This situation is especially true in high-rises, where the average inhabitant in Beijing spends 6 years. Meanwhile, Beijing has a lower percentage of households that have moved from low-rise or courtyard housing into their current homes. These two gures suggest that Beijing has seen a more rapid and recent improvement in housing conditions than Tianjin. The tendency for Beijing households to use more water than Tianjins households can be seen across housing conditions and periods of housing construction (Table 5). More modern facilities account for the difference seen in high-rise and multi-story apartments, but the endurance of this trend in courtyard and low-rise buildings is more difcult to explain. One likely explanation is that Beijings water system in areas where smaller and more traditional dwellings are found is older than the system serving Tianjins urban core, less efcient, and generally dilapidated. This is borne

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Table 4 Household annual income and water use and consumption (m3/month) Annual income range Presumed mean Beijing (RMB Yuan) income Water use and consumption (per household) H 1. 010,000 2. 11,00030,000 3. 31,00040,000 4. 41,00050,000 5. 50,000 plus Income elasticity 4,000 20,500 35,500 45,500 60,000 12.09 15.42 15 19.33 16.81 M 14.91 13.11 13.29 18.67 10.63 L 9.47 13.98 13.5 15 27.5 MI 6.17 21.25 4 7 Average 10.7 15.9 11.4 15.0 18.3 0.051 Tianjin Water use and consumption (per household) H 11.5 11.13 M 8.21 9.42 11.17 16 9 L 5.2 6.69 10 6.25 15 MI 6 7.83 7 Average 7.7 8.8 10.6 9.8 12.0 0.039

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Source: Zhang and Brown (2000).

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H.H. Zhang, D.F. Brown / Habitat International 29 (2005) 469491 Table 5 Household water use in different typologies by construction time (m3/month) Construction time Beijing H 1=2000 2p1999 3p1989 4p1979 5p1969 6p1959 7p1949 15.00 15.43 16.01 M 10.00 13.60 13.37 12.18 12.33 11.50 25.00 L 9.25 13.00 7.76 16.85 14.25 MI 12.63 9.63 4.00 Average 12.50 13.89 12.07 9.73 10.05 14.18 19.63 Tianjin H 12.50 11.03 M 8.92 9.17 8.27 13.00 25.00 L 10.00 6.25 5.08 6.67 5.00 6.19 MI 10.00 8.50 6.50 7.00 Average 10.00 9.98 8.24 6.78 9.84 15.00 6.19 481

Source: Zhang and Brown (2000).

out in the other housing categories by a negative correlation between the age of the dwelling and the water use of the households it contains. 4.1.3. Household water amenity and facility Beijing and Tianjin show a great disparity in household water amenity and facility levels. 100% of the urban population in both cities is served by tap water, according to ofcial statistics. In the survey, indoor water service ratio among the sampled families in Beijing is almost 5% lower than that in Tianjin. The ratios in both cities are smaller than the published ofcial numbers. Beijing households have more diversied sources of drinking water. Tap water is still the dominant source (in Beijing 80.5%; in Tianjin 88.5%), but other alternatives such as bottled water are gaining substantial shares (in Beijing 12.9%; in Tianjin 5.1%). Meanwhile, Beijing has some 5% fewer household members who drink tap water directly while most of them (in Beijing 88.7%; in Tianjin 83.7%) traditionally drink only boiled water. While the comparable number of taps and bathtubs is found in households in the two cities, a higher proportion of Beijing households have facilities such as showers, ushing toilets, hand basins, washing machines, water heaters, and dishwashers in almost all the housing categories. This fact may explain, to some extent, why the households in Beijing use more water than those in Tianjin. But even in the households with comparable facilities, Beijing families consume some 40% more water than Tianjins (Table 6), due to differing water use habits. Beijing and Tianjin have low percentages of leaking faucets (less than 7%) and toilet cisterns (less than 8%). This indicates that the recent municipal leak detection and repair efforts have been paid off. Tianjins households are more likely to have brown water coming through their taps. Beijing and Tianjin are comparable in maintenance service, and both cities water meters are read once a month or once every two months. 4.1.4. Household water uses and behavior The majority of household water uses in Beijing and Tianjin are indoor uses for drinking, cooking, laundering, bathing, toilet ushing, aquariums; outdoor uses such as gardening and car washing are minimal. Households in Beijing use more water in cooking (5% more), bathing

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Table 6 Household water use in different typologies by possession of water-using facilities (m3/month) Facility Beijing H Shower Flushing toilet Hand basin Bathtub Washing machine Water heater Dishwasher 15.56 15.50 15.57 15.11 15.56 15.86 13.83 M 13.66 13.59 14.02 12.72 13.37 14.02 19.14 L 12.84 18.20 12.66 14.00 13.60 13.83 MI 14.23 15.28 10.44 16.41 13.50 Total 14.21 14.43 14.26 13.84 14.16 14.59 17.07 Tianjin H 11.67 11.27 10.53 9.40 11.73 11.49 M 9.56 9.23 9.01 8.94 9.38 9.93 12.00 L 6.30 8.57 5.49 6.06 6.92 MI 9.25 7.50 6.67 6.80 8.50 Total 9.58 9.49 8.47 10.42 9.13 10.00 12.00

Source: Zhang and Brown (2000).

Table 7 Household water use in different typologies for different purposes (m3/month) Water use for Beijing H Drinking Cooking Laundering Bathing Toilet ushing Flower watering Car washing 15.67 15.71 15.41 15.41 15.81 16.35 18.86 M 13.71 13.26 13.48 13.60 13.73 13.27 12.33 L 12.28 11.99 12.13 12.76 14.92 12.40 16.60 MI 14.54 14.54 14.54 14.23 13.65 18.50 11.00 Total 14.08 13.82 13.88 14.08 14.46 14.39 14.67 Tianjin H 11.13 11.51 11.22 11.78 11.42 10.79 M 9.11 9.16 9.19 9.27 9.21 9.07 9.88 L 5.92 5.79 5.76 6.02 8.57 6.44 4.20 MI 7.50 7.14 7.50 8.60 8.00 8.50 Total 8.78 8.88 8.81 9.07 9.46 8.84 7.69

Source: Zhang and Brown (2000).

(6% more), toilet ushing (3.5% more), and car washing (3.6% more) than households in Tianjin. As a result, families in Beijing on average use 60% more water than those in Tianjin (Table 7). Beijing residents take more showers than those of Tianjin. In summer, even though households in Beijing and Tianjin have comparable shower frequencies, people in Beijing spend more time in the shower. In winter, Beijing residents take shower more frequently and for longer periods than Tianjin residents. Washing machines are becoming more and more important to families in both cities as the typical way of doing laundry (in Beijing 61.7%; in Tianjin 53.6%). While more families in Tianjin than in Beijing still wash their clothing by hand, a mixture of both machine- and hand-washing is quite popular among the sampled households. A greater reliance on hand washing leads Tianjins families to wash more frequently than Beijings during the summer, though the gure evens out during the winter months. When they do the wash, Beijing households handle larger volumes of laundry. On average, 10% more households in Beijing wash two loads, while 5% more Tianjin households wash only one load. On average, in every housing category, 6% more households in Tianjin practice water conservation than in Beijing. This may help explain why Tianjin families use less water than

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Beijing families do. Tianjin did not have a reliable water source until after 1984 when water transfer project from LuanHe River was completed, making water conservation an everyday necessity and a persistent habit. Accordingly, Tianjin households practice water reuse, using kitchen or washing water for gardening (58.6% of sampled families) and for toilet ushing (55.7%). In contrast, the most popular (54.3%) water-saving method in Beijing is to install watersaving tap. 4.1.5. Household water perception Households in Beijing and Tianjin have different perceptions of municipal water service, education programs, water fees, and willingness to pay to conserve water. Service: Households in Tianjin are more satised with current municipal water service than those in Beijing. Some two percent more on average of Tianjin families rated their municipal water service excellent. This number increases to 3.4% in high-rise and 4.9% in low-rise housing categories. Even more (6.3%) Tianjin families rated current municipal water service as very good. Given that color and water pressure are comparable between two cities, residents cite the purity and taste of Tianjins pipe water as reasons for their satisfaction. Households in Beijing and Tianjin have different priorities for the improvement of current municipal water service. Beijing households wish to improve water purity (74.2%), maintenance (45.1%), and billing system (31.4%). Families in Tianjin are concerned with billing system (61.7%), water purity (54.1%), and water rate (41.2%). 7% more households in Beijing are willing to pay more to improve water service. When asked how the extra revenue should be invested, households in Beijing and Tianjin rank their priorities in the same way: to prevent water pollution (in Beijing 69.0%; in Tianjin 55.6%), to improve water purity (in Beijing 67.8%; in Tianjin 52.2%), and to improve management (in Beijing 32.7%; in Tianjin 28.5%), as well as to improve reliability and water pressure. Water tariffs5: Water tariffs in both Beijing and Tianjin have undergone radical adjustment in recent years, as high as a nine-fold increase in some cases. The rate for household use per m3 is 1.6 yuan in Beijing and 1.3 yuan in Tianjin. Both prices include a 30-cent wastewater disposal fee per m3. Only 64.3% of households in Beijing know the level of the water fee, compared with 80.24% of families in Tianjin. Compared to Beijing, 20.8% more families in Tianjin think the current water rate is too high only 44.6% of households think the current level is appropriate. In Beijing, more than 59% of households regard the current fee as appropriate. As a matter of fact, families in Beijing spend an average of 47.35 yuan each month for drinking water while Tianjin households spend an average of 26.07 yuan. Education program: Households in Beijing are more knowledgeable about the regions water shortage than those in Tianjin. This can be attributed to Beijings longstanding education
Residential water fees in both Beijing and Tianjin have been adjusted dramatically since the survey in 2000. The paper reports the water rates obtained from the survey. During our recent visit (from December 613, 2003), we learned that Beijings water rate had been increased to RMB 2.3 yuan plus 0.6 yuan of wastewater treatment fee (RMB 2.9 in total vs. RMB 1.6 yuan in 2000) per cubic meter and Tianjins had been risen to RMB 1.5 yuan plus 0.7 yuan of wastewater treatment fee (RMB 2.2 yuan in total vs. RMB 1.3 yuan in 2000) per m3.
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programs. In fact, 18% more households in Beijing than in Tianjin have noticed at least one water conservation education program. Willingness to pay for conservation: Households in Tianjin are more responsive to nancial incentives for water conservation. Compared to families in Beijing, 15% more Tianjin households express an interest in water rebates as an incentive to encourage water conservation. A discount rate of 10% on water fee will start to affect 5% more families in Tianjin than in Beijing in water use and consumption. However, 11% more Beijing families than Tianjin families expressed willingness to participate in water retrot program in which the municipality would pay 50% of the cost of water-saving renovations. Compared to Beijing, 16% more Tianjin households would be willing to participate in the retrot program if it cost them less than 300 yuan. When asked if they would pay more than 300 yuan, 17% more Beijing families than Tianjin families would still be interested. 4.1.6. Household environmental attitudes Household environmental attitudes reect views that may indirectly affect household water use. This survey listed 8 major environmental problems that are judged to have inuence on both urban life and natural resources and therefore merit the attention of society as a whole. They are: (1) water shortage, (2) water pollution, (3) environmental protection, (4) air pollution, (5) quality of neighborhood environment, (6) recycling of wastes, (7) wastewater treatment, and (8) poverty. Households in Beijing are more concerned with these environmental issues than their counterparts in Tianjin. Over 30% more Beijing households than Tianjin households rated water shortages and air pollution as very serious problems facing residents in Beijing-Tianjin region. 20% more families in Beijing than in Tianjin viewed water pollution and environment protection and 10% more viewed wastewater treatment, recycling of wastes respectively as very serious problems in the region. Households in both Beijing (36.7%) and Tianjin (35.0%) rated air pollution, but not waterrelated problems, as the most serious environmental problem in the region. Several serious dust storms had hit the region several months before this survey, and their negative impact likely lingered in peoples minds. Other serious problems mentioned by Beijing households are water shortages (21.7%), water pollution (16.3%), and poverty (12.2%). In Tianjin, quality of neighborhood environment (21.0%), water shortage (16.1%), and wastewater treatment (9.8%) were the major concerns. 4.2. Exploring the patterns Highly standardized housing designs and predominately indoor water uses limit the variation in water use and consumption among households. But there are still differences between Beijing and Tianjin and between different housing categories. What are the important factors that affect households level of demand for water? 4.2.1. Models In order to nd the structural relationship between the variables and household water demand and to uncover the determinants of the variation of water use and consumption, multivariate statistical analysis was performed. The following general model (Kindler & Russell, 1984;

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Baumann et al., 1998) was used in the analysis: Q f X1 ; X2 ; y; Xn u; where, Qis the dependent variable for quantitative water use and consumption. In this research Q is average monthly household water use. f ( )denotes the function of explanatory independent variables: policy variables such as water rate, economic variables such as income, demographic variables such as household size, and so on. uis the stochastic error term. In this research it is held constant. For each city, full logarithmic models were developed as: ln Q=b0+b1 ln X1 +?+bn ln Xn+u which allow us to interpret the results as proportional changes. A 10% proportional change, for example, in X1 would be reected in a b1 0.1 proportional change in monthly household water use and consumption. For each model, multiple regressions were employed to rst build explanatory general models for each city, and then build three specic models for each housing typology. In Beijing, the variables identied in the nal models are more directly related to water use, behavior, and habits as well as water-using appliances (Table 8). In Tianjin, by contrast, the most important variables found to have impact on household water use and consumption are more directly related to household socioeconomic background (Table 9). 4.2.2. Analysis Four models have been developed for each city. After dropping outliers from analysis, 357 samples from Beijing were plugged into the general model and 363 from Tianjin. The signicance of the F-value in all general models was below 0.05, so the models were signicant. There were no systematic biases in the plot of standardized residuals and no problematic collinearity between independent variables in any of the equations. Signs of coefcients for variation in household monthly water use and consumption with respect to the variables were also as expected. There are four regressions reported in Table 8 for Beijing: one citywide general model, and one each for the H, M, and L housing categories. The performance of models, except for the L category, was not satisfactory, with very small coefcients of determination, R-squared and adjusted R-squared. Two important variables in the general model are electricity fee and winter bathing frequency, which have larger beta coefcients. The regression coefcients indicate the proportional change in monthly household water use and consumption as a function of the proportional change in each independent variable. The T-test for each beta coefcient were below 0.01, so the regression coefcients were signicant. The same two variables are also shown in the M category as important, but none of them achieved a signicant level as they did in the general model. The L category model showed a more satisfactory result. The coefcient of determination, R-squared, was modest but reasonable for studies of this nature. The effect of two variables possession of a washing machine and use tap water as a source of drinking water, were both signicant with higher T-test scores. Other variables had less inuence on household water use and consumption, but have been presented in the models because they displayed stability across model calibration. Table 9 shows four regressions for Tianjin in the same format as in Table 8 for Beijing. Compared to Beijings models, Tianjins performed very well in each housing category. Once again, the coefcients of determination were modest but not unreasonable for studies of this

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Table 8 Beijing models and coefcients: determinants of average monthly water use and consumption (m3 per household) Model N Coeff. R2 (Adjusted R2) 0.105 (0.094) 0.439 0.239 0.099 0.123 0.164 112 2.330 0.867 0.674 0.716 0.297 0.579 0.176(0.138) 3.362 2.148 1.964 2.137 2.303 1.981 0.001 0.034 0.052 0.035 0.023 0.050 4.346 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.093 0.102 0.045 0.153 0.197 10.854 0.000 2.164 2.143 5.224 2.936 1.706 0.035 0.037 0.000 0.005 0.094 3.462 3.881 2.281 1.768 2.770 0.001 0.000 0.023 0.078 0.006 4.540 0.001 t Prob. F-ratio Prob.

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General: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGEF+WTF+WM+LOGWBF CONSTANT LOGEF- LOG OF ELECTRICITY FEE (Dummy) WTF- WATER USE FOR TOILET FLUSHING (Dummy)WM-POSSESSION OF WASHING MACHINE LOGWBF- LOG OF WINTER BATHING FREQUENCY H: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGNR+LOGNHM+TF+WLF+LOGSBF CONSTANT LOGNR- LOG OF NUMBER OF ROOM LOGNHM- LOG OF NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBER (Dummy)TF- TOILET FLUSHING (Dummy) WLF W-WINTER LAUNDRYING FREQENCY-ONCE A WEEK LOGSBF-LOG OF SUMMER BATHING FREQUENCY

357

10.272 0.000

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0.124(0.095) M: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGEF+WM+WLF W+LOGWBF+DTD+LM WM 192 CONSTANT 0.928 4.511 LOGEF-LOG OF ELECTRICITY FEE 0.233 2.992 (Dummy)WM-POSSESSION OF WASHING MACHINE 0.257 1.690 (Dummy) WLF W- WINTER LAUNDRYING FREQENCY-ONCE A WEEK 0.023 1.645 LOGWBF- LOG OF WINTER BATHING FREQUENCY 0.148 2.017 (Dummy) DTD- DRINK TAP WATER DIRECTLY 0.089 1.433 (Dummy) LM WM- LAUNDRYING MANER WASHING MACHINE 0.052 1.295 L: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGAHH+WM+SDW+EP CONSTANT LOGAHH- LOG OF AGE OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD (Dummy)WM-POSSESSION OF WASHING MACHINE (Dummy)SDW- SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER-TAPED WATER (Dummy)EP- KNOWLEDGE OF EDUCATION PROGRAM 55 4.380 1.054 1.224 1.324 0.478 0.465(0.422)

Table 9 Tianjin models and coefcients: determinants of average monthly water use and consumption (m3 per household) Model General: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGNHM+LOGSBF+LOGNR CONSTANT LOGNHM- LOG OF NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBER LOGSBF-LOG OF SUMMER BATHING FREQUENCY LOGNR- LOG OF NUMBER OF ROOM N 363 0.279 0.536 0.096 0.500 0.426 (0.384) 0.638 0.796 0.149 0.127 4.935 4.551 2.616 1.564 0.000 0.000 0.012 0.125 27.234 0.375 3.919 5.261 4.875 2.964 2.033 0.708 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.043 30.662 4.773 8.382 3.916 3.078 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.000 Coeff. R2 (Adjusted R2) t 0.302 (0.297) 5.068 5.817 1.958 6.686 0.000 0.000 0.051 0.000 10.142 0.000 Prob. F-ratio Prob. 51.874 0.000 H.H. Zhang, D.F. Brown / Habitat International 29 (2005) 469491

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H: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGNHM+KW+WSM 45 CONSTANT LOGAHH- LOG OF AGE OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD (Dummy)NW- KNOWLEDGE OF WATERSHORTAGE IN THE REGION (Dummy)WSM- WATER SAVING MEASURES

M: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGNR+LOGNHM+LOGEF+WH+WSM 265 0.345(0.332) CONSTANT 0.042 LOGNR-LOG OF NUMBER OF ROOM 0.517 LOGNHM- LOG OF NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBER 0.437 LOGEF- LOG OF ELECTRICITY FEE 0.235 (Dummy)WH- POSSESSION OF WATER HEATER 0.078 (Dummy)WSM- WATER SAVING MEASURES 0.055 L: LOGWC=CONSTANT+LOGNHM+BT+FT CONSTANT LOGNHM- LOG OF NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBER (Dummy)BT-POSSESSION OF BATH TUB (Dummy)FT-POSSESSION OF FLUSHING TOILET 70 0.268 0.923 0.469 0.206 0.582(0.563)

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nature. Number of rooms and number of household members, which was also persistent in other models, were two important variables in the citywide general model. Tianjins models showed comparatively clear central tendencies. But L Housing category model outperformed all other models in terms of the size of r2 and Adjusted r2. For the L category models, almost half of the variation in water use in Beijing, and more than half in Tianjin, was explained by the variables selected. This is most likely that the water used in the L category is all essential uses and thus have limited variation. However, over half of the variance of water use and consumption in other housing categories in both Beijing and Tianjin cannot be explained. The disaggregated data might be one of the causes. More diverse water uses in the H and M housing categories may be another reason. Despite these drawbacks, modeling did reveal the key relevant variables, which fell into the following 5 categories:
*

* * *

Socioeconomic background: number of household members, age of family head, electricity fee paid, number of rooms; Water using appliance and usage: possession of a water heater, washing machine, or bathtub; Purpose of water use: source of drinking water, source of toilet ush water; Water use habits and behaviors: bath frequency during the winter and summer, laundry frequency during the winter, whether drink tap water directly or not, water saving measures practiced; Water perception: education or public information programs, knowledge of water shortage.

4.3. Summary of major ndings Both historical data and empirical study reveal a great difference between Beijing and Tianjin in urban household water use and consumption. Many variables contribute to this difference, among them historically high per capita domestic water use, wealth as revealed by high rates of possession of water using appliances, changing lifestyle, concern about personal hygiene (i.e. more frequent bathing and laundering) as well as less traditional concern about water conservation in Beijing are among those factors that lead to the difference. Housing typology as a surrogate of water accessibility, on which the stratied random sample was based in this survey, did not greatly affect household water use and consumption among different housing conditions in either Beijing or Tianjin. This difference is especially minor among different housing typologies in Beijing, where the changes in water use from each housing category to another were, on average, less than 15%. The effect was greater in Tianjin, which exhibited a 55% change from the L to the M categories. The difference is still, however, not as big as originally expected. Multivariate statistical analysis did not result a higher multiple r2 in most of the explanatory models. More analysis of microeconomic and time-series data sets would be useful to uncover the major determinants of household water demand. The survey also uncovered other ndings:
*

Households in Beijing and Tianjin consumed much more water per capita than previously imagined. Households in Tianjin, even with similar socioeconomic conditions and water use facilities to families in Beijing, consumed less than 70% of the amounts seen in their Beijing counterparts.

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Families in Beijing historically used more water, possessed more water-using appliances, and used them more frequently than families in Tianjin. Household water use and consumption in Beijing and Tianjin were predominantly indoor uses, due to similar housing conditions, and were very income inelastic. Households in Beijing generally paid more than those in Tianjin for all urban infrastructure and utility services, including water and wastewater. Each month, Beijing families on average paid almost two times more for drinking water than Tianjin families. More families in Tianjin were satisfactory with their current municipal water service than those in Beijing, while the latter were willing to pay more to improve water service. The area needing the most immediate improvement, as rated by Beijing families, was the purity of water. Families in Tianjin were most concerned with the billing system. In almost every housing category in Tianjin, households practiced various water-saving measures. As a result, the percentage of families that engage in conservation activities in Tianjin was higher than in Beijing. While most Beijing households depended on water-saving equipment such as new faucet for their water conservation, Tianjin families still counted on traditional ways of water conservation by using water for many purposes. More families in Beijing noticed water education programs and knew that the region is seriously short of water than in Tianjin. Despite the fact that Beijing and Tianjin are very short of water, families in both Beijing and Tianjin rated air pollution as the most serious environmental problem. Water shortage was considered the second and the third most serious environmental problems by households in Beijing and Tianjin, respectively. Across different housing typologies, Beijing households did not show a great difference in water use and consumption, while in Tianjin, the difference was noticeable. Beijing households in every housing category used more water than their counterparts in Tianjin. Many factors contribute to the increasing of household water use and consumption. There were no clear dominant determinants, especially in Beijing, to explain the variation in household water use and consumption.

5. Conclusions This empirical study on urban residential water use provides rst-hand information regarding urban household water use and consumption patterns, household amenities and facilities, household water use habits and behavior, household water perception, household environmental attitudes, and household capacity and willingness to respond to water conservation policy in the Chinese context. In a transition economy with a planned and highly regulated tradition, urban residential water use and consumption in Beijing and Tianjin shows certain variation from prior studies in both the developed and developing economies. Many important variables identied in prior studies, such as water price or income, do not have the expected impact on household water use and consumption. A new set of variables has been found to be important in explaining the variation of household water use and consumption in Beijing and Tianjin. However, a large portion of the variation in household water use and consumption remains unexplained by the variables selected. The explanatory power of each variable in different models

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is also varied. The unexplained portion of the variation is most likely due to factors such as the residue of the planned economy that still dominates both urban housing and water supply. The ndings of this study should be interpreted with due consideration of certain potential factors and limitations, namely a higher unaccounted-for rate than the ofcial statistics, noise in meter reading data, noise in family income data which includes a substantial amount of gray income, and price elasticity analysis limited by a lack of time-series data. Rapid urbanization, along with improved housing and standards of living, has transformed domestic water use in Beijing and Tianjin. As this study shows, RWU is gradually emerging as the dominant concern in Chinese municipal water supply planning and management. Urban residential water supply as one of the basic environmental infrastructures and services is one of the major causes of environmental problems among cities in the developing world and in transition economies. The provision of household water involves not only a huge capital commitment, but also equity issue with wide social implications. Current practices in Beijing and Tianjin, which focus only on urban districts, are not benecial to establishing an active water market. Meanwhile, discrepancies between urban and rural, entitled and un-entitled, in service delivery will raise more equity issues. Given the more limited nancial resources of the government, future municipal water policy should prioritize accessibility rather than the elitism in delivering water service. Municipal water systems should be prepared for a rapid and ongoing urbanization process. Water demand management, wastewater recycling and reuse, water conservation, and efciency should lead policy in municipal water supply planning and management.

Acknowledgements This paper presents a study that summarizes the Urban Household Water Use Survey in Beijing and Tianjin. This social survey was a joint effort between McGill University, Montreal, Canada and Nankai University, Tianjin, Peoples Republic of China, as the Demand Estimation Team in The 3 by 3 ProjectSustainable Water Resource Management in Beijing and Tianjin Region. The project involved four Canadian universities and three Chinese universities and was funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). We would like to acknowledge Shan Chunyan, a team member from Nankai University, for managing the survey in Tianjin, and Adele LeRoyer, a team member from McGill University, for a careful review of survey questionnaire. We also would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for the constructive comments. The ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the view of the Demand Estimation Team of McGill University and Nankai University.

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