Lectures 7, 8: Word Classes 5.1 Open and closed classes Word classes such as noun, verb, adjective, etc.

, are traditionally called parts of speech. There is not a fixed number of ord classes. We can set up as many classes and subclasses as e need for our analysis. The more detailed our analysis, the more classes and subclasses e need. Word classes can be divided into open classes and closed classes. !pen classes are readily open to ne ords" closed classes are limited classes that rarely admit ne ords. #or example, it is easy to create ne nouns, but not ne pronouns. Listed belo , ith examples, are the classes that ill be examined further on. Open classes noun Paul, paper, speech, play adjective young, cheerful, dark, round main verb talk, become, like, play adverb carefully, firmly, confidentially Closed classes pronoun she, somebody, one, who, that determiner a, the, that, each, some auxiliary $verb% can, may, will, have, be, do conjunction and, that, in order that, if, though preposition of, at, to, in spite of There are also some more minor classes, such as the numerals $one, twenty-three, first% and the interjections $oh, ah, ouch%. &nd there are some ords that do not fit any here and should be treated individually, such as the ne'ative not and the infinitive mar(er to $as in to say%. The conjunction in order that and the preposition in spite of are complex ords even thou'h each is ritten as three separate ords. 5.2 Word classes and word uses )n *.+ some ords are listed in more than one class. #or instance, play is both a noun and a verb" that is a pronoun, a determiner, and a conjunction. ,any more examples could be 'iven of multiple membership of ord classes. We can identify the class of some ords by their form, but very often e can tell the class of a ord only from its use in a con-text. Reply is a noun in: .+/ ) expect a reply before the end of the month. )t is a verb in: .0/ 1ou should reply before the end of the month. )t is particularly easy to convert nouns to verbs and to convert verbs to nouns. Reply in .+/ and .0/ represents t o different ords that share the same form. They are t o different ords, thou'h related in meanin'" they are entered as separate ords in dictionaries $2lexicons3%. )f ords happen to share the same form and are not related in meanin' at all, they are homonyms" examples are peer $2person belon'in' to the same 'roup in a'e and status3% and peer $2loo( searchin'ly3%, or peep $2ma(e a feeble shrill sound3% and peep $2loo( cautiously3%. We can ma(e further distinctions if e ish to emphasi4e identity in pronunciation or identity in spellin'. )f homonyms share the same sound but perhaps differ in spellin', they are homophones; examples are weigh and way or none and nun. !n the other hand, if they share the same spellin' but perhaps differ in pronunciation, they are homographs; examples are row $2line of objects3% and row $25uarrel3%. & ord may have more than one 'rammatical form. The noun play has the sin'ular play and the plural plays; the verb play has the base form play and the past played. )t is common to use word for the

'rammatical form, so e can say that the past of the is spelled ith a final w.

ord see is saw and

e can also say that the

ord saw

6ometimes there is neutralization in form: rather than havin' the distinctions found in most ords, some ords have only one neutral form. #or example, the verb cut represents at least three 'rammatical ords: present tense ) al ays cut my stea( ith this (ind of (nife. past tense ) cut my fin'er earlier today. past participle ) have cut my fin'er. The examples of ord classes in *.+ are 2lexical3 ords $listed as main entries in dictionaries%, but they include any associated 'rammatical forms. We reco'ni4e the class of a ord by its use in context. 6ome ords have suffixes $endin's added to ords to form ne ords% that help to si'nal the class they belon' to. These suffixes are not necessarily sufficient. #or example, -ly is a typical suffix for adverbs $ slowly, proudly%, but e also find this suffix in adjectives: cowardly, homely, manly. &nd e can sometimes convert ords from one class to another even thou'h they have suffixes that are typical of their ori'inal class: an engineer, to engineer" a hopeful candidate, a hopeful. 5.3. NOUN Noun su!!i"es & noun is a ord that can be the only or main ord in a noun phrase. We cannot identify all nouns merely by their form, but certain suffixes can be added to verbs or adjectives to ma(e nouns. 7ere are a fe typical noun suffixes ith ords that exemplify them: -tion $and variants% education, relation, invasion, revision -er, -or camper, speaker, actor, supervisor -ism optimism, socialism, terrorism -ity mentality, normality, reality, sanity -ment environment, equipment, government -ness happiness, compactness, darkness 6ome suffixes ere part of the ords hen they ere borro ed from other lan'ua'es: doctor, eternity, courage. 5.# Noun classes 8ouns are common or proper. 9roper nouns are the names of specific people, places, or occasions, and they usually be'in ith a capital letter: Shakespeare, hicago, !anuary, hristmas, Ramadan. 8ames may consist of more than one ord: "he #ague, "he $ew %ork "imes, #eathrow &irport, Captain &ndrews, 'ount (verest. 9roper nouns are sometimes converted into common nouns: the "hompsons ) know" the proper noun Thompson cannot ordinarily be made plural, but here the "hompsons means 2the people in the family ith the name Thompson3. Common nouns are nouns that are not names, such as capital in: The capital of the 8etherlands is The 7a'ue. Common nouns can be subclassified in t o ays: +. type of referent: concrete or abstract 0. 'rammatical form: count or non-count Concrete nouns refer to people, places, or thin's: girl, kitchen, car. $%stract nouns refer to 5ualities, states, or actions: humour, belief, honesty. 6ome nouns may be either concrete or abstract, dependin' on their meanin': Concrete Thomas can (ic( a football *: yards. $%stract Thomas often plays football on 6aturdays.

Count nouns refer to entities that are vie ed as countable. Count nouns therefore have both a sin'ular and a plural form and they can be accompanied by determiners that refer to distinctions in number: a* one; every student ten* many; those students Non&count nouns refer to entities that are vie ed as an indivisible mass that cannot be counted" for example, information, furniture, software. 8on-count nouns are treated as sin'ular and can be accompanied only by determiners that do not refer to distinctions in number: much* your* that information. There is a 'eneral tendency for abstract nouns to be non-count. <eterminers such as the and your can 'o ith both count and non-count nouns. !thers can 'o only ith sin'ular count nouns $ a % or only ith plural count nouns $ those %. 6ome nouns may be either count or non-count, dependin' on their meanin': There is not enou'h light in here. $non-count% We need another couple of lights . $count% 6andra does not have much difficulty ith science. $non-count% =enjamin is havin' 'reat difficulties ith arithmetic. $count% 8ouns that are ordinarily non-count can be converted into count nouns ith t o types of special use: +. When the count noun refers to different (inds: The shop has a lar'e selection of cheeses . 0. When the count noun refers to units that are obvious in the situation. )3ll have t o coffees , please. $2t o cups of coffee3% 5.5 Num%er Count nouns ma(e a distinction bet een sin'ular and plural. The re'ular plural ends in -s. This inflection $'rammatical suffix%, ho ever, is pronounced in one of three ays, dependin' on the sound immediately before it. Contrast these three sets: +. buses, bushes, churches, pages, diseases, garages 0. sums, machines, days, toes >. tanks, patients, shocks, notes The plural inflection is pronounced as a separate syllable ? spelled -es ? hen it follo s any of the sounds that appear in the sin'ulars of the ords listed in $+%" in the case of diseases and garages , a final -e is already present in the sin'ular, so only an -s needs to be added in the plural. When -s is added to form the plurals toes in $0% and notes in $>%, the -es is not pronounced as a separate syllable. There are also some other exceptions to the usual -s spellin'. &ttention should be paid to certain spellin' points concernin' nouns endin' in +y, -f * -fe and +o: Nouns ending in y: )f the sin'ular form ends in a 'owel @y, add ?s for the plural: boy + boys day + days )f the sin'ular form ends in a consonant (y) the plural ends in -ies: poppy + poppies factory + factories Nouns ending in ?f or ?fe, have the plural in -ves* calf + calves wife + wives wolf + wolves leaf + leaves half + halves shelf-- shelves

With some nouns, both re'ular plurals in ?s and ?ves plurals are possible: scarf + scarfs* scarves hoof + hoofs * hooves Nouns ending in o have the plural form s if the noun ends in 'owel (o: radio + radios, or in nouns of forei'n ori'in: kilo + kilos, photo + photos 7o ever, if the sin'ular noun ends in consonant (o, the plural is +es: hero + heroes, potato + potatoes, tomato + tomatoes $%%re'iations ta(e the re'ular +s plural endin': P s, ,s, ,-,s. & fe irre'ular plurals reflect older An'lish forms: man ? men foot ? feet mouse ? mice brother ? brethren $in special woman ? women senses% louse ? lice goose ? geese child ? children tooth ? teeth o. ? o.en

*.*.+. )n some of the nouns in the list above $goose + geese man + men mouse + mice etc/ , there is a chan'e of vo el sound and spellin' $2mutation plurals3% ithout an endin', hich distin'uishes the sin'ular form from the plural one: 5.5.2. ,ero plural & 6ome nouns have the same form in the sin'ular and in the plural. They fall into three main cate'ories: names of animals, 5uantifyin' nouns and nationality names. a% 8ouns namin' animals. Sheep, deer, and cod thou'h countable have the same form for the sin'ular and the plural. These nouns ta(e a verb either in the sin'ular or in the plural: "his sheep has 0ust had a lamb. "hese sheep have 0ust had lambs. !ther animals, birds and fishes can have 4ero plurals, especially hen vie ed as prey: "hey shot two reindeer, though this is strictly forbidden. "he woodcock/ pheasant/ herring/ trout/ salmon/ fish are not very plentiful this year. When these animals are not seen as a prey, they have the re'ular ?s plural: &ren1t those pheasants beautiful2 b% 8ouns of 5uantity. There is a stron' tendency for units of number, len'th, value and ei'ht to have a 4ero plural hen premodified by another 5uantitative ord: three do3en * hundred people many thousand * million insects eight ton of coal ten head * yoke of o.en three pound / stone of potatoes 7o ever, hen not preceded by numerals, these nouns have normal plural forms: Dozens 4and dozens/ of people crowded into the room. Thousands of people had lived in the flooded area. c% 8ationality names endin' in ?ese 4Portuguese, hinese, !apanese/ also have 4ero plurals: "he Chinese are friendly, honest, and terribly proud of their country. 5.5.3. -oreign plurals & 8umerous nouns adopted from forei'n lan'ua'es, especially Latin, and Bree(, retain the forei'n inflection for plural. )n some cases, there are t o plurals: an An'lish re'ular form used in everyday lan'ua'e and the forei'n plural preferred in technical discourse: a% 8ouns in +us ;C s; ith plural i ;ai;:

bacillus - bacilli stimulus - stimuli b% 8ouns in us ;C s; ith plural a ;C ; $only in technical use%: corpus - corpora genus - genera c% 8ouns in a ;C ; ith plural ae ;i:; or ;ai;: regular plural !oreign plural formula formulas formulae vertebra vertebras vertebrae d% 8ouns in um ;Cm; ith plural a ;C: ;: curriculum - curricula stratum - strata e% 8ouns in ex, -ix ith plural ices ;isi:4;: inde. - indices matri. - matrices f% 8ouns in is ;is; ith plural es ;i:4;: analysis - analyses crisis - crises a.is - a.es hypothesis - hypotheses basis - bases parenthesis - parentheses '% 8ouns in on ;C n; ith plural a ;C;: criterion - criteria phenomenon - phenomena 6ome nouns from #rench sometimes retain a #rench plural in ritin', or, more usually, a re'ular An'lish plural: regular plural !oreign plural bureau bureaus *-5 u3 * bureau. *-5 u* plateau + plateaus plateau. Compound nouns form the plural in different ays: a% plural in the first element: attorney general attorneys general notary public notaries public passer-by passers-by mother-in-law mothers-in-law grant-in-aid grants-in-aid b% plural in both first and last element: gentleman farmer gentlemen farmers manservant menservants woman doctor women doctors c% plural in the last element: grown-up grown-ups stand-by stand-bys forget-me-not forget-me-nots sit-in sit-ins 5.. /ender Delatively fe example:

thesis - theses

ith the #rench 4ero endin' in speech

nouns are distin'uished in 'ender, but there are some male nouns and female nouns" for

father ? mother widower ? widow boy ? girl

bridegroom ? bride host ? hostess bull ? cow

hero ? heroine lion ? lioness

)n compound nouns either the first constituent or the second one is lexically mar(ed for the masculine ? feminine distinction: a% the first constituent male nurse 4female/ nurse 4male/ student 4female/ student boy-friend girl-friend !ack ass !enny ass he-goat she-goat cock sparrow hen sparrow tom cat tabby cat #e was in the police you know, and he was a male nurse. "hey ordered the drinks from a female bartender. "hese were female prisoners convicted of violent crimes. !udy told a story about a 6ritish female reporter. b% the second constituent: chairman chairwoman spokesman spokeswoman businessman businesswoman congressman congresswoman & spokeswoman for the company announced the decision. & State ,epartment spokesman e.plained the situation. Compounds endin' in -person$s% and -people are sometimes used to express reference to both males and females and to avoid sex-bias associated ith the use of the correspondin' masculine forms: 'rs. 'oon, their Chairperson, was interviewed yesterday. 7e have a vacancy for an e.perienced salesperson. !ane was the spokesperson for the delegation. 5...1. 0orphological e"pression o! gender & fe An'lish nouns have 'ender-specific derivational suffixes. ,ost of the personal nouns refer to positions and jobs. )n most cases the feminine noun is derived from the masculine one: masculine & !eminine actor 8 actress mayor 8 mayoress god 8 goddess mister 8 mistress governor 8 governess waiter8 waitress hero 8 heroine The arro E sho s the direction of derivation $from the masculine to the feminine%. 8evertheless, there are a fe exceptions to this rule: masculine & !eminine widower 9: widow bride 9: bridegroom 1ual gender nouns

Within personal nouns, there are several nouns in An'lish here the distinction male;female is neutrali4ed, the same noun namin' both. 6ome 'rammarians call them dual gender nouns: 0ournalist, friend, teacher, child, baby, pupil, doctor, student, etc. fo., deer, sheep, pig, horse, fowl, etc. When referrin' to nouns of dual 'ender and pronouns such as anybody or nobody, special problems arise, ho ever, here the sex of the referent is unidentified or irrelevant. Traditionally, masculine pronouns have been used: "he individual can deal directly with his employer if he chooses so. o!ody in his right mind punishes a quarter-century-old dereliction. 8o adays, a plural form pronoun is preferred as a ay of purposely not specifyin' the sex of the person referred to $althou'h the expressions he or she, him or her may also be used%: $obody came, did they2 (veryone thinks they are in the centre of the universe. ;nce you have let any!ody in they<d chop you up and put you in their ne.t stew. )mportant distinctions in 'ender apply to the third-person sin'ular pronouns he, she, and it. When he or she refers to a noun, the sex of the specific person or animal is made manifest: "he student as absent today because she attended an intervie for a job. 5.2 Case 8ouns ma(e a distinction in case: a distinction that is based on the 'rammatical function of the noun. 8ouns have t o cases: the common case and the 'enitive. The common case is the one that is used ordinarily. The 'enitive case 'enerally indicates that the noun is dependent on the noun that follo s it" this case often corresponds to a structure ith of: !ane1s reactions ? the reactions of !ane #or re'ular nouns the 'enitive is indicated in ritin' by an apostrophe plus s $student1s % in the sin'ular and by an apostrophe follo in' the plural -s inflection in the plural $students1%: singular plural common case the student the students geniti'e case the student1s essay the students1 essays )n speech, three of these forms are pronounced identically. )rre'ular nouns, ho ever, distin'uish all four forms in speech as ell as in ritin': singular plural common case the child the children geniti'e case the child1s toy the children1s toys The same 'enitive inflection $3s% is attached to both the sin'ular and the plural. 5.3 1ependent and independent geniti'es Benitives may be dependent or independent. The dependent 'enitive functions li(e a possessive determiner. Compare: the student1s essay $dependent 'enitive% his essay $possessive determiner%

The independent geniti'e is not dependent on a follo in' noun. The noun may be omitted because it can be understood from the context: 1our ideas are more acceptable than Sandra1s . $26andra3s ideas3% <avid3s comments are li(e Peter1s . $29eter3s comments3%

=ut the independent 'enitive is also used to refer to places: The party is at &lan1s toni'ht. 6he3s 'one to the hairdresser1s . #inally, the independent 'enitive may combine ith the of -structure: a friend of 'artha1s a su''estion of $orman1s The independent 'enitive in the of -structure differs from the normal 'enitive in its meanin': 'artha1s friend means 2the friend that ,artha has3 $the spea(er assumes that the hearer (no s the identity of the friend%, hereas a friend of 'artha1s means 2one of the friends that ,artha has3. The 'enitive is mainly used 7o ever, besides sho in' structure: /eniti'es a% possessi'e geniti'e 'ary1s passport the car1s wheel b% su%4ecti'e geniti'e the parents1 consent c% geniti'e o! origin the girl1s story (ngland1s cheeses d% o%4ecti'e geniti'e the family1s support the boy1s release e% descripti'e geniti'e a women1s college a doctor1s degree to express possession. That is hy it is sometimes called the 2possessive3 case. possession the 'enitive has other meanin's related to some basic sentence $nalogues F,ary o ns a passport.G FThe car has a heel.G FThe parents consented.G FThe 'irl told ; rote a story.G Fthe cheeses produced in An'land.G Fsomebody supports the familyG Fsomebody released the boyG Fa colle'e for omenG Fa doctoral de'ree ; a doctorateG

5.3.1. Choice o! the 5s geniti'e The choice of the 3s-'enitive depends on the 'ender of the noun in the 'enitive case. Benerally spea(in', the 3s 'enitive is favored by the animate nouns, that is persons and animals ith personal 'ender characteristic. The follo in' four animate noun classes ta(e the 3 s 'enitive, but the of-'enitive is also possible in most cases: personal names =eorge 7ashington1s statue personal nouns the boy1s new shirt collecti'e nouns the government1s decision higher animals the horse1s neck The 3s 'enitive is also used ith certain (inds of inanimate nouns: a% 'eo'raphical names: continents> Aurope3s future countries> 6pain3s immi'rants cities6towns> ?ondon1s water supply uni'ersities> 7arvard3s Lin'uistics department b% 2locative nouns3 denote re'ions, institutions, etc., can be very similar to 'eo'raphical names and are often ritten ith initial capital letter:

the world1s economic organi3ation the hurch1s mission the country1s population c% temporal nouns: the decade1s events this year1s sales a day1s work a week1s holiday d% nouns of 2special interest to human activity3 the body1s needs the car1s performance The of-'enitive is chiefly used ith nouns denotin' lo er animals and ith inanimate nouns. )nanimate nouns re'ularly ta(e of 'enitive, but many inanimate nouns occur ith the 3 s 'enitive. The follo in' nouns, for example, ill e5ually ell admit both 'enitive constructions: the car1s engine the engine of the car the book1s title the title of the book the town1s population the population of the town 5.7. 0$8N 9:;< & main 'er% $or, more simply, a verb% is a only verb. ord that can be the main ord in a verb phrase and is often the common verb suffixes

Certain suffixes are added to nouns or adjectives to ma(e main verbs. 7ere are a fe ith ords that exemplify them: -ate, -iate chlorinate, originate, differentiate -en darken, hasten, sadden -ify, -fy codify, falsify, beautify -ise, -i3e apologise, publicise, rationali3e

Li(e nouns, very many verbs have no suffixes: write , walk , reveal , understand . ,any of the suffixes that characteri4e verbs served that function in Latin or #rench, and so e have ords in An'lish that ere already suffixed hen they ere borro ed from these lan'ua'es: signify , reali3e . 5.1= ;egular and irregular 'er%s )n all re'ular verbs $such as laugh% and in many irre'ular verbs $such as hear% forms H and * belo are identical. )n one set of irre'ular verbs $e.'. cut % forms +, H, and * are identical. The full set of five forms appears in the irre'ular verb speak. +. %ase !orm: laugh, hear, cut, speak 0. &s !orm: laughs, hears, cuts, speaks >. &ing participle: laughing, hearing, cutting, speaking H. past !orm: laughed, heard, cut, spoke *. &ed participle: laughed, heard, cut, spoken The hi'hly irre'ular verb be has ei'ht forms. 5.11 Classes o! irregular 'er%s There are over 0*: irre'ular verbs in An'lish. &part from the verb be , the -s form and the -ing participle can be predicted for all verbs from the base form. We therefore need list only three forms to sho irre'ularities: the base, past, and -ed participle. These three forms are (no n as the principal parts of the verb. )f e leave aside the verb be , e can 'roup the irre'ular verbs into seven classes accordin' to hether or not three features apply to their principal parts:

$a% the past and -ed participles are identical" $b% the base vo el is the same in the other t o principal parts" $c% the past and -ed participle have inflectional endin's. )f an irre'ular verb has inflectional endin's, these may be irre'ular" for example, kept from keep or spoken from speak . Class 8 bend bent bent learn learnt learnt make made made earn earnt earnt have had had spoil spoilt spoilt build built built smell smelt smelt Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: earn , earned , earned . Class 88 mow mowed mown shear sheared shorn show showed shown swell swelled swollen

The past is formed re'ularly, but the participle has an -n inflection. Those in the second column have a different vo el in the participle. &ll the verbs have re'ular variants for the participle: mow , mowed , mowed . Class 888 buy bought bought kneel knelt knelt say said said dream dreamt dreamt lose lost lost leap leapt leapt hear heard heard lean leant leant Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: dream , dreamed , dreamed . Class 89 blow blew blown take took taken lie lay lain see saw seen hide hid hidden write wrote written break broke broken tear tore torn The participle has an inflection, but not the past. )n some verbs $e.' . blow% the participle has the same vo el as the base" in some $ e.g. break % the past and participle have the same vo el" in some $ e.g. write % all the vo els are different. The verb beat has the same vo el in all parts $ beat , beat , beaten %, but it may be included in this class rather than in class )) because it is not inflected in the past. Class 9 burst hit hurt let fit rid sweat wet

&ll three principal parts are identical. Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: fit , fitted , fitted , as ell as fit , fit , fit . Class 98 bleed bled bled get got got dig dug dug hold held held find found found strike struck struck fight fought fought win won won

The past and participle are identical, but there is a chan'e from the base vo el and there are no inflections. & fe verbs in this class have re'ular variants: light , lighted , lighted , as ell as light , lit , lit . Class 988

begin began begun come came come

sing sang sung run ran run

Those in the second column have the same form for the base and the participle. 6ome verbs also have variants in hich the past and participle are identical: sing , sung , sung , as ell as sing , sang , sung . 5.12. $1>:C?89: $d4ecti'e su!!i"es &n ad4ecti'e is a ord that can be the only or main ord in an adjective phrase. & lar'e number of suffixes are added to nouns and verbs to ma(e adjectives. 7ere are the most common suffixes and ords that exemplify them: -able, -ible disposable, suitable, fashionable, audible -al, -ial normal, cynical, racial, editorial -ed wooded, boarded, wretched, crooked -ful hopeful, playful, careful, forgetful -ic romantic, atmospheric, heroic, atomic -ical historical, political, parado.ical, economical -ish amateurish, darkish, foolish, childish -ive, -ative defective, communicative, attractive, affirmative -less tactless, hopeless, harmless, restless -ous, -eous, -ious famous, virtuous, erroneous, spacious -y tasty, handy, wealthy, windy The suffix -ed is often used to form adjectives from noun phrases: blue-eyed , long-haired , goodnatured , open-minded . Li(e nouns and verbs, many adjectives have no suffixes: sad , young , happy , true . 6ome suffixes ere part of the ords hen they ere borro ed into An'lish: sensitive , virtuous . 5.13 $d4ecti'e classes We can divide adjectives into three classes accordin' to their function. Ised alone or ith one or more modifiers, an adjective can be: +. pre-modifier of a noun 0. subject complement >. object complement &djectives are attri%uti'e $attributin' a 5uality to hat is denoted by a noun% hen they are bein' used as pre-modifiers. They are predicati'e $part of the predicate% hen they are bein' used as complements. Central ad4ecti'es can be used in all three functions: +. )t as a comfortable ride. attri%uti'e 0. The ride as comfortable . predicati'e >. ) made the bed comfortable . predicati'e !ther examples of central adjectives include: clever , brave , calm , hungry , noisy . 6ome adjectives are attributive only: That is utter nonsense. 1ou are the very person ) as loo(in' for. !ther examples include: chief , main , sheer .

,any ords are restricted in this ay only in particular meanin's. ;ld is only attributive in: 6he is an old friend of mine. $2a friend for many years3% )t is a central adjective in: 6he is an old oman. 6he is old. ) consider her old. 6ome adjectives are predicative only: 7e is afraid of do's. ) am 'lad that you are here. 6ome predicative adjectives must be follo ed by a post-modifier: aware $ of @ noun phrase%, loath $ to @ infinitive%, sub0ect $ to @ noun phrase%. 6ome ords have this restriction only ith particular meanin's. #appy is only predicative in: We are happy to see you. )t is a central adjective in: 7e has a happy disposition. 7is disposition is happy . We made him happy . 5.1# /rada%ility and comparison &djectives are typically 'radable, that is, e can arran'e them on a scale of comparison. 6o e can say that somethin' is a bit hot , somewhat hot , quite hot , very hot , or e.tremely hot . We can also compare thin's and say that somethin' is hotter than somethin' else or that it is the hottest of a number of thin's. We use intensi!iers to indicate the point on the scale. The most common intensifier of adjectives is the adverb very . !ther examples of intensifiers, in addition to those already 'iven, include: fairly arm entirely different pretty difficult incredibly dull rather dar( too old There are three de'rees of comparison: +. higher $a% &nn is politer than ,ichael. $ comparati'e % $b% &nn is the politest child in the family. $ superlati'e % We have a three-term contrast: a%solute polite comparati'e politer, more polite superlati'e politest, most polite . 0. same &nn is as polite as ,ichael. >. lower $a% &nn is less polite than ,ichael. $b% &nn is the least polite child in the family. The superlatives in $+b% and $>b% are re5uired hen the comparison involves more than t o units or sets of units. 7i'her de'rees of comparison are expressed either throu'h the inflections -er and -est or throu'h the pre-modifiers more and most :

in!lection pre&modi!ier

a%solute polite polite

comparati'e politer more polite

superlati'e politest most polite

6ome very common adjectives have irre'ular inflections: a%solute comparati'e superlati'e good better best bad worse worst far farther*further farthest*furthest Words of one syllable 'enerally ta(e inflections: older, oldest, purer, purest. ,any ords of t o syllables can usually ta(e either form: politer , politest or more polite , most polite , noisier , noisiest or more noisy , most noisy . Words ith more than t o syllables ta(e the pre-modifiers: more important, most important " more e.pensive , most e.pensive . 5.15 $19:;< $d'er% su!!i"es &n adverb is a ord that can be the only or main ord in an adverb phrase. The suffix -ly is commonly added to adjectives to ma(e adverbs: calmly , frankly , lightly , madly , quietly , tearfully )f the adjective ends in -ic , the suffix is usually -ically : economically , geographically , heroically , romantically The exception is publicly . The suffix -wise is added to nouns to ma(e adverbs: clockwise, lengthwise, moneywise, weatherwise Li(e the other ord classes, many adverbs have no suffixes. These include, in particular, most time adverbs $ now , today , yesterday , tomorrow %, space adverbs $ here , there , outside , inside %, and 2lin(in' adverbs3 $ therefore , however %. 5.1. /rada%ility and comparison Li(e adjectives, adverbs are typically 'radable and can therefore be modified by intensifiers and ta(e comparison: quite calmly , very calmly , less calmly , most calmly . ,ost adverbs that ta(e comparison re5uire the pre-modifiers more and most. Those adverbs that have the same form as adjectives have the inflections $e.'. late + later + latest%. The follo in' adverbs have irre'ular inflections" the first three are identical ith those for adjectives: well better best badly worse worst far farther*further farthest*furthest little less least much more most 5.12. @;ONOUN @ronoun classes 9ronouns are essentially special types of nouns and are the main ord in a noun phrase or $more usually% the only ord in a noun phrase. They fall into a number of classes, here listed ith examples: +. personal pronouns ), you, we, they

0. >. H. *. J. 7. 8.

possessive pronouns reflexive pronouns demonstrative pronouns reciprocal pronouns interro'ative pronouns relative pronouns indefinite pronouns

my , mine, your, yours myself, yourself this, these, that, those each other, one another who, what, which which , who, that some, none

The first three classes are related in that they ma(e distinctions in person $first, second, third%, 'ender $masculine, feminine, and non-personal%, and number $sin'ular and plural%. ,ost of them also share at least some resemblance in their sound and in their appearance $you, yours, yourself%. 9ronouns 'enerally substitute for a noun phrase: ) went around the hospital with ,r "homas. "e was highly intelligent, austere, and warm all at the same time. "e could perceive almost instantaneously whether a problem was a serious one or not. The t o instances of he refer bac( to an antecedent, in this instance ,r "homas. The pronouns are used to avoid repeatin' the noun phrase ,r "homas. ;ne, ho ever, replaces the noun head problem $and therefore is literally a pronoun rather than a substitute for a noun phrase%. 7ere is another example of pronoun substitution: & property development company has been found guilty of racial discrimination because it attempted to prevent blacks from buying its homes. )n this case, the pronoun it replaces a noun phrase that is not identical ith the antecedent noun phrase & property development company. )f e did not substitute it, e ould have to rite the property development company $ ith the definite article the% or $more economically% the company. The pronoun occasionally comes before its antecedent: 7hen she moved into her own at, #elen seemed much more rela.ed. )f e assume that the pronoun she and #elen refer to the same person, she and the possessive determiner her both refer for ard to #elen. 9ronouns can also refer directly to somethin' that is present in the situation: ?ook at that@ )1ll pick it up. *.+8 @ersonal pronouns &ll the personal pronouns have distinctions in person $first, second, third%. ,ost also have distinctions in number $sin'ular, plural% and in case $subjective, objective, 'enitive%. su%4ecti'e case !irst person singular ) plural e second person singular6plural you third person singular + masculine he ? !eminine she ? non&personal it o%4ecti'e case me us you him her it

plural

they

them

The subjective case applies hen the pronouns are the subject of a finite clause: # know that she lives in oventry and that he lives in 6irmingham. )n all other instances except the one that ) am about to mention, the objective case is used: She knows me well. #e has told her about me. %ou must go with him. The exception is that the subjective case is also used for the subject complement. )n these examples the complement follo s the lin(in' verb be: "his is he. )t was # who issued the order. )n non-formal style, ho ever, the objective case is common here too: )t1s him. The masculine and feminine 'enders apply to human bein's and also to other bein's that are treated as persons, such as pets or perhaps some farm animals. The distinction bet een the t o 'enders is made on the basis of natural distinctions in sex. 6ome other objects $such as ships or cars% or even personified abstractions $such as <eath or =eauty% may be treated as if they ere persons. !ther ise, the non-personal pronoun it is used. !ne exceptional use of it is for babies hose sex is un(no n to the spea(er. The personal pronouns ta(e modifiers to a limited extent: you who know me we in this country you there they both *.+K 9ossessives The possessive pronouns are the 'enitives of the personal pronouns. There are t o sets. !ne set contains the possessive determiners, a subclass of determiners. & possessive determiner is dependent on a noun: #ere is your book. The other set of possessives contains the possessive pronouns, a subclass of pro- nouns. & possessive pronoun functions independently: "his book is yours. The possessive determiners are not pronouns, but it is convenient to deal ith them in this section because of the parallels bet een the t o sets of possessives. 8ouns in the 'enitive case also have these t o functions: This is <avid3s boo(. $dependent 'enitive% This boo( is <avid3s. $independent 'enitive% =ut unli(e the nouns, most of the possessives have separate forms for the dependent and independent functions. The t o sets of forms parallel the forms for the personal pronouns. 1ependent 8ndependent !irst person singular my mine plural our ours second person singular6plural your yours third person singular + masc. his his ? !em. her hers

? non&personal ? plural

its their

theirs

5.2= ;e!le"i'e pronouns The reflexive pronouns parallel the personal and possessive pronouns in person and number, but have no distinctions in case. There are separate forms for the second person sin'ular $ yourself% and plural $yourselves%, hereas there is only one form of the second person for the personal pronoun $ you% and the possessive pronoun $yours%. !irst person sin'ular myself plural ourselves second person sin'ular plural third person sin'ular ? masculine - feminine - non-personal plural yourself yourselves himself herself itself themselves

The reflexive pronouns have t o main uses: +. They refer to the same person or thin' as the subject does: "hey behaved themselves for a change. %ou1ll hurt yourself . 0. They 'ive emphasis to a noun phrase: She herself spoke to me. #e wrote to me himself . ) appealed to the captain himself . 5.21 1emonstrati'e pronouns There are four demonstrative pronouns: singular this that plural these those This is for you. That doesn1t make sense. These are tasty. %ou may take those. The demonstratives may also be determiners: This letter is for you. That sign doesn1t make sense. These biscuits are tasty. %ou may take those bo.es. 5.22 ;eciprocal pronouns There are t o reciprocal pronouns, and they have 'enitives: each other one another

each other3s

one another3s

"he partners trusted each other completely. 'y brother and ) borrow one another$s clothes. 5.23 8nterrogati'e pronouns !ne set of the interro'ative pronouns has distinctions in 'ender and case: su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case geniti'e case personal ho hom hose )t is normal to use who for both the subjective and objective cases, and to reserve whom for formal style. The other interro'ative pronouns, which and what, have only one form. 7hich, what, and whose may also be determiners. 7e use who and whom when we refer to persons> %ho is your favourite pop singer2 %ho $or whom/ have they appointed2 %hose is that towel2 7hich can be either personal or non-personal: %hich is your sister2 %hich 4of the drinks/ do you prefer2 7hat is normally only non-personal: %hat do you want2 5.2# ;elati'e pronouns Delative pronouns introduce relative clauses. They also have distinctions in 'ender and case: su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case geniti'e case personal ho hom hose non&personal hich hich hose that that &s ith the interro'ative pronouns, who is the normal form for the subjective and objective cases, whom is used only in formal style. hereas

The relative pronoun that, hich is 'ender-neutral, may be omitted in certain circumstances. The omitted pronoun is sometimes called the zero relati'e pronoun. the teacher who 4or that / taught me hemistry the house which 4or that or zero/ we bought the person whom 4or, less formally, who & that & or zero/ they appointed t he student to whom you gave it 4formal/ the student who 4or that or 3ero/ you gave it to Benitive whose is a determiner, li(e his or her. There is another set of relative pronouns that introduce nominal relative clauses" these are the nominal relati'e pronouns. )n addition to who, whom, and which, they include whoever , whomever $in formal style%, whichever , what , and whatever . %ou may take what/whatever/whichever you wish %hat ) need is a long holiday.

)1ll speak to whoever is in charge. 8ominal relative pronouns correspond to a combination of a relative pronoun ith a precedin' antecedent: What ) need . . . $2the thin' that ) need3% ...to hoever is in char'e $2to the person ho is in char'e3% 5.25 8nde!inite pronouns and numerals )ndefinite pronouns are the lar'est 'roup of pronouns. They refer to the presence $or absence% of a 5uantity. 7ere are some examples of indefinite pronouns: 'any have replied to the advertisement and several have been interviewed. %ou take one and )1ll take the other. o one was absent today. 'ore will be arriving later. %ou can have !oth. (ither will do for me. "here are fewer here today. (very!ody was pleased with the speech. The some-set of indefinite pronouns contrasts ith the any-set: some any someone anyone somebody anybody something anything The any-set is normal in ne'ative contexts. Contrast: She has some close friends. She doesn1t have any close friends. Some implies a 5uantity, thou'h the 5uantity is not specified. &ny does not imply a specific 5uantity" the 5uantity is ithout limit. The any-set is also normal in 5uestions unless a positive reply is expected: ,id anyone call for me2 ,id someone call for me2 T o uses of indefinite one deserve special mention: +. Beneric one has the meanin' 2people in 'eneral3: )f one is concerned about the increasing deterioration of the environment, one must be prepared to accept a lower standard of living. 0. 6ubstitute one is used as a substitute for a noun: &> ,o you want an ice cream2 6> )1ll have a small one . Inli(e most pronouns, one in the response by = substitutes for a noun, not a noun phrase. )t is the main ord in the noun phrase a small one . ,any of the indefinite pronouns may be post-modified. !f-phrases are particularly common: some!ody else neither of us several in our group

none of the people something quite funny a few of my friends 8umerals may be used as pronouns. 7ere are t o examples of cardinal numerals as pronouns: Twenty-two were rescued from the sinking ship. Three of the children wandered off on their own. The ordinal numerals $first, second, third, . . .% combine ith the in this function: "he first of my children is still at school. 5.2.. 1:?:;08N:; Classes o! determiners <eterminers introduce noun phrases. The three classes of determiners are defined by the order in hich they come: +. pre-determiners 0. central determiners >. post-determiners 7ere is an example ith determiners from each class: all $+% those $0% other $>% people ,any ords may be either determiners or pronouns: pronoun Some have left. determiner Some people have left. pronoun ) need more . determiner ) need more money. pronoun &ll are forgiven. determiner &ll faults are forgiven. pronouns %ou may borrow this . determiner %ou may borrow this pencil. 5.22 Central determiners The central determiners fall into several subclasses. +. definite article the 0. indefinite article a or $before a vo el sound% an >. demonstratives this , that , these , those H. possessives my , our , your , his , her , its , their *. interro'atives what , which , whose %hat day is it2 %hose coat are you wearing2 J. relatives which , whose , whatever , whichever ... at which point ) interrupted him . . . ... whose student ) used to be. %ou can use it for whatever purpose you wish. 7. indefinites some , any , no , enough , every , each , either , neither We cannot combine t o or more central determiners to introduce the same noun phrase. 5.23 ?he articles and re!erence We can apply three sets of contrast in the reference of noun phrases: +. 'eneric and non - 'eneric

0. specific and non - specific >. definite and non-definite Beneric;non-'eneric reference 8oun phrases are 'eneric hen they refer to a class as a hole: Dogs make good pets. They are non-'eneric hen they refer to individual members of the class: 6ring in the dogs. #or 'eneric reference, the distinction bet een sin'ular and plural is neutrali4ed, and so is the distinction bet een the definite and indefinite articles. )n their 'eneric use, all of the follo in' are rou'hly similar in meanin': ABC )n )merican works hard. ADC )mericans work hard. AEC The )merican works hard. AFC The )mericans work hard. <ependin' on the contrast, .>/ and .H/ can also be interpreted non-'enerically to refer to individual &mericans. peci!ic6non&speci!ic re!erence 8oun phrases are specific hen they refer to some particular person, place, thin', etc. )n .*/ an &ustralian refers to a specific person $even if un(no n to the spea(er%: .*/ Patrick has married an )ustralian . $some &ustralian% )n .J/, on the other hand, an &ustralian does not refer to a specific person: .J/ Patrick would not dream of marrying an )ustralian . $any &ustralian% 6entence .7/ is ambi'uous bet een the t o interpretations: .7/ Patrick intends to marry an )ustralian . )t may mean that 9atric( has a specific person in mind $perhaps un(no n to the spea(er%, or that he has the ambition to marry someone from &ustralia thou'h he has nobody in mind at present. &s e ill shortly see, both the indefinite article a and the definite article the are readily available for specific reference. #or non-specific reference, indefinite a is usual but definite the also occurs: .8/ Patrick intends to marry the first )ustralian he meets. Beneric reference is al ays non-specific. 6ome non-'eneric reference may also be non-specific, as in .J/ and .8/. 1e!inite6inde!inite re!erence The definite article the is used to si'nal that a noun phrase is definite. 8oun phrases are definite hen they are intended to convey enou'h information to identify hat they refer to. )f they are not so intended, they are indefinite. The identification may come from several sources: +. The phrase refers to somethin' uni5uely identifiable by the spea(er and hearer from their 'eneral (no led'e or from their (no led'e of the particular situation: the sun; the sea ; the hurch The *rime 'inister is speaking on the radio this evening. ) must feed the dog . The door is locked. The !oss wants you.

0. The phrase may refer to somethin' mentioned previously: $ancy introduced me to a young man and his wife at the reception. The young man was her nephew. &t the first mention of the young man, the sentence refers to him by the indefinite phrase a youn' man . >. The information may be identified by modifiers in the noun phrase: ) wonder whether you would mind getting for me the !lue !ook on the top shelf 8oun phrases may be definite even thou'h they are not introduced by the definite article. #or example, in a particular situation, personal pronouns $), you, etc.% and names are uni5uely identifiable and so are the demonstrative pronouns. !ther determiners, such as the demonstrative determiners, may also si'nal that the noun phrase is definite. 5.27 @re&determiners There can also be pre-determiners before the central determiners. These include the multipliers $ double , twice , three times , . . . % and the fractions $half , one-third,...%: dou!le her fee half a loaf They also include the ords all , both , such , and what : all the stations !oth our children such a 0oke what a good idea These can also occur ithout a central determiner: all stations !oth children such 0okes Such is exceptional in that it can combine ith other pre-determiners $ all such 0okes % and can come after a central determiner $no such 0okes % and even a post- determiner $many such 0okes %. 5.3= @ost&determiners 9ost-determiners can come after the central determiners. They include the cardinal numerals and the ordinal numerals: the three rooms our first apartment They also include many, few, and little: my many good friends the few possessions that he owned the little money that ) have The ordinal and cardinal numerals can co-occur: the first two weeks The post-determiners can occur ithout other determiners: #e has few vices. 7e saw two accidents on our way here. 5.31 $UA8B8$;8:

Classes o! au"iliaries &uxiliaries come before the main verb in a verb phrase. The primary auxiliaries are be, have, and do. They are different from each other and from the other auxiliaries. Their uses are: +. be for $a% the pro'ressive : was playing $b% the passive : was played 0. have for the perfect : has played >. do as the dummy operator : did play The remainin' auxiliaries are the modal au"iliaries or, more simply, the modals. The central modals are: present can may ill shall must past could mi'ht ould should Li(e other verbs, most of the modals have a tense distinction bet een present and past $the exception bein' must%, but the past forms are often used for present or future time: 7e may/might come along after dinner. ) can/could help you later. 5.32 0eanings o! the modals The modals express t o main types of meanin': +. human control over events, such as is involved in permission, intention, ability, or obli'ation: %ou may leave now. $2) 'ive you permission to . . .3% ) could speak =reek when ) was young. $2) (ne ho to . . .3% %ou must go to bed at once. $2) re5uire you to . . .3% 0. jud'ment hether an event as, is, or ill be li(ely to happen: "hey may be away for the weekend. $2)t is possible that they are . . .3% "hat could be your mother. $2)t is possible that it is . . .3% )t must be past midnight. $2)t is certainly the case that it is . . .3% 5.33 Con4unctions There are t o classes of conjunctions: +. coordinatin' conjunctions , or coordinators 0. subordinatin' conjunctions , or subordinators The central coordinators are and, or, and but. They are used to lin( units of e5ual status: ) en0oy novels and short stories best of all ) can and will speak@ "he device seals a plastic shopping bag and equips it with a handle. %ou may pay by cash or credit card. #e was apologetic !ut he refused to intervene. The coordinators may be reinforced by correlative expressions: both ... and ; either ... or ; not only ... but also > !oth Susan and her brother either tea or coffee ot only was the speech uninspiring, !ut it was also full of illogical statements. The mar'inal coordinator nor may be reinforced by the correlative neither: ) have neither seen the movie nor read the book.

6ubordinators introduce subordinate clauses: "he negotiations succeeded !ecause both sides bargained in good faith. #f you like the service, tell the manager. 7ere are some common subordinators: after although before if unless till while where as since until because that when

6ome subordinators consist of more than one ord: e.cept that and as long as, for example. 6ome ords are both subordinators and prepositions. )f the subordinator" if it introduces a phrase, it is a preposition: su%ordinator preposition ) saw her after ) had my interview. ) saw her after the interview. ord introduces a finite clause, it is a

5.3# @repositions @repositions introduce a prepositional phrase, and are follo ed by a prepositional complement. The preposition lin(s the complement to some other expression. )f it lin(s the complement to the rest of the sentence or clause, the prepositional phrase may be placed in any of various positions: 7e had an argument in the supermarket. &ll the members of the team, in my view, contributed equally to the victory. +y that time ) was feeling sleepy. )t may also lin( the complement to a phrase: #e became personal assistant to the managing director of the company. "he government suppressed all information a!out the epidemic. 7ere are some common prepositions: about across before belo durin' from over since until ith above after behind beside for in past than up ithout a'ainst bet een inside throu'h amon'$st% but into till around by off to as despite on to ard$s% at do n out under

,any of the ords listed here may also be used as adverbs or conjunctions. 6ome prepositions consist of more than one ord" for example, because of , in spite of , in addition to . She looks nice to me. She looks nicely at me.

:A:;C8 : Axercise *.+ 8oun suffixes Convert the follo in' ords into nouns by addin' noun suffixes and ma(in' any other conse5uent chan'es. 6ome ords may ta(e more than one noun suffix. +. perform >. conceive *. construct 0. able H. spea( LAxercise *.0 8oun classes Construct t o sentences for each of the follo in' nouns. Ise the noun in the $a% sentence as a count noun and the noun in the $b% sentence as a non-count noun. +. beer >. sound *. paper 0. beauty H. su'ar Axercise *.> 8umber 6upply the plural form for each of the sin'ular nouns listed belo . +. analysis >. criterion 0. thief H. deer

*. stimulus

Axercise *.H <ependent and independent 'enitives 6pecify hether the underlined 'enitives are dependent or independent by puttin' 2<3 or 2)3 in the brac(ets that follo each 'enitive. +. )n a recent poll H8 per cent of &mericans thou'ht that Mapan3s $ % economy is bi''er than &merica3s $ %. 0. The =ritish 'overnment3s $ % N*: billion sale of state-o ned housin' is 'oin' at a snail3s $ % pace. LAxercise *.* <ependent and independent 'enitives Construct t o sentences for each of the follo in' 'enitives. Ise the 'enitive in the $a% sentence as a dependent 'enitive and in the $b% sentence as an independent 'enitive. +. the nei'hbours3 0. Dussia3s Axercise *.J Oerb suffixes Convert the follo in' ords into verbs by addin' verb suffixes and ma(in' any conse5uent chan'es. 6ome ords may ta(e more than one verb suffix. +. real >. ripe 0. hyphen H. mar'in Axercise *.7 Classes of irre'ular verbs Bive the three principal parts for each of these irre'ular verbs. +. 'ro >. drive 0. put H. send

*. brea(

Axercise *.8 &djective suffixes Convert the follo in' ords into adjectives by addin' adjective suffixes and ma(in' any conse5uent chan'es. 6ome ords may have more than one adjective suffix. +. style >. ish *. care 0. cycle H. aller'y LAxercise *.K &djective classes

Construct three sentences for each of the follo in' central adjectives. Ise the adjective in the $a% sentence as a pre-modifier of a noun, in the $b% sentence as a subject complement, and in the $c% sentence as an object complement. +. useful 0. foolish >. difficult Axercise *.+: Bradability and comparison Bive the inflected comparative and superlative of each of these adjectives. +. pure >. easy *. happy 0. cruel H. narro *.+> &dverb suffixes Convert the follo in' ords into adverbs by addin' - ly or - ically and ma(in' any conse5uent chan'es. +. 'enetic >. la4y 0. realistic H. specific Axercise *.+H 9ronoun classes Circle the antecedents of the underlined pronouns and possessive determiners. +. 6cientists have discovered that pets have a therapeutic effect on their o ners. 0. & do', for instance, can improve the health of the people it comes in contact ith. >. )n a recent study, the blood pressure of subjects as measured hile they ere pettin' their pets. H. )n 'eneral, an individual3s blood pressure decreased hile he as in the act of pettin' his pet. Axercise *.+* 9ersonal pronouns 6pecify the person $first, second, or third%, number $sin'ular or plural%, and case $subjective or objective% of the underlined personal pronouns. )f the pronoun has a form that neutrali4es the distinction in number or case, state the alternatives, and if only one of the alternatives fits the context underline that alternative. +. ,ost of us don3t have the time to exercise for an hour each day. 0. We have our hearts in the ri'ht place, thou'h. >. ) thin( 2diet3 is a sinister ord. H. )t sounds li(e deprivation. *. =ut people ho need to lose ei'ht find that they need to lose only half the ei'ht if they exercise re'ularly. Axercise *.+J 9ossessives )ndicate hether the underlined ords are possessive determiners or possessive pronouns. +. Can you tell me your addressP 0. 1ou3ve made a mista(e. The phone number is not his. >. This is <oris and this is her husband <avid. H. Mustin borro ed one of my videos, but ) can3t remember its title. Axercise *.+7 Deflexive pronouns #ill in each blan( ith the appropriate reflexive pronoun. +. We con'ratulated QQQQQQQQQQQQ on completin' the job in 'ood time. 0. ) QQQQQQQQQQQQ have arran'ed the meetin'. >. ) onder, Tom, hether you ouldn3t mind helpin' QQQQQQQQQQQQ. H. ) hope that you all enjoy QQQQQQQQQQQQ. Axercise *.+8 <emonstrative pronouns 6pecify hether the underlined ord is a demonstrative pronoun or a demonstrative determiner. +. This happens to be the best meal )3ve eaten in 5uite a lon' time. 0. 9ut a ay those papers.

>. That is not the ay to do it. H. 1ou3ll have to mana'e ith these for the time bein'. Axercise *.+K Delative pronouns )ndicate hether the underlined clause is a relative clause or a nominal relative clause. +. We could see hoever e anted. 0. They spo(e to the official ho as or(in' on their case. >. This is the ban( )3m hopin' to borro some money from. H. 1ou can pay hat you thin( is appropriate. Axercise *.0: 9ronouns )ndicate hether the underlined pronouns are personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, reciprocal, interro'ative, relative, or indefinite. +. 8obody has ever seen a unicorn. 0. ) intend to collect beetles. >. What do you ant me to doP H. 7e can resist everythin' except temptation. *. 6he did it all by herself. Axercise *.0+ )ndefinite pronouns )ndicate hether the underlined determiners are definite articles, indefinite articles, demonstratives, possessives, interro'atives, relatives, or indefinites. +. 7is parents ould not let him see the video. 0. ,any applicants ere 'iven an intervie . >. Whose shoes are thoseP H. What plans have you made for the ee(endP Axercise *.00 The articles and reference )ndicate hether the underlined phrases are 'eneric or non-'eneric. +. There is no such beast as a unicorn. 0. The train is late a'ain. >. The dinosaur has lon' been extinct. H. Teachers are poorly paid in this country. *. 7e came on a small mar(et here omen ere sellin' dried beans. Axercise *.0> The articles and reference )ndicate hether the underlined phrases are specific or non-specific. +. Can you find me a boo( on An'lish 'rammarP 0. 7ere is a boo( on An'lish 'rammar. >. )3d li(e a stra berry ice cream. H. 7e says he hasn3t any stamps. *. Who is the oman you ere tal(in' to at lunchP Axercise *.0H ,eanin's of the modals 9araphrase the meanin's of the underlined modals in the sentences belo . +. )f you hit volleys li(e this you ill have lots of success. 0. )n addition to the basic volley, you may have to play half-volleys. >. )f played badly, a half-volley can have drastic conse5uences. H. The 'rip must be firm on impact. *. &lthou'h you can use a t o-handed volley, the major disadvanta'e is one of reach.

LAxercise *.0* ,eanin's of the modals Axplain the ambi'uity of the underlined modals in the follo in' sentences by paraphrasin' the different meanin's. +. They may not smo(e durin' the meal. 0. Could you explain these fi'ures to the tax inspectorP LAxercise *.0J Conjunctions Axamine the sentences belo . Then explain the differences in the uses of the coordinators $ and and or% and the subordinator hen +. The election as held last month, and the 'overnment as decisively defeated. 0. The election ill be held in Mune or in Muly. >. ) intend to travel here ) li(e and hen ) li(e. Axercise *.0J 9repositions )ndicate hether the underlined ords are subordinators or prepositions by puttin' 263 or 293 in the brac(ets that follo each ord. While $ % he developed the theory of special relativity in $ % about +K:*, &lbert Ainstein lived ith $ % a fello student of physics ho became his first ife. 6ome researchers believe that $ % his ife ,ileva should 'et at least some of the credit for $ % the theory, since $ % there are letters from $ % Ainstein to her that refer to 2our or(3 and 2our theory3. Axercise *.07 Word classes &t the end of each sentence you ill find a label for a ord class. Inderline all the ords in the sentence that belon' to that ord class. +. )t is remar(ably difficult to define hat literature is. ? main verb 0. 6ome definitions of literature say that it is lan'ua'e used for ma(in' fiction. ? noun >. !ther definitions say that it is lan'ua'e used for the purpose of pleasin' aesthetically. ? preposition H. 7o ever, some critics have sho n convincin'ly that the t o definitions are necessarily connected. ? adverbs