Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.

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Office Hrs: MF 1:30-2:30 pm, W 11-12 5018 SERC
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CHEM 1331 Fall Semester 2012
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
2
Announcements
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next week
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in CHEM 1301, contact me ASAP by Bb mail
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Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
CHEM 1331 Fall Semester 2012
Chapter 2: The Components of Matter
2.1 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures: An Atomic Overview*
2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter
2.3 Daltons Atomic Theory
2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model
2.5 The Atomic Theory Today
2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table
2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding
2.8 Formulas, Names and Masses of Compounds
2.9 Mixtures: Classification and Separation*
* Required for self study - not covered specifically in lecture
3
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 4
Observations that led to an atomic view of matter
The total mass of substances does not change during
chemical reactions.
The number of substances may change, but the total
quantity of matter remains constant.
Conservation of Mass (nothing is lost, unless...)
reactant 1 + reactant 2 +... product(s)
total mass reactants total mass products
=
calcium oxide + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate
56.08g + 44.00g ! 100.08g
CaO + CO2 ! CaCO3
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 5
Workshop: When 0.2250 g Mg was heated with 0.5331 g
N
2
gas, all the Mg reacted forming 0.3114 g Mg
3
N
2
.
What mass of N
2
is left over?
Mg(s) + N
2
(g) ! Mg
3
N
2
(s) ( not balanced)
Start 0.2250g 0.5331g 0 g
End 0g X g 0.3114 g
0.3114 g Mg
3
N
2
0.2250 g (Mg) = 0.0864 g N
2
used
So, X = mass N
2
(start) - mass N
2
(used)
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 6
Definite Composition (Whats in it and how much?)
A chemical compound is always composed of the
same elements in the same fractions by mass.
Experimental analysis of the elemental mass
composition of 20.0 g calcium carbonate:
Mass Analysis
(grams/20.0 g)
8.0 g calcium
2.4 g carbon
9.6 g oxygen
20.0 g total

Mass Fraction
(parts/1.00 part)
0.40 calcium
0.12 carbon
0.48 oxygen
1.00 part by mass
Percent by Mass
(parts/100 parts)
40% calcium
12% carbon
48% oxygen
100% by mass
Lab measure-
ments
MF x 100% =
% by mass
8.0 g Ca
20.0 g total
= 0.40 MF =
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 7
Mass of Element X in the Compound XYZ
Galena, a mineral, consists of Pb and S. A 1.27 g
quantity of Galena contains 1.10 g of Pb. How many
grams of S are present in a 1 kg sample of Galena (G)?

!
mass of X in sample = mass fraction x mass of sample

!
mass fraction X in XYZ =
mass of X in XYZ
mass of XYZ
mass of Pb =
mass of G sample(g) - mass of Pb(g) = mass S(g)
MF of Pb in G =
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 8
Workshop: A 1.27 g sample of Galena contains 1.10
g of Pb. What is the mass percent of S in Galena?
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 9
The Law of Multiple Proportions
If elements A and B react to form two compounds,
masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A are
always in a ratio of small whole numbers.
Consider carbon oxides I and II.
Carbon oxide I: 57.1 mass %O and 42.9 mass %C
Carbon oxide II: 72.7 mass %O and 27.3 mass %C
Use %C and %O to find masses of C and O, take 100 g
Carbon Oxide I Carbon Oxide II
g O/100g compound 57.1 72.7
g C/100g compound 42.9 27.3
g oxygen/g carbon 57.1/42.9 72.7/27.3
= 1.33 = 2.66
Dividing the g O/g C ratio in II by that in I gives a ratio
of small whole numbers:
2.66 g O/g C in II = 2
1.33 g O/g C in I 1
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 10
Four postulates help explain
the emprical laws
1 Matter consists of atoms, tiny, indivisible particles
of an element that cannot be created or destroyed.
2 Atoms of one element cannot be converted into
atoms of another element.
3 Atoms of an element are identical in mass and
other properties and are different from atoms of
other elements.
4 Compounds result from the chemical combination
of a specific ratio of atoms of different elements.
Daltons Atomic Theory (1808)
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
11
Daltons postulates help explain mass laws
Mass conservation Atoms cannot be created, destroyed
(1) or converted into other types of atoms (2)
Definite composition Compounds are combinations of a
specific ratio of different atoms (4), each of which has a
particular mass (3).
Atoms have fixed masses (3). In chemical rxns.,
atoms are just rearranged, ! mass doesnt change.
Multiple proportions Different numbers of B
atoms combine with each A atom in the two
oxides giving a small, whole-number ratio.
A simple arrangement consistent with the
mass data has 1 atom of O combined with
1 atom of C in I.
Two atoms of O combine with one atom
of C in II.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
The S.I. unit of charge is the Coulomb (C)
Coulombs Law (Charles Coulomb, 1736-1806)
q
1
q
2
r
q = charge (C)
+ +
F > 0, repulsive force
_ _
F > 0, repulsive force
+
_
F < 0, attractive force
+
_
F < 0, attractive force
F =
k !q
1
!q
2
r
2
PE =
k'!q
1
!q
2
r
12
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 13
Observations that Led to a Nuclear Model of the Atom
Sir William Crookes built a glass tube fitted with
metal electrodes and pumped most of the air from it.
Cathode (-)
Ring Anode (+)
Battery
Vacuum pump
phosphor
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 14
With the power on, Crookes saw flashes due to a
ray striking the phosphor on the end of the tube.
Cathode rays moved from the negative electrode
(cathode) to the positive electrode in a straight line.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 15
Cathode rays were deflected by magnetic fields and
electric fields.
All cathode rays behaved the same, no matter what
metal was used for the cathode.
Particles in the beam were attracted to a positively
charged plate, so they must be negatively charged.
Identified by J. J. Thomson,
(1897) as electrons.
!
mass
charge
= "5.7x10
"12
kg /C
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
()
(+)
X-ray source
0
5
1
2
3
4 6
7
8
9
Observer times droplets
motion and controls
electric field
5
Electrically charged
plates influence
droplets motion
4
X-rays knock
electrons from
surrounding air,
which stick to
droplet
3
Oil droplets fall
through hole in
positively
charged plate
2
Fine mist of oil is
sprayed into apparatus
1
Milikan Oil Drop Expt (whats the electron charge?)
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
17
Charges on all oil droplets were some whole-number
multiple of a minimum charge.
Oil drops picked up different numbers of electrons;
the minimum charge must be that of one electron.
Millikans value was within 1% of the modern value
of the electrons charge, -1.602 x 10
-19
C (Coulomb)
From Thomsons mass/charge ratio value and the
charge, Millikan determined the electrons mass:
!
mass of e
_
=
mass
charge
x charge
Electron mass ! 10
-30
kg!
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
18
Atoms are electrically neutral. So, what positive
charges balance the negative electrons?
If electrons have such tiny masses, what accounts
for the remainder of an atoms mass?
positive charge
electron
Thomson proposed a spherical
atom model composed of diffuse,
positively charged matter, in
which electrons were embedded
like raisins in pudding.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
B Experiment
Gold foil
Lead block
Radioactive sample emits
beam of ! particles
1
A Hypothesis: Expected result based
on plum pudding model
Cross section of gold foil
composed of plum pudding
atoms
Major deflections
of ! particles are
seen very rarely
5
Almost no
deflection
Incoming
! particles
Beam of ! particles
strikes gold foil
2
Minor deflections of
! particles are seen
occasionally
4
Flashes of light produced
when ! particles strike
zinc-sulfide screen show
that most ! particles are
transmitted with little or
no deflection.
3
Rutherford Scattering Experiment
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
20
Data showed that most " particles werent deflected
but that 1 in 20,000 was deflected by more than 90.
Could only happen if nearly all mass and positive
charge reside in a tiny region within the atom.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 21
Rutherfords results suggested:
-volume of atoms is mostly occupied by electrons;
within that lies a tiny region, the atomic nucleus.
Rutherfords model explained the charged nature
of matter but didnt account for all the atoms mass.
Later, Chadwick discovered the neutron: an
uncharged particle in nucleus; about same mass
as proton, accounted for the missing mass.
- atomic nucleus contains all the positive charge
and almost all the mass of the atom.
- positive particles (protons) occupy the nucleus.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
Approximately 10
10
m
B Nucleus
Approximately 10
15
m
Electrons, e

(negative charge)
A Atom
Nucleus
Proton, p
+
(positive charge)
Neutron, n
0
(no charge)
Table 2.2 lists the key properties of p
+
, e

and n
o
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
A
Z
X
Atomic
symbol
Mass number
(p
+
+ n
0
)
Atomic
Number (p
+
)
6p
+
6n
0 An atom of carbon-12
12
6C
6e

8p
+
8n
0 An atom of oxygen-16
16
8O
8e

An atom of uranium-235
235
92U
92e

92p
+
143n
0
92p
+
146n
0
An atom of uranium -238
238
92U
92e

Isotopes (Dalton got this wrong)

Atoms with the same
number of protons (p
+
)
but different numbers of
neutrons (n
o
) are called
isotopes.
isotopes
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
24
Number of neutrons = A - Z
Chlorine-35 atoms have A = 35, Z = 17, and so they
have 35 -17 = 18 n
o
Mass number, A, is sum of protons and neutrons
Workshop: An atom of boron-11 has Z = 5. How
many p
+
, e

and n
o
does it contain?
How to determine the number of neutrons A
Z
X
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 25

Ne + e

! Ne
+
+ 2e

Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 26
Mass Spectrum of Ne
Mass spectra show the
abundance (%) of each isotope.
How to calculate the average
mass of neon from its isotope
masses weighted according
to their abundances.
Weighted average mass =
"(isotope mass x fract. abund.)
(0.905 x 20) + (0.003 x 21) + (0.092 x 22) = WAM
18.1 amu + 0.06 amu + 2.02 amu = 20.2 amu
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
27
Problem: Silver (Z=47) has only two isotopes,
107
Ag
and
109
Ag. Given the mass spectrometric data
below, calculate the atomic mass of silver:
ISOTOPE MASS (amu) ABUNDANCE (%)
107
Ag 106.90509 51.84
109
Ag 108.90476 48.16
Find atomic mass contribution of each isotope:
mass contrib. = isotopic mass x fractional abund.
For
107
Ag: = 106.90509 amu x 0.5184 = 55.42 amu
For
109
Ag: = 108.90476 amu x 0.4816 = 52.45 amu
47
Ag
107.9
107.9 amu
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 28
The Atomic Mass Scale Today
The atomic mass standard is the carbon-12 atom;
its mass is defined as exactly 12 atomic mass units.
So one atomic mass unit (amu or u) is defined as
1/12
th
the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
On this scale, H atoms have a mass of 1.008 amu.
One amu (u) equals 1.661 x 10
24
g (PT/const. sheet)
Exercise: What is the mass of one atom of H?
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(261)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(262)
108
Hs
(265)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(266)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.39
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
110 111 112
(269) (272) (277)
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(285)
P
E
R
I
O
D
Learn names and symbols of the first 36 elements
Learn where the metals,
nonmetals and metalloids are
found in the periodic table.

Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
30
The Formation of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds made of ions, charged particles
formed when atom(s) gain or lose electron(s).
Ionic compounds typically form when a metal reacts
with a nonmetal.
Each metal atom loses 1, 2 or 3 of its electrons
and becomes a cation, a positively charged ion.
Nonmetal atoms gain electrons lost by the metal
atoms becoming anions, negatively charged ions.
Compounds: Introduction to Bonding
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 31
How can we predict the number of electrons an atom
will lose or gain when it forms a monoatomic ion?
Ionic compounds always contain equal numbers of
positive and negative charges. Formulas are neutral
A grain of table salt consists of a large number of
Na
+
ions and an equal number of Cl

ions.
1+
2+
1- 2- 3-
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
Often, Main Group ions
have the same number
of electrons as in the
nearest noble gas
[Group 8A]
10
2
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 32
Workshop: What monatomic ions do the elements
below form?
a) iodine (Z= 53)
b) strontium (Z = 38)
c) aluminum (Z = 13)
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 33
Formation of Covalent
Compounds
In covalent compounds, atoms
share pairs of electrons.
Simplest case: electron sharing
occurs between two hydrogen
atoms to form H
2
molecule.
Usually occurs between
nonmetals, C-H, Cl-Cl, etc.
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e

p
+
p
+
e

p
+
e

B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e

p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I

Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e

p
+
p
+
e

p
+
e

B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e

p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I

Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e

p
+
p
+
e

p
+
e

B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e

p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I

Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e

p
+
p
+
e

p
+
e

B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e

p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I

Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 34
Hydrogen gas consists of many
diatomic hydrogen molecules, H
2
.
Other diatomics are
N
2
, O
2
, F
2
, Cl
2
, Br
2
, I
2
Memorize the 7 Famous Diatomics
These behave as independent H
2
units
-not separate hydrogen atoms.
BrINClHOF
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 35
Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses
Empirical formulas show the simplest ratio of
numbers of atoms of each element in the compound.
Empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO
Molecular formulas show the actual number of
atoms of each element in a molecule of a compound.
Molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is H
2
O
2

Chemical formulas: symbols + numeric subscripts
H
2
O
CaCO
3 H
2
SO
4
Structural formulas show actual number of atoms
and the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule.
Structural formula of hydrogen peroxide H-O-O-H.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
36
Names of compounds with monatomic ions.
Rules for binary ionic compounds, (MX).
Metal cation name is the same as that of the metal.
Ca Ca
2+
Anion takes the root of the nonmetal name and adds
the suffix -ide. Br Br

The ionic compound formed from the metal calcium
and the nonmetal bromine is calcium bromide.
Please learn all the monatomic ions in Table 2.3
Ionic compound names give positive ion (cation) first,
followed by negative ion (anion).
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 37
Exercise (assumes that you learned 1
st
36 elements)
Name the binary ionic compound that forms from:
a) strontium (Z =38) and N b) S and Zn
c) Al and fluorine d) oxygen and Li
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
metal nonmetal
strontium nitride
nm m
zinc sulfide
aluminum fluoride
nm m nm m
lithium oxide
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
38
Calcium bromide is composed of Ca
2+
ions + Br

ions
Two Br

ions are needed to balance each Ca

2+
, so
the formula is CaBr
2
(empirical formula)
Deduce other ionic formulas by the same method.
How to Predict Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Positive charges of cations in a formula must be
balanced by the negative charges of the anions.
Workshop: What empirical formula do you predict for
the stable compound of the ions Al
3+
and Se
2-
?
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 39
Problem: Write the empirical formulas for the
compounds named in the previous problem.
Plan: Write the ions and find the smallest number of
each that gives a neutral formula.
Solution: a) strontium nitride Sr
2+
and N
3
;
three Sr
2+
(6+) balance two N
3
(6 ) ! Sr
3
N
2
b) zinc iodide Zn
2+
and I

;
one Zn
2+
ion (2+) balances two I

ions (2) ! ZnI

2
c) aluminum fluoride Al
3+
and F

;
one Al
3+
ion (3+) balances three F

ions (3) ! AlF

3
d) lithium oxide Li
+
and O
2
;
two Li
+
ions (2
+
) balance one O
2
ion (2

) ! Li
2
O
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
40
Transition elements (B groups), often form more
than one ion, with different charges.
Naming their compounds: give metals ionic charge
in Roman numerals after the metal ions name.
For example, iron forms both Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
ions.
The two iron-chlorine compounds are:
FeCl
2
, named iron(II) chloride
FeCl
3
, named iron(III) chloride
Learn the transition element ions given in Table 2.4
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
41
Problem: Give systematic names for the formulas or
formulas for the names of the following compounds:
(b) CrF
3

(c) iron(III) oxide
(d) MnS
(a) tin(II) bromide (tin, Z = 50)
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
42
Compounds formed from polyatomic ions
Learn the formulas, charges and names of the
common polyatomic ions given in Table 2.5 (NO
3
-
)
If two or more of a given polyatomic ion are present,
put the ion in parentheses with subscript following.
Example: Calcium nitrate contains one Ca
2+
and two
NO
3

ions; formula = Ca(NO

3
)
2
Hydrates are ionic compounds having a number of
water molecules associated with each formula unit.
Epsom salt has the formula MgSO
4
.
7H
2
O and the
name magnesium sulfate heptahydrate.
Learn numerical prefixes in Table 2.6.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
43
Families of oxoanions exist that differ only in the
number of oxygen atoms.
If only two oxoanions are in the family:
-the ion with more O atoms takes the nonmetal root
and the suffix -ate.
-the ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root
and the suffix -ite.
Examples: SO
4
2
= sulfate ion; SO
3
2
= sulfite ion.
Families of Oxoanions
Most polyatomic ions are oxoanions, in which an
element is bonded to one or more oxygen atoms.
Naming convention for these ions:
SO
3
2
SO
4
2
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
44
Examples: the four chlorine oxoanions,

ClO
4

is perchlorate

ClO
3

is chlorate
With four oxoanions in the family:
-the ion with most O atoms has the prefix per-,
the nonmetal root, and the suffix -ate.
-the ion with one less O atoms has the suffix -ate.
-the ion with two less O atoms has the suffix -ite.
-the ion with three less O atoms has the prefix
hypo- and the suffix -ite.

ClO
2

is chlorite
ClO

is hypochlorite
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
45
Problem: Give systematic names for the formulas or
formulas for the names of the following compounds:
a) ClO
3

is chlorate; since it has a 1- charge, the

cation must be Fe
2+
. Name is iron(II) chlorate.
b) Sodium is Na
+
; carbonate is CO
3
2
. Two Na
+
ions
balance one CO
3
2
ion. Formula is Na
2
CO
3
.
c) Ba
2+
is barium; OH

is hydroxide. There are eight

water molecules in each formula unit. Name is
barium hydroxide octahydrate.
a) Fe(ClO
3
)
2
b) Sodium carbonate c) Ba(OH)
2
.
8H
2
O
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
46
Naming acids
Acids are a type of hydrogen-containing compound.
To name acids, treat them as anions connected to
number of H
+
ions needed for electrical neutrality.
Two main types are 1. binary acids and 2. oxoacids:
1. Gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl) dissolved in
water forms a solution called hydrochloric acid.
- name consists of: prefix hydro- + anion nonmetal
root + suffix -ic + word acid.
Exercise: Name H
2
S(aq) as a binary acid
(H
+
)
2
(S
2-
) ! hydro + sulfur + ic + acid
hydrosulfuric acid
!
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
47
2. Oxoacid names are based on those of the
oxoanions, except for two suffix changes:
Anion -ate suffix becomes an -ic suffix in acid.
Anion -ite suffix becomes an -ous suffix in acid.
Oxoanion prefixes hypo- and per- are retained.
BrO
4

is perbromate, so HBrO
4
is perbromic acid
IO
2

is iodite, so HIO
2
is iodous acid.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 48
Problem:
Name the following anions and give the names and
formulas of the acid solutions derived from them:
(a) Br

(b) IO
3

(c) CN

(d) NO
2

! bromide HBr(aq) = hydrobromic acid

! iodate HIO
3
(aq) = iodic acid
! cyanide HCN(aq) =
!
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 49
Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds
A few simple covalent compounds, have common
names: ammonia (NH
3
) water (H
2
O)
Most are named in a systematic way using 4 rules:
1. The element with the lower group number in the
periodic table is named first
Important exception: If the compound contains
oxygen and a halogen, the halogen is named first
2. If both elements are in the same group, the one
lower in the group is named first
3. The second element is named with its root and
the suffix -ide
4. Use numerical prefixes (Table 2.6) to specify the
number of atoms of each element in the compound
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
50
Problem: a) What is the formula of carbon disulfide?
b) What is the name of AsF
5
?
c) Give the name and formula of the compound
formed from two N atoms and five O atoms.
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 51
Hydrocarbons have only H and C atoms
Alkanes are one type of hydrocarbon
Methane, CH
4
, is the simplest alkane
Organic Compounds; Hydrocarbons
Alkane series general formula = C
n
H
2n+2
Ethane, C
2
H6
, (n = 2) is the 2
nd
member
Learn straight-chain alkanes in Table 2.7
Alkanes with branches
have a number for branch
location. 2-methylbutane
" "
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 52
Functional Groups
Alcohols
Amines
Carboxylic Acids
Specific groupings of atoms
attached to a carbon chain
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 53
Section 2.9 (p76-79) is assigned for self study
End of Chapter 2
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
Avogadros Number (NA) = 6.02214 x 10
23
mol
-1
Atomic Mass Unit (u) = 1.66054 x 10
-27
kg
Electron charge (e) = 1.60218 x 10
-19
C
Faradays constant (F) = 9.64853 x 10
4
C/mol
Universal gas const. (R) = 8.20578 x 10
-2
L.atm/(mol.K) = 8.31451 J/(mol.K)
Planks constant (h) = 6.62607 x 10
-34
J.s
Rydberg's constant = 1.09678 x 10 m
Speed of light (c) = 2.99792 x 10
8
m/s
(R)
7 -1
54