Reconstructing Benue-Congo Person Marking I: Proto-Bantoid Kirill V. Babaev

RECONSTRUCTING BENUE-CONGO PERSON MARKING I: PROTO-BANTOID Kirill V.
Babaev Center of Comparative Studies, Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow babaev@yandex.ru
This paper is the first part of the comp ex comparative research of systems of persona pronouns and person mar!ers in "enue#Con$o an$ua$es. %t aims at conductin$ a detai ed ana ysis of the systems of person mar!in$ in "antu and "antoid an$ua$es, and reconstructin$ the &roto#"antoid system of person mar!in$, a necessary step for achievin$ the &roto#"enue# Con$o reconstruction. This wi cover both the persona pronouns, and verba and nomina person affixes. 'xistin$ hypotheses wi be verified and new ones wi be proposed for the ways of transformation of the ori$ina person mar!in$ system into the systems of the present#day an$ua$es of the fami y. Cet artic e est a premi(re partie de a recherche comp exe comparative des syst(mes des pronoms persone s et mar)ues de personne en an$ues "enue#Con$o. *+artic e a un ob,ectif de conduire une ana yse d-tai -e des syst(mes des mar)ues persone es en an$ues "antoues et "anto.des, et puis de reconstruire e syst(me des mar)ues persone es pour "anto.de commune, un pas n-cessaire pour arriver / a reconstruction "enue#Con$o commune. Ce va courir tous es deux es pronoms personne s independants, et es mar)ues de personne nomina es et verba es. *es hypoth(ses existant vont 0tre v-rifi-es, et es id-es nouve es vont 0tre propos-es pour es routes de transformation du syst(me ori$ine e dans es syst(mes des an$ues de a fami e du present.
1. %2TR34UCT%32 The $enetic re ationship between the an$ua$es of the 2i$er#Con$o 52C6 fami y was first proposed by 7estermann 589:;6 and ater verified by <reenber$ 589=>6. %t is somewhat pecu iar that the hypothesis ca ed ?2i$er#@ordofanian+ by <reenber$ was positive y accepted by the mainstream in$uistics and is sti considered va id despite its very ow, a most intuitive, eve of re iab e reconstruction. The 2C stoc! of an$ua$es shou d rather be named a macrofami y, on a par with the other three ma,or an$ua$e phy a of Africa and some of these in 'urasia 5inc udin$ 2ostratic6 bein$ o der than 81,111 years of a$e, thou$h it+s hard to identify its a$e more exact y 52urse :11;B :CD6. Some present#day ?strict+ comparativists sti )uestion its va idityB Campbe 5899EB >8:#>8>6 identified it as an Funconfirmed proposa of distant $enetic re ationshipG, and 4ixon 5899;6 re$arded it a typo o$ica unity rather than a $enetic one. <iven a $reat chrono o$ica depth of 2C or other macrofami ies of the simi ar a$e, we cannot expect its $enetic unity to be proven as strict y as we can provide it for Semitic or %ndo#'uropean. However, the critics are a so encoura$ed by the absence of the comparative $rammar of the 2C an$ua$es. %t is an amaHement that today, fourty years after <reenber$+s appeared, the state of comparative research in 2C remains inade)uate. The macrofami y consists of a number of rather disparate fami ies who are themse ves very o d and whose comparative research is sti in pro$ress, often far from any conc usive resu ts. The situation is comp icated by the ac! of effort. AmaHin$ y few peop e around the wor d dedicate their studies to the comparative reconstruction of 2C. As a resu t, very few re iab e comparative wor!s appear. The most recent attempt of compi in$ an
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Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6
etymo o$ica dictionary of 2i$er#Con$o was made by Mu!arovs!y 589;=#89;;68, over thirty years a$o. %n the 2C in$uistics, we ac! a $enera $rammatica overview of the proto# an$ua$e, or a basic system of phonetic correspondences so id y verified by a the stoc!s of the fami y. A paradox situation we are facin$ where the $enetic re ation of the an$ua$es of this hu$e fami y is admitted itera y ad hoc. This situation must be chan$ed in order to stren$then the foundation of the 2C hypothesis, and this shou d be done by means of the strict comparative method. %n the African in$uistics of the past century, a number of ess re iab e methods were used to reach conc usions about the prehistory of the continent+s an$ua$es, which has a ways been under critica fire. A $ood description of most of these methods is found in 53 son :11C6, and we can on y brief y rete it here. The ear iest, and probab y the east re iab e of them was the typo o$ica method which aimed at proposin$ an$ua$e affinities accordin$ to their typo o$ica characteristics. However, this has been so id y proven to be unre iab e, since phonetic features, morpho o$ica and syntactic structures can easi y arise in a an$ua$e due to re$iona inf uences and outer borrowin$:. Usin$ this method in morpho o$y, inc udin$ person mar!in$, wi definite y ead us nowhere, since the paradi$matic systems of this part of morpho o$y vary $reat y in 2C, sometimes even within one $roup of dia ects. *ater, the method of ?mass+ or ?mu ti atera + comparison was introduced by <reenber$ 589DD6 in order to initia y approach the comparison between various an$ua$es, intuitive y fe t as $enetica y re ated. Thou$h it is by no means a re iab e weapon either, <reenber$ and his fo owers have a ways admitted it cou d not be used exc usive y, and that its resu t wou d a ways re)uire verification by means of the comparative method. The ?mass comparison+ or ?resemb ance+ was exact y the way the ideas on &roto#2C morpho o$y are usua y su$$ested, and this is fu y understandab e, since the wor! in this fie d is sti at a very ear y sta$e. And thou$h it+s probab y hi$h time to deepen it, ?resemb ance+ wi sti be used in this paper as the initia method of bui din$ hypotheses, to be chec!ed by comparative method where possib e. The third instrument in use in African in$uistics has been the method of exicostatistics with the resu tin$ $ ottochrono o$ica ca cu ations, a widespread too for constructin$ c assification tab es for 2C an$ua$es and beyond. %t has been wide y criticised on the $enera eve , most recent y and effective y in 5Campbe L &oser :11E6, but sti remains a basis for many conc usions on fami y trees of the African an$ua$es. *exicostatistics is c ear y not app icab e for the comparison and reconstruction of person mar!in$, but its resu ts in c assification wi be attracted. The main method we wi be tryin$ to adhere to throu$hout the present wor! is the ?c assica + comparative method. Traditiona y, it is based on the se)uence of techni)ues eadin$ to the reconstruction of the proto# an$ua$eB 86 comparin$ exemes and morphemes c ose both in form and meanin$M :6 bui din$ the system of re$u ar phonetic correspondencesM >6 reconstructin$ the proto# an$ua$e systemM and C6 reconstructin$ the paths of transformation from the proto# an$ua$e to the historica y witnessed ton$ues of the fami y. 7e wi a so see! to extract morpho o$ica innovations of the certain proto# an$ua$e eve s and borrowed morphemes which are found here and there and are sometimes possib e to trac!.
Mu!arovs!y+s wor! was based on the fami y he himse f defined as ?7est 2i$ritic+, now !nown as At antic#Con$o, i.e. 2i$er#Con$o ess @ordofanian. : However, note the recent defence of the typo o$ica method in the c assification of "enue#@wa in 5Manfredi :1196.
"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid
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The morpho o$y of 2C has been the sub,ect of a number of successfu comparative research wor!s. The issue which attracted more attention than any others is the noun c ass system 57e mers 89;8M 4e 7o f 89;8M Meeussen 89;=M <reenber$ 89;;M 4emuth L a . 89ED, 89E=6. 3ther morpho o$y issues ana ysed so far in substantia detai are numera s, verb extensions 5Hyman :11;6, and verba tense N aspect N moda ity mar!ers. These wor!s proved that the reconstruction of morpho o$ica e ements can be successfu for 2C on the current eve of !now ed$e and research. The tas! of reconstructin$ the &roto#2C person mar!in$ is one of the important parts of this. The system of persona pronouns is one of the e ements wide y used to substantiate $enetic re ationships between the an$ua$es a over the wor d. Moreover, persona pronouns be on$ to the basic exicon of any an$ua$e and are preserved for a on$er period than the ma,ority of nomina or verba exemes. &ronouns and persona affixes act within a paradi$m, and findin$ co$nate paradi$ms in two an$ua$es is a so id proof of their $enetic re ationshipB it is !nown that an$ua$es borrow persona pronouns )uite re uctant y, but a most never borrow the who e paradi$ms, with maybe ,ust a few examp es of such a borrowin$ throu$hout the an$ua$es of the wor d. The reconstruction of persona mar!ers of &roto#2C cou d seem virtua y impossib e a few decades a$o when the data was sti extreme y scarce for the ma,ority of stoc!s in sub#Saharan Africa. 2owadays the state of our !now ed$e is much better. %n the recent decades, the ma,ority of scho ars in African in$uistics devoted their effort to synchronic descriptions of an$ua$es. These years a owed to co ect a hu$e amount of data which can be proper y ana ysed with a much hi$her eve of probabi ity whi e reconstructin$ the proto# an$ua$e forms. This wor! has a ready proceeded to $reat endeavours in some 2C branch in$uistics. &roto#"antu person mar!in$ has been researched deep y startin$ from 89=1+sM more recent y, a &roto#@ordofanian system was proposed by Schadeber$ 589E86, whi e "oyd 589E96 did the same for &roto#<ur#Adamaua. There are $ood reconstructions of &roto#%,oid 57i iamson, forthcomin$6 and &roto#Uban$i 5MoniOo 899D6. %n :11C, ?Syst(mes de mar)ues persone es en Afri)ue+ was pub ishedB it contained exce ent reconstructions for &roto#<ur 5Miehe :11C6 and &roto#At antic 5&oHdnia!ov L Se$erer :11C6. Pina y, Kydrin 5:11=6 presented a paper on &roto#South#Mande pronouns. 3bvious y, however, not a the branches of 2C have so far en,oyed attention, and the ar$est of them is "enue#Con$o. 3ur tas! is to fi this $ap, by ana ysin$ one by one a subbranches of the "enue#Con$o an$ua$e fami y and thus reachin$ the &"C eve of reconstruction. The sections of the paper wi be structured accordin$ to the fo owin$ pattern. 8. <enera description of the stoc!. :. %nterna c assification. >. Survey of comparative research to date. C. Current state of reconstruction of the proto# an$ua$e phonetic system. D. Current state of person mar!in$ reconstruction. =. Reconstruction of the proto# an$ua$e person mar!in$ system. %t must be noted that here, as it is wide y accepted in comparative in$uistics, we omit the ana ysis of the third person pronouns. As we as in many other an$ua$es of the wor d, in "enue#Con$o they have syntax and ori$ins which are different from those of the 8st and the :nd person pronouns 5ca ed ? ocutors+6, and therefore a different destiny, which "enveniste 589;86 once ca ed ?non#person+ and which is now more
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often ca ed ?non# ocutor+, the view supported in African in$uistics by Creisse s 5899>6. They are actin$ much c oser in the nomina domain, usin$ c ass a$reement and other nomina features. Moreover, in 2i$er#Con$o they often carry distinct si$ns of their comparative y recent ori$in from nouns or demonstrative pronounsB cf. Qande h ?it+ R h ?thin$+, ! ?he+ R " #$V%V ?man+ 5STUVWX :11EB 81C#81D6M the Rin$ an$ua$es of <rassfie ds "antu have deve oped new >rd person pronouns usin$ the demonstratives ?this N these+ 5Hyman, p.c.6. 7ithin the paradi$m of pronouns, however, the >rd person mar!ers can undoubted y inf uence their ?nei$hbours+ so we mi$ht attract the >rd person data from time to time within the framewor! of the paradi$matic approach. "enue#Con$o, the unity of a number of an$ua$e stoc!s of 2i$eria and 2orthwest Cameroon attracted scientific attention of in$uists startin$ from the ear y twentieth century. These were the an$ua$es which Iohnston 58989#::6 unified under the term ?Semi#"antu+ meanin$ a variety of dia ects some of which were stri!in$ y simi ar to "antu but considered by then $enetica y unre ated. Iohnston provided the first c assification of his ?Semi#"antu+ which aid foundation for a ater research. A few years ater, 7estermann 589:;6 specified Iohnston+s scheme and a so noted the intermediary $enetic position of ?Semi#"antu+ between "antu and other 2C an$ua$es, which he then ca ed 7est Sudanic. Pina y, it was <reenber$ 589=>6 who proposed the c assification c ose to the present y accepted oneB he put "antu as a sub$roup within "enue#Con$o rather then next to it. 3f a the 2C an$ua$es, the "enue#Con$o stoc! of fami ies ma!es near y two thirds in the tota number of an$ua$es 59=8 out of 8D8C>6. The p ace of "enue#Con$o within the 2C macrofami y proposed by <reenber$ was recent y ,ustified by 7i iamson L " ench 5:111B 8E6, which is universa y considered re ative y accurate 5Schadeber$ :11>B 8DC#8DD6. An updated detai ed picture was recent y pub ished by <ui aume Se$erer 5:11E6 and wi be used as a basic c assification in our present wor!.
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Hereinafter, numbers of an$ua$es are $iven accordin$ to 'thno o$ue YhttpBNNwww.ethno o$ue.comZ. However, the exact numbers for the 2C macrofami y are )uite hard to te for sure, since there is sti no precise ine between a an$ua$e and a dia ect, either in the 2C or in in$uistics in $enera .
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4ia$ram 8 Ni&er-C!'&! @ordofanian At antic#Con$o At antic %,o#Con$o %,oid 4o$on#Con$o 4o$on Ko ta#Con$o "enue#@wa @ru Senufo[ <ur#Adamaua <ur Adamaua Uban$i @wa Be'(e-C!'&! Mande
3ne of the !ey issues of the externa c assification of "enue#Con$o was the re ation between "enue#Con$o and @wa )uestioned by "ennett L Ster! 589;;6. Usin$ extensive exicostatistics and providin$ a number of exica innovations, they su$$ested to inc ude 'astern @wa an$ua$es into ?2ew+ "enue#Con$o, thus addin$ such an$ua$es as 2upoid, %domoid, \oruboid, and %$boid 5a to$ether named as 'ast "enue#Con$o6 into the atter. The boundary between the two fami ies was discussed then at a number of events and in various artic es, so nowadays it seems to be a$reed fina y accordin$ to the ?2ew+ "enue#Con$o approach. However, the prob em of "enue#Con$o prehistory remains an issue because, as 7i iamson 589E96 noticed, there is not a sin$ e exica item which may definite y be ca ed a "enue#Con$o exica innovation, and those proposed ear ier appear to have co$nates outside it. Those which were proposed by "ennett L Ster! and 7i iamson, as she admitted herse f, are never found in a the sub$roups of the fami y. The conc usion made by 7i iamson 589E9B :=9#:;16 was that F&roto#"enue#Con$o existed as a sin$ e an$ua$e... for a very short period of timeG, if existed at a . %t be$an to disso ve a most immediate y, so a the innovations too! p ace in different dia ects or $roups of dia ects, which have then existed for a on$ time in iso ation. *ess important for &"C reconstruction, but a so )uite substantia are the issues of the fami y+s interna c assification. Sti under discussion, as we show be ow, is the boundary between "antu proper and "antoid, or ?7ide "antu+ an$ua$es. %t is now common y accepted that the Cross River an$ua$es are the c osest to "antoid, however, it remains sti rather unc ear whether the common ?"enue#Cross+ or ?"antoid#Cross+ proto# an$ua$e existed. There are a number of disputed areas on the boundaries between the stoc!s, especia y re$ardin$ the so ca ed ?Centra 2i$erian+ an$ua$es of
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& ateau, @ain,i and Iu!unoid fami ies. However, as a ot of new materia s appear about the an$ua$es of the area, the precise composition and number of subbranches of "enue#Con$o is becomin$ c earer. The atest c assification was presented in 57i iamson L " ench :1116 and further adapted in sti unpub ished 5" ench :11C6. This is based on vast data ana ysed by the two authors and seems re iab e to date. Accordin$ to it, the "enue#Con$o an$ua$e fami y is $enera y divided into two ma,or branches, which in their turn inc ude ten stoc!s and three apparent y iso ated ton$ues. 4ia$ram : Be'(e-C!'&! 7est 'doid %$boid 4efoid '!peye %$bo 4e ta 2C 27 S7 2upoid 3!o 'bira#<ade 2upe#<ba$yi A!weya \atye#A!pa A!o!oid \oruboid 'de!iri %$a a A!pes 7est 'ast "antoid Cross River A umic Ayu "endi 4e ta Cross "eromic Centra Centra 4e ta Hyamic 3$oni 2inHic *ower Cross Southeast Upper Cross South Taro!oid Toro 7est 2orth U!aan @ain,i %domoid & atoid 'ast Iu!unoid "ete Centra \u!uben#@uteb
"auchi#<urmana 4u!a @ain,i *a!e @ambari @amu!u Reshe "asa
The home and of the "enue#Con$o proto# an$ua$e seems to have been situated somewhere around the mouth of the "enue river 57i iamson 89E9B :;:6, where its spea!ers diver$ed from the previous an$ua$e unity over =,111 years a$o 57i iamson 89EEB 81C6. The "enue#Con$o an$ua$es border with their distant %,oid re atives in the 2i$er de ta in the south, with @wa, <ur and some Mande in the west, with Chadic in the north 5note occasiona Chadic enc aves in centra 2i$eria6, with Adamaua in the northeast. The hu$e "antu an$ua$e area stretches ri$ht to the southern ed$e of the continent. &robab y the most in$uistica y diverse district ies a few doHen !i ometers
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southwest of the conf uence of the 2i$er and the "enue, to the west of city of 3!ene. Here, an$ua$es of at east three branches 54efoid, 2upoid, 'doid6 and three iso ates 53!o, U!aan, and A!pes6 are spo!en. This wou d serve a nice ocation for a home and. Most $enera wor!s on "enue#Con$o 57i iamson 89;8, 89E9M Coo! 89;8M "ennett L Ster! 89;;M " ench 89E96 are devoted to the issues of the fami y+s c assification rather than to the comparative ana ysis. There have been a few attempts to reconstruct the "enue#Con$o proto# an$ua$e, even despite its dubious nature as noted above. 4e 7o f 589;8B D86 proposed the reconstructed phonetic system of what is now ca ed 7est "enue#Con$o. However, as " ench 5:11C6 ,ust y notes, he $ave itt e ,ustification for his reconstructions. At the same time, " ench himse f proposes a phonetic system of &"C, which at present is the on y reference of the !ind, $iven be ow. 4ifferent from that of 4e 7o f+s, it contains more affricates, fricatives and imp osives, and treats the "enue#Con$o voca ic system as ?;K+, instead of ?DK+ of 4e 7o f. 586 ConsonantsB
5:6
Kowe sB
5Prom " ench :11C.6 Most of "enue#Con$o an$ua$es represent deve oped tona systems, which presupposes the same for &"C. The exact number and features of this system are yet to be reconstructed, but most widespread structure contains three basic tonesB hi$h 5]6, ow 5^6 and midd e, not mar!ed in this paper. There is sti no systematic reconstruction of the &"C morpho o$y to date, thou$h )uite a number of comparative wor!s are avai ab e on its certain branches 5those wi be treated be ow6. Koorhoeve L 4e 7o f 589=96 and 4e 7o f a one 589;86 presented a $ood reconstructed noun c ass system. 7e are not aware of any reconstructions of &"C pronouns or sub,ect mar!ers. Pina y, a thou$h we sti ac! a comparative etymo o$ica dictionary for the fami y, the two#vo umed "enue#Con$o Comparative 7ord ists 57i iamson L ShimiHu 89=EM 7i iamson 89;>6 were a $reat step towards it, as we as the 7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets 5@ropp 4a!ubu 89;=#89E16, a so a va uab e comp ement for both morpho o$ica and exica data on "enue#Con$o.
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7e wi now $o throu$h the ma,or branches of the "enue#Con$o an$ua$e fami y, $atherin$ and systematisin$ data to contribute to the conc usive ob,ectives of this paper. 8. &R3T3#"A2TU. "antu an$ua$es which are a part of the "antoid stoc!, are most numerous 5D8> an$ua$esC6 within the "enue#Con$o fami y and have been studied very we over the ast 8D1 years. A number of detai ed reconstructions for the &" pronomina system have been proposed in the recent fourty years, and there is not much we can do to contribute here but to compare our own ana ysis with the most credib e of the existin$ reconstructions and to $enerate a subse)uent su$$estion of the consensus version. <reenber$+s view on the home and of "antu 5<reenber$ 89;:B 89:6 is more or ess accepted nowadaysB this shou d have been the midd e "enue river va ey in 'astern 2i$eria. The picture of deeper dia ecta diversity which is observed in this area is one of the proofs of this hypothesis. The mi$ration of the "antu communities must have started from this area around D,111 years a$o and directed eastwards. They went out of the rainforest to the savannas of the <reat *a!es re$ion around >,111 or :,D11 years a$o, and the extreme y wide subse)uent mi$ration caused by the invention of iron wor!in$ around in the acustrine area most y went in the southern direction, to reach extreme South Africa before D11 A4 5Kansina 8991B C9#DCM 'hret 899EM 2urse L &hi ippson :11>B 8=DM 2urse :11;B >=;#>=96. Since <uthrie+s fundamenta c assification of the "antu an$ua$es first de ivered in 589CE6 and in fina detai in 589=;#89;8, vo . >B 88#8D6, there have been numerous attempts to modify the proposed structure, but the ori$ina one with sma modification is sti in wider use 5Maho :11>6. %t is usua y said that <uthrie+s c assification into 8D Hones and EC $roups contains itt e historica va idity, which is in fact admitted by the author himse f who mentioned that his structure is more of a referentia use, than of a historica nature. As for the historica imp ication, the atest attempts of interna $enetic c assification were underta!en by 'hret 5899EM 8999B C;#D>6, the Tervuren $roup 5"astin L a . 8999B 8:D#8:96, and 2urse L &hi ippson 5:11>B 8;>#8;96. They are based on both exica $roupin$ 5the Tervuren $roup extensive y used exicostatistics6 and the ana ysis of innovations in morpho o$y. They on y more or ess a$ree that the 2orthwestern an$ua$es of the "antu area, comprised 5most y6 of A, " and C $roups, with sometimes a contribution from northern H and others, shou d be emphasiHed as the first $roup to fa apart &". *ater subdivisions of the remainin$ stoc! 5one of them ca ed Savanna "antu6 are sti under discussion. Therefore, the on y subc assification feature that oo!s re iab e by now is the division between 2orthwestern 5Hones A, ", C6 and other "antu an$ua$es. The phonetic system of &" as it was posited by Meeussen 589=;6 and ,ustified by Hyman 5:11>B C:6 and Schadeber$ 5:11>B 8C=6 mi$ht have oo!ed the fo owin$ wayB 5>6 consonants ) * + bN. /Nl 0N1 3 ' vowels , i ( e a !
&N2
The number varies from CC1 to =E1 accordin$ to different estimations 52urse L &hi ippson :11>aB :6.
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7hat is unc ear for the consonant reconstruction, is a6 whether the second row consisted of voiced stops or continuants, and b6 whether the two pa ata s "+ and "0 were stops or affricates 5or whether they were denta "4 5 "6 at a 6. A specia set of prenasa iHed consonants is sometimes reconstructed. As for the vowe s, the ?;K+ scheme above seems to en,oy $enera consensus, with the ton$ue root position advanced in the hi$her row 5_ATR6 or retracted 5#ATR6. %t is usua y accepted a so that an$ua$es of $roups A and " modified the ori$ina &" system of phonemes )uite si$nificant y 5Hyman :11>B DE6. 7e can estimate that persona mar!ers of around :11#:D1 "antu an$ua$es have been described so far in more or ess detai , and of them, we wi use over 8D1 an$ua$es in the present wor! 5see Appendix6. The comparative wor! in this fie d to date has been however much scarcer. The first )ua ity comparative ana ysis of "antu persona mar!ers was done by " ee! 58E=:#8E=96 and ater fo owed by Torrend 58E98B 8DD#8;16 with a wider covera$e of an$ua$es. The comparative $rammar by Meinhof 5891=6 described re$u arities and pecu iarities in the system of persona pronouns and reconstructed some proto#forms, a thou$h )uite superficia y. The &" system was under the carefu oo! startin$ on y from Meeussen 589=DM 89=;6, who made an attempt to reconstruct the who e paradi$m of bound persona mar!ers of the four seriesB sub,ect, ob,ect, possessive, and stressedB Tab e 8.8 Person 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . subject "'" 7 "("*("3(object "-'"- ("-*("-3(possessive "89: "-8< "-8;=< "-8;! stressed "i; -'- "!- 7 "i; -><- "i; -<-
<uthrie 589=;#;8, vo s. >#C6 presented his reconstruction soon afterwards, brief y ana ysin$ the persona mar!ers in his ist of common "antu stems. His research, however, ac!ed a detai ed ana ysis, so he had to admit that the ma,ority of person mar!ers were ?hard to account for+. The co ection of <uthrie+s reconstructed forms is presented be ow. Tab e 8.: Person 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . subject "N?- 5 "N@"FE"LFE"CFEobject "-GFE-"-LKE"-CKEpossessive "-AAG-B "-CDE "-HI "-MNLKE "-MNOKE independent "JKEI
The reconstruction of the bound verba persona mar!er paradi$m, in a rather $enera form, was su$$ested by Schadeber$ 5:11>B 8D86. He does not consider independent pronouns nor possessive formsB
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Tab e 8.> Person 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . subject "N"-"*-"3-object "-N"- -"-*P"-3P-
Pina y, the atest research which contributed to the prob em was 2urse 5:11;B >;;6 which contains a reconstruction of sub,ect mar!ers based on an extensive database of "antu verb morphemes $athered by the author, and $enera y identica to those of the predecessorsB Tab e 8.C Person 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . subject "',"-"*-"3--
A thou$h a number of researchers described the systems of person mar!in$ in the "antu an$ua$es, there has been no specific wor! devoted to the sub,ect so far. %nterna y, there haven+t been substantia ana ysis andNor reconstruction of persona mar!ers in any sub$roups of "antu either. 3ne examp e to note here is contained in 5Hedin$er 89E;6 which is a reconstruction of the proto# an$ua$e for Manen$uba, a sma c uster of dia ects c assified as $roup A8D 5considered by many as a "antoid an$ua$e, see be ow6. To consider the ori$ins of persona mar!ers, it is essentia to ana yHe both independent pronouns and persona mar!ers of the verb to$ether, since they are very c ose y connected both $enetica y and typo o$ica y, which was observed a ready on$ a$o 57erner 8989B E=6. The "antu an$ua$es are considered as ?verby+, i.e. the verb occupies a centra position in any syntactic construction and in the morpho o$ica system in $enera 52urse L &hi ippson :11>aB E6. Thus, in the ma,ority of "antu ton$ues the person mar!er is in most cases bui t into the verba form as an affix. 2urse 5:11;B >;D6 $ives the fo owin$ structure of the verba form for &"B 5C6 &re#SM _ SM _ 2'<: _ TA _ YOM _ YYroot _ extensionZ _ PKZZ _ &ost#PKD
The sub,ect mar!er is thus prefixed to the verb root, whi e the ob,ect mar!er is fo owin$ the sub,ect prefixM it can a so be suffixed after the verb root in some "antu an$ua$es. %ndependent pronouns are most y imited to a number of syntactic positionsB in a copu a 5expressions i!e its me6, or in an emphatic position 5where it is usua y compared with Prench moi#type forms ca ed tonique or stressed6. %n the atter case they can be used to$ether with prepositions, c assifiers or as an address 5Torrend 8E98B 8=1#8=96. %n many an$ua$es of the fami y, most y but not exc usive y 7estern, prefixed mar!ers do not exist, rep aced by independent pronouns. These are most an$ua$es of
D
SM sub,ect mar!er, 2'< ne$ative, TA tense L aspect, 3M ob,ect mar!er, PK fina vowe
8C8
A#" Hones, some C and H Hone ton$ues. %n some of them, the independent pronoun is necessary to use in the phrase to$ether with the sub,ect prefix. Since the &" an$ua$e is usua y reconstructed with bound mar!ers, it is sti under discussion how to treat the independent pronouns of the 2orthwest. Meeussen 589=;6 considered &" persona mar!ers as dependent parts of an inf ectiona verba form. Therefore, independent pronouns in certain "antu ton$ues were considered by him an innovation. %t was ater su$$ested by 2urse L &hi ippson 5:11>B 8;;6 that the independent sub,ectNob,ect pronouns cou d be an area deve opment of some of the 2orthwest "antu $roups 5AC1#AE1, ":1, ";1, C:1 etc.6 accepted under the inf uence of some other ad,acent 2C an$ua$e branches. %ndeed, it is !nown that the ana ytica pattern where sub,ectNob,ect mar!ers act independent y is widespread in the so#ca ed ?Macro#Sudan be t+ from 7est Africa to 'thiopia north of the rainforest area, and the ma,ority of 2C an$ua$e fami ies share this feature, so "antu an$ua$es seem a rather rare exception 5to$ether with on y some At antic, @ordofanian, Iu!unoid and few "antoid ton$ues6 52urse :11;B :C:#:C>6. At the same time, there is an idea that "antu cou d have morpho o$ised the ori$ina y independent persona pronouns into bound verba mar!ers which was su$$ested a ready decades a$o by <iv`n 589;:6 and supported e sewhere 5abcdeWXf L gWhWiWXf 8991B 8D1#8D86, most recent y in 5<ood L <j demann :11=6. 2urse 5:11;B :C;6 sees a transition from the ana ytic to the synthetic structure in the *ate &" period, thus su$$estin$ a different one in 'ar y &". Throu$hout "antu we can identify four sets of persona mar!ersB sub,ect pronoun N verb prefix ob,ect pronoun N verb affix possessive pronoun N noun or verb suffix independent stressed 5emphatic6 sub,ect pronoun
The fo owin$ mode s are used for person mar!in$ throu$hout the fami y 5note that no tone is app ied in the chart be ow6B Tab e 8.D = 1sg. sub,ect pronoun N verb prefix N- 5 - 5 ''a- 5 'i- 5 '1i- 5 '1- 5 'e- 5 '/a5 '/i- 5 '&i- 5 '&a- 5 '&(- 5 '/Qi3 5 3i 5 3bi- 5 3R 5 3ai- 5 1i#i%- 5 e*4i- 5 i- 5 4i-'- 5 -'i- 5 -'1i5 -'&a- 5 -'&(- 5 -'&e- 5 -'/i- 5 2sg. !- 5 (- 5 S!- 5 S&!- 5 2(- 5 &h(- 5 (1pl. *i- 5 *!- 5 *(- 5 *a- 5 *- 5 /i- 5 r#i%- 5 re- 5 h#i%l!- 5 l(4- 5 R(T('#i%2pl. 3(bi- 5 b!- 5 b(- 5 i- 5 v(- 5 ('- 5 'i- 5 '!- 5 '(l!- 5 l- 5 l(!-
ob,ect pronoun N affix

=
-!- 5 #a%S 5 #a%S! 5 -2!- 5 2(- 5
-*!- 5 -*- 5 -*(-l!- 5 -l(-r#i%- 5 -re
' 5 -'!- 5 -'e 5 -'( 5 'i 5 -a'( 5
"ased on fu data of Appendix.
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-'/Qi#a%3 5 -3- 5 -3a- 5 -3i- 5 -3bi- 5 -3 -ipossessive pronoun N affix -a3#e% 5 -e3#e% 5 -3 5 -3! 5 -#a%3i -a'e 5 -a'i 5 -#a%'&( 5 -'&a 5 -'&e 5 -'&( -a Sa 5 -a ! 5 -#a% a 3 5 a3 5 a3i 5 a3e 5 i3 5 e3e 5 e3i 3e3 5 3' 5 3'i 5 3e'! 5 3e'e 5 3!'! ''e 5 ''a 5 i'i 5 e'i 5 'e'e #a%'&a 5 #a%'&e
&! 5 -#(%&Se - (- 5 - !-'e- 5 -'!- 5 -'/-
-e4 5 -i4 5 -a4! 5 -4e 5 4( -h( 5 #h%i-
-! -aSe 5 -(Se 5 -#a%S! -&S! 5 -!&e 5 -2! -!beB -aT! #a% (B - ! !Se 5 (Se 5 aSe 5 S 5 iSe 5 &S SeSe 5 S'#a%
-#a%4! 5 -4e 5 -#a%4( 5 -( 5 -i4 -a*! 5 -i* 5 -i*( 5 -e*! 5 -*h( 5 -er( 5 -ir( 5 r!-
-'1! 5 -Se 5 '('i -3(- 5 3i 5 bi -l!- 5 -l- 5 l( 5 h( -!-' 5 -i' 5 -#a%'! 5 -#%'( 5 -a#!% 5 -i( 5 -e'1( l!-
stressed 5emphatic6 pronoun
i4 5 a4 5 #i%4! 5 #e%4( 5 -#V%4Se 5 #e%4e 5 -4i4 5 4e4e 5 -4! 5 *4e hSei*( 5 i*! 5 -e*! 5 -i*h( 5 *Se#1e% hir!-
3Se 5 #i%3i a 5 i'( 5 #i%'! 5 e'( 5 -' 5 -Se 5 -'Se 5 -'1Se 5 -a'( 5 e'i 5 ee 5 -#a%'e 5 '('i h( l!-
%t is worth $oin$ throu$h the forms in the chart to catch some systematic comparative data. 1st person singular %t is obvious that the bound persona mar!er shou d be reconstructed as "i-. The pa ata character of the nasa here is seen easi y. The 8st person sin$u ar sub,ect prefix is i- in @wa!um 5A986, &unu 5"C>6, 2ande 54C:6, <usii 5'C:6, <o$o 5<886, <iton$a 5S=:6 and many othersM it has shifted to "'0i- or "'/0i- or "'/i- or "'&i- which are a o$ica descendants of a pa ata nasa . %t cou d ost pa ata isation in those an$ua$es where ' 5 are not distin$uished. Pina y, it disappears initia y 5sometimes eavin$ nasa ity to the fo owin$ vowe 6 in an$ua$es which never seem to ose the initia '5for examp e, "abo e C:1 U-6. The forms without a vowe are usua y exp ained by containin$ the we #!nown African Fhomor$anicG nasa which chan$es its phono o$ica )ua ities accordin$ to the fo owin$ consonant or other phonetic surroundin$s. %t can therefore act as denta '-B pa ata -B ve ar - or bi abia 3-. However, in the case of voca ic surroundin$ the under yin$ nasa is usua y denta or pa ata , and the same $oes for an$ua$es which contain the fo owin$ vowe -i-, there can be no "3- or "- here. So, we can ma!e a conc usion that the proto# an$ua$e consonant was more exact than ,ust an unc ear homor$anic nasa 5see 5Hyman :11>B C9#D16 for a comparison with the 9N81 c ass noun prefix "N-6. The fo owin$ vowe shou d be reconstructed as "-i-. <uthrie 589=;#;8, vo . CB :>>, :C16 reconstructs "',- or "'1- as variants of the 8st person sub,ect mar!er. Some
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voca ic shifts in the modern an$ua$es of the fami y are not yet c ear, however, the vowe chan$e 5forms i!e 'a-B 'e-6 cou d express some tenseNaspect or mood meanin$s. Porms derived from "i- are a so often used to mar! the direct ob,ect. However, they are much more rare y used as possessives or stressed pronouns. %nstead, the other pronomina root is used in these meanin$s which we reconstruct as "3e. Since the homor$anic "N- wou d suppose "3- before abia s, it was su$$ested by <uthrie that the '- prefixes are $enetica y re ated with 3- 5 3e 5 3iB the other widespread "antu pronoun of the 8st person. He su$$ests 589=;#;8, vo . >B :116 that the "3-forms in his 52orthwest6 ?&" A+ have ori$inated from an ear ier &" "-. This hypothesis cannot be supported, both due to the above Hyman+s comment, and since the distribution of the two forms in the "antu area is morpho o$ica , not $eo$raphica . <eo$raphica y, 3e 5 3i mode is )uite widespread in the 2orthwest Hones A#C which border the ?7ide "antu+ area with the predominant use of "3e as the independent sub,ect pronoun. "ut 3e 5 3i root is witnessed a so in the 'astern Hones 4, < and in Savanna Hones H, @, R, S 5see Appendix6 as either an independent pronoun or a suffix mar!in$ possession or ob,ect. The V3e-mode ed form acts as an independent pronoun and the possessive suffix, but is sometimes seen as a prefix for sub,ect mar!in$ too. %n the 2orthwest, a verb phrase in a number of ton$ues re)uires both the pronoun 3e 5 3i and the bound '-prefix. Therefore, we assume that 3e is a separate sub,ect pronoun not re ated $enetica y to "'#i%-. The proto# an$ua$e vowe shou d have most probab y been "-e or "-. The two dominatin$ forms throu$hout "antu are 3i and 3e53. <uthrie reconstructs a ?&"#A+, most y a 7estern dia ecta form in his terms, as VCDEWproposin$ a mutation of "E X " under the inf uence of a precedin$ "-a- in possessive stems where it is common, see be ow 5<uthrie 89=;#;8, vo . CB 81, 8:6. Statistica y, the number of "i-forms throu$hout the fami y is extreme y hi$h in the sub,ect mar!ers, ower in the ob,ect, even ower in the possessive mar!ers, and )uite rare in the independent stressed pronouns. The share of "3e $rows respective y. Since this distribution can be shown not on y for the who e stoc!, but for most "antu $roups as we , we are most certain y dea in$ here with a &" morpho o$ica distribution rather than an innovation. &rocesses of paradi$matic ana o$y have obvious y done much to eve this fundamenta opposition of the "antu pronomina system. %n a number of ton$ues, "iappears to have rep aced the ori$ina "3e, at east we cannot see this opposition in the ma,ority of an$ua$es of $roups ', P, *, M, &, a formin$ 'astern "antu. This is a common typo o$ica process in the an$ua$es of the wor d. Here in "antu, the situation can part y be exp ained a so by the remova of ob,ect mar!ers andNor stressed pronouns as subcate$ories in person mar!in$ morpho o$y. Typo o$ica y and syntactica y, possessive and emphatic pronouns are )uite c ose to each other and to ob,ect pronouns. They a denote ?non#sub,ect+ meanin$sB ,ust i!e in the %ndo#'uropean ton$ues there is an opposition of "e&Yh#!35Z% to act in the nominative 5i.e. sub,ect6 and "3e- to mar! possession 5$enitive6, direct ob,ect 5accusative6, indirect ob,ect 5dative etc.6, and emphasisB cf. Prench 3!i and 'n$ ish 3e which are emphatic sub,ect pronouns as we as ob i)ue case forms of the persona pronoun. Thus, we can typo o$ica y ,ustify the ori$in of the "antu stressed pronomina forms from ear ier ob,ect 5or, more precise y, non#sub,ect6 pronouns. The phonetic shape of both possessive and stressed forms in "antu is predominant y KCK with an adopted prefixed vowe B a-B i-B or e- for independent pronouns, and a- for possessives. The ori$ina vowe s must have been different. %n the stressed pronouns, "i- seems a more appropriate variant for a proto# an$ua$e form. This is supported by <uthrie, who put it as "1i-, and Meeussen with "[-. %n possessives,
8CC
the proto# an$ua$e form shou d have been "\3e. Meinhof 5891=B >D6 su$$ested that the prefixed vowe here ori$inated from a demonstrative partic e "2a- which accommodated its vowe to the fo owin$ vowe of the word it was attached to, with "2 ater dropped. This view was supported by 7erner 58989B E=#E;6. 7e shou d rather a$ree with a ater view that this prefixed e ement must have been an associative mar!er, )uite widespread across "enue#Con$o, see more detai s in the "antoid section be ow. "oth prefixes in possessive and emphatic forms tend to show the ow tone, which we therefore reconstruct for &". Second, in a number an$ua$es throu$hout the fami y the stressed pronouns are sub,ect to redup ication or part y redup ication 5forms i!e "3e3eB "3e36, which is typo o$ica y natura for their emphatic meanin$. As we wi see be ow, these two features can be stretched out to a pronouns, not on y the 8st person sin$u ar. Another extension is "-'V 5"3e'e6 a$ain habitua a across the paradi$m, and seen in "enue# Con$o beyond "antu. Havin$ considered this, we may reconstruct the fo owin$ three sets of &" forms for the 8st person sin$u ar pronounsB 5D6 "i"#\%3e "#]%3e sub,ect prefix non#sub,ect pronoun 5ob,ect, possessive6 stressed independent pronoun
There are some other 5most probab y innovative6 roots used for the 8st person sin$u ar pronouns in "antu. 3f them, et+s mention twoB i- 5 1i- was recent y su$$ested by \vonne "astin to have a &" ori$in. Sti , we thin! that it is rather a drop of the initia "- X "1- X 6er!, )uite a common phonetic shift noted outside "antu too. i- 5 - for sub,ect mar!ers 5Hones &, S6 and -a Sa N -a ! 5 - Ya for possessive mar!ers 5Hones ', &, S6 and 4i- 5 i- 5 *4i- for sub,ect mar!ers are portmanteau forms, in the atter case with the ne$ative mar!er 5*amba MDC '- positive vs. '4i- ne$ative6. 2nd person singular %n the :nd person sin$u ar, it can be shown that the ma,ority of an$ua$es of the "antu fami y a so tend to base their pronouns on two ori$ina roots. 3ne of them, as is c ear y seen, is k! 5 "(, a bac! voca ic root which is found primari y in the sub,ect series of pronouns a across the "antu area. The non# abia iHed variant is more widespread in 2orthwestern Hones A#C, ocated not far from the "antu ori$ina home and 57atters 89E9B C8:6 whi e the abia iHed one dominates Hones P#S, which are sometimes considered more archaic. The &" reconstruction is therefore "-- as was su$$ested on$ before the author of the present paper was born. 7e can on y add a tone to this reconstructionB it was ow, as shown in a most a "antu Hones. Por possessive and independent pronouns the most re iab e mode s are #V%Se rea ised phonetica y a so as #V%&SeB #V%be. The prefixed vowe s here seem the same as in the 8st personB "\- for the possessive form, and "]- for the stressed pronoun 5thou$h the atter is not that evident here6. As for the status of the root consonant, <uthrie tends to reconstruct "-b- for &" which as he assumed cou d mutate into "& 589=;#;8, vo . >B >8, :81, ::96. This "bB however, accordin$ to his topo$rams of sound
8CD
shifts 589=;#;8, vo . 8B ;86, is supposed to be preserved as a abia stop in a number of an$ua$es and even who e an$ua$e Hones which, on the contrary, a show "-S- 5 "-&S-. The ori$ina sound of this form cou d have rather been an obstruent ". 5c oser even to "S than to "b6 thus upho din$ the reconstructions of obstruents for &". %t is a fricative abiodenta phoneme which can more easi y $enerate sounds i!e SB TB &SB &B and b which we observe in the pronomina forms of the ma,ority of se ected "antu ton$ues. The ob,ect mar!er root a most everywhere in "antu is - (- N - !-. This suffix is very pecu iar since it be on$s exc usive y to the ob,ect set of persona mar!ers and has no modifications. %t is not used as an independent pronoun or a possessive affixB <uthrie 589=;#;8, vo . >B >1:6 mentions some examp es of possessives but admits they can hard y be connected with the verba suffix. (- sometimes denotes sub,ect but in such cases its secondary ro e can be shownB it is used either dia ecta y with more common ( 5Hones ', <6, or to denote some additiona syntactic meanin$s, inc udin$ ne$ative 5see Appendix6. The &" reconstruction of "- -- seems a consensus amon$ the authors. Thou$h Meeussen 589=;6 has "- (-B it appears that the actua vowe was the second de$ree ---, so Schadeber$ 5:11>B 8D86 writes it as "- --. The &" ori$in of "- -- seems credib e even thou$h it is not witnessed in 2orthwestern A#" Hones, because the 2orthwest an$ua$es seem to have ost 5or wea!ened to "26 the ori$ina "antu " 5cf. <uthrie 89=;#;1, vo . 8B ;CM 2urse L &hi ippson :11>B 8;;6. As for the externa evidence for this ob,ect mar!er in other 2C an$ua$es, no "enue#Con$o an$ua$es outside "antu demonstrate it. %f we accept that "- -- was a &" form, then we need to reconstruct a mode for the :nd person sin$u ar which wi be different a bit from the 8st person. Here, we have actua y three roots and four basic proto# an$ua$e person mar!in$ formsB 5=6 V^_"- -"#\%Se "#]%Se sub,ect prefix ob,ect suffix possessive pronoun N suffix stressed pronoun
There are more mar$ina roots denotin$ the :nd person sin$u ar in certain an$ua$es of the "antu fami y. %n a number of them, a difference is eve ed between the :nd person sin$u ar and p ura mar!ers by acceptin$ the atter one for both meanin$s 5<r-$oire :11>B >=C6. Some other forms mi$ht have been borrowedB e.$., 4o!o C /`must be a oanword from some nearby Uban$i an$ua$e. 1st person plural The most widespread root for the sub,ect and ob,ect mar!in$ is *V- 5rea iHed as *(-B *i-B *!-B l!-B h!- etc.6, for which the proto#form is usua y reconstructed as "*--. <uthrie exp ains vowe shifts by innovative chan$es on the periphery of the "antu#spea!in$ area 589=;#89;8, vo . CB ::=6. This form is used for both the sub,ect and the ob,ect mar!ers, most y when they fu y coincide in form, with possessive and stressed mar!ers formed from different roots 5this situation is the most fre)uent one a over "antu6. %f the sub,ect mar!er is formed usin$ a different root, then "*- is never found in the an$ua$e. The on y o$ica proposa here wou d be the ori$ina sub,ect meanin$ of "*-- which was transferred ater to other forms by means of ana o$y. There are some an$ua$es which a so bui d their possessive suffixes and independent
8C=
pronouns with a simi ar root, but with a different vowe B "i*(B "a*(, "*(e, which shou d be mixtures with the second root be ow. This second one, the most widespread mode for stressed and possessive person mar!ers, is #V%4e 5 4SeB which shou d ori$inate from &" "+e 5 "+(e. The vowe is de$ree one which causes frication of "+B cf. *u$anda TTSe 5Hyman, p.c.6. This form acts main y as an independent pronoun and is )uite rare y found in the sub,ect or ob,ect series. The most fre)uent mode s are i-4eB 4Se and be-4e for stressed independent pronouns, and -a4 or -a4e for possessive suffixes. The "antu p ura ity prefix "ba5noun c ass :6 as the part of the independent pronoun can be re iab y reconstructed on the &" eve B the independent pronoun kba-+#(%e is found in Hones A, C, 4, P, and H. The front vowe of "ba- can be exp ained by ba- b -]- 5Hyman, p.c.6. The phonetic nature of &" "+ is sti unc ear. %t is worth notin$ that modern "antu an$ua$es very rare y have + in these forms, most have a sibi ant or, under further pro$ress, a voiced ve ar fricative h. 7e here tend to su$$est the &" "+ was rather a sibi ant not an affricate. The an$ua$es usin$ both k*-- and k+#(%e for different meanin$s are fre)uent in most "antu Hones and are found in the same phonetic surroundin$s, which ma!es them impossib e to derive from the same &" root. <uthrie reconstructs "+cd 589=;#;8, vo . >B 88=6 and kefg>h as &" independent forms. 'ven if the vowe for &" cannot be re iab y reconstructed as "-(-, based on the variety of ref ections, it remains the most probab e variant, preserved a so in the independent stressed pronouns with a fina -e. 7e therefore reconstruct the fo owin$ &" formsB 5;6 V=^_i "\+#(%e k#ba-%+#(%e 5 i+#(%e sub,ect prefix non#sub,ect pronoun stressed pronoun
There are no other forms of the 8st person p ura persona mar!ers which are widespread enou$h to be pro,ected to the &" eve . 2nd person plural %n the :nd person p ura mar!ers, the two variants are most widespreadB name y, those with a abia consonant fo owed by a bac! vowe , and those with '- p us a bac! vowe . The former are witnessed as sub,ectNob,ect affixes b(-5b!- 5Hones ", C, 4, R6, bi- 5Hone A6, 3(-53!- 5Hones 4#@, M#S6. The f uctuation of vowe s points at the &" "-. As for the consonant, we tend to a$ree with ear ier assumptions that it was "3. The usa$e of the form "3-- is imited to sub,ect and ob,ect prefixes, it can be rare y found in the stressed pronouns with their characteristic fina "-e, i.e. formin$ "3--e X 3Se 5<uthrie 89=;#;8, vo . CB 8;6. Much more evidence bac!s the hypothesis that the possessive and stressed pronouns for &" were based on "'(. This is witnessed by forms i!e '( 5 '! 5 'Se which can be seen in a most a the $roups of the fami y. As everywhere in the paradi$m, the stressed pronouns are rea iHed in forms "i'( 5<uthrie+s Vefg9h6 5 "'(-e, or with the c ass : 5p ura ity6 prefix as "ba-'(#e% and the possessive must have been "-\'(#e%. There is very scarce evidence for the presence of this root in sub,ect and ob,ect series of "antu persona mar!ers, and when found this evidence must have ana o$ica ori$ins. %t is noteworthy to mention the recent research by Kan der Ke de L Kan der Auwera 5forthcomin$6, who tend to derive &" "'( from a composition of the
8C;
con,unction "'i ?and, with+ _ :s$. pronoun "(. This hypothesis, however, seems a bit weird from a typo o$ica point of view. As the resu t, we may su$$est the fo owin$ reconstructionB 5E6 "3-"\'(#e% k#ba-%'(#e% 5 ]'(#e% sub,ect prefix non#sub,ect pronoun stressed pronoun
There are two more mar$ina roots we can identify for the :nd person p ura mar!ersB "/(- 5 "l(- for the sub,ect series 5Hones A, ", C, 4, H, S6 l this can be a phonetic shift of an ear ier "'(, )uite fre)uent in other "enue#Con$o an$ua$es. ".a for the ob,ect series 5Hones 4#<, I, M, &6 l a dia ecta form seen in the 'astern an$ua$es as Sa 5 ba, ori$inatin$ from "ba- p ura c ass prefix which is a so used for mar!in$ the >rd person p ura . A$ain, the mer$er of the p ura pronouns in not uncommon for "enue#Con$o. 7e have conducted an ana ysis of persona mar!ers of the first two persons in the "antu an$ua$es. 3ne can easi y trac! simi arities in the structure of a the four syntactic positions considered above, to ma!e some $enera conc usions. Pirst, we may su$$est that thou$h four series of person mar!ers can be reconstructed for &", they were based most y on two roots in each personNnumber form. The first root is ref ected in the present#day sub,ect prefixes and, to a esser extent, in the ob,ect mar!ers. The second root formes possessive pronouns or suffixes and stressed pronouns. As we discussed ear ier, such a distinction is best exp ained by postu atin$ the two series of pronouns for the pre#&" chrono o$ica eve B for denotin$ the sub,ect and the non#sub,ect 5i.e. ob,ect or possession6. %t oo!s as these two pronouns differed syntactica y at the time of &" or pre#"antuB the sub,ect mar!er was bound to the verb form, and the non#sub,ect pronoun was independent. The direct ob,ect mar!in$ was either made occasiona y or was not made at a . The emphatic function was expressed with the he p of the non#sub,ect pronoun which ac)uired the initia prefixed "i-. Typo o$ica y it is a common feature when independent pronouns with an emphatic meanin$ are morpho o$ica y based not on the o der sub,ect mar!ers, but on non#sub,ect forms. %t shou d be su$$ested that the ori$ina meanin$ of the non#sub,ect pronoun in &" can be ca ed ?ob i)ue+. The ob,ect mar!in$ is sti an optiona feature in "antu, it is absent in a number of an$ua$es. 7here it is used, it is overwhe min$ y formed from the same mar!er as the sub,ect form, or 5in the 8st person sin$u ar6 the non#sub,ect form. %n $enera , it seems that the syntactic domain of the present#day "antu ob,ect mar!ers ies somewhere in the midd e between the two extremes l the sub,ect and the non#sub,ect l and both &" roots have been stru$$ in$ for fi in$ this fie d. A conc usion which can be made is that the present#day ob,ect series is an innovation, a feature which spread over the "antu re$ion after the proto# an$ua$e was disso ved. The ob,ect domain is rea y the most c umsy fie d in the who e system of person mar!in$. The ?sub,ect l non#sub,ect+ dua structure we ,ust su$$ested is not supported by the :nd person sin$u ar forms, where we c ear y see the &" "- -- as the ob,ect mar!er. %t seems to be so widespread that cannot be treated as a dia ecta innovation, but it is so strict y ad,usted to the ob,ect series that we can hard y meet it in the other
8CE
three sets of persona mar!ers in the modern "antu an$ua$es. The "- -- form shou d be an innovation for the ob,ect series, introduced in order to distin$uish sub,ect and ob,ect for the most important type of discourseB an address of the 8st person to the :nd person. %f we su$$est ri$ht sayin$ that the possessive pronouns used to denote a $enera ob i)ue or ob,ective meanin$, then ater, as their meanin$ shifted to possessive, a new ob i)ue mar!er appeared to be necessary, especia y for the :nd person. This is how "- -- may have appeared, and this too! p ace a ready in the &" period. The ori$in of "- -- cou d be an externa borrowin$ or rather a &" interna innovation made for more distinct differentiation between the sub,ect and the ob,ect in the :nd person sin$u ar. Therefore, the &" pronomina system reconstructed on the basis of interna ana ysis, oo!s the fo owin$B Tab e 8.= 1sg. sub,ect ob,ect possessive independent "i"#\%3e "#]%3e 2sg. V^_"- -"#\%Se "#]%Se 1pl. V=^_"#\%+(e "i+(e 5 "#ba-%+(e 2pl. "3-"#\%'(e "i'(e 5 "#ba-%'(e
To summariHe the evidence eadin$ to this reconstruction, et+s once a$ain emphasise the stron$est pointsB 8. 3f the 5$enera y6 four series of the persona mar!ers in the present#day "antu an$ua$es, two pronoun roots can be reconstructed for &". 3ne of them was prefixed to the verb root and mar!ed the sub,ect, the other was independent and non#sub,ect, i.e. mar!in$ the ob,ect and the possession. The ob,ect did not have a specia series of pronouns, and the on y 5innovative6 form which was desi$ned specifica y for the ob,ect in &" was the :nd person sin$u ar suffixed form. :. 2o phonetic environment can prove a common ori$in of both roots, as some authors supposedM they were c ear y different in &". >. &ossessive mar!ers and stressed 5emphatic6 pronouns typo o$ica y descend from the sin$ e pronoun form with the $enera non#sub,ect meanin$. C. The narrow vowe in "ba- versus a common y !nown p ura ity prefix "ba- can be exp ained by an ear ier contamination "ba-]'(e X "be-'(e 5Hyman, p.c.6. The paradi$m we reconstruct as based on the opposition of two ori$ina sets is on y part y supported by previous reconstructions, as seen in the charts above. Meeussen 589=;6 accepts this dua ism for both p ura pronouns, and apparent y finds a three roots for the :nd person sin$u ar. <uthrie 589=;#;16 accepts numerous roots for the :nd person sin$u ar, two roots for the :nd person p ura , and tends to unify a ref exes of the 8st person p ura into one ori$ina root. "y doin$ this, both researchers bui d a rather chaotic paradi$m, with a most no corre ation between the forms within it. 7e wou d i!e to stress that typo o$ica y the pronomina paradi$m in any an$ua$e of the wor d is not a mere co ection of reconstructed exemes, but a sin$ e mechanism of mutua y dependent components, a system which acts and chan$es accordin$ to its interna aws. *et+s oo! for instance at the paradi$m of one of the present#day
8C9
an$ua$es of "antu 5"abo e C:16 which seems to be rather c ose to the ori$ina &" situationB Tab e 8.; Person 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . subject ']`*`b`object \3j \Sj b[4d b['d possessive \3j \Sj b[4d b['d stressed \3j \Sj b[4d b['d
Here we see how the forms of a four rows act accordin$ to the same pattern. Two roots are used, one for the sub,ect, the other for the rest of the meanin$s. 3b,ect, possessive and stressed series coincide with each other. The same prefix is used for the sin$u ar non#sub,ect pronouns, and another one l for the p ura non#sub,ect forms. Pina y, the tone structure is unified for a sub,ect pronouns, and the same for non#sub,ect ones. %.e., we see numerous systematic features for the who e paradi$m which, if we ac!ed one or two of its members, wou d a ow us to reconstruct them )uite easi y. The pattern is certain y not so precise everywhere. However, we are ab e to trac! some paradi$matic system in a modern an$ua$es, and there is no $rounds to thin! that a !ind of system was ac!ed in the proto# an$ua$e. Unfortunate y, no ear ier research can present us with a o$ica y based system rather than a set of odd exica reconstructs. Since the &" period, the system we reconstruct has under$one a number of si$nificant chan$es, eadin$ to its present shape in the an$ua$es of the fami y. The most important was the fi in$ of the ob,ect pronoun set by either the sub,ect bound forms or by derivatives of the independent pronoun. The ana o$ica eve in$ of oppositions within the paradi$m of persona mar!ers has a so been si$nificant. %n a number of an$ua$es, a the series of pronouns are based on the same root 5"asaa 3 ?%, me 5sub,., ob,.6+, 3' ?% 5stressed6+. %n the four &ove forms *`- ?% 5sub,.6+, #*k- ?me 5ob,.6+, -\*k ?my 5poss.6+, ]*k ?% 5stressed6+ two first are dervied from "*--B but the two ast ones are ana o$ica y produced rep acin$ "\+( 5 "]+(. Sometimes, forms of the sin$u ar and the p ura of the same person coincided l another common typo o$ica trait for the wor d an$ua$es 5cf. Umbundu R ( ?you 5s$.Np . ob,.6+6. Pina y, the vowe unification has in some cases made a pronouns sound simi ar, so the ori$ina voca ism disappeared. :. &R3T3#"A2T3%4 The number of the "antoid an$ua$es reaches =E8, a to$ether with the "antu fami y which ma!es up to ;Dm of this tota fi$ure ;. They are spo!en in 'astern 2i$eria and in most areas of ad,acent Cameroon. The c osest nei$hbours of the "antoid#spea!in$ peop e are various other "enue#Con$o an$ua$e spea!ers to the 7est and 2orth 5most y Cross River, %domoid, and Iu!unoid6, Adamaua spea!ers to the 2orth#'ast, and "antu to the 'ast and South. The an$ua$es of the "antoid stoc! have a much shorter in$uistic tradition than the "antu fami y. Thou$h some of them were first noted and recorded in the ear y 89th century, it too! a $reat whi e since then to come to the $enera issues of c assification,
;
%n the present section, for the sa!e of o$ica se)uence, we wi use the term ?"antoid+ to denote a an$ua$es of this stoc! exc udin$ the "antu fami y un ess specified.
8D1
comparative research and the definition of the p ace the "antoid ton$ues shou d ta!e within the 2C macrofami y. Moreover, the data for the ma,ority of "antoid an$ua$es has been s ow y comin$ into the hands of scho ars most y in the previous two or three decades, and sti many an$ua$es we on y !now by name. As a resu t, very scarce wor! in comparative morpho o$y of the "antoid an$ua$es exists. The very term ?"antoid+, introduced by @rause 58E9D6, was initia y used to denote a number of an$ua$es of 2i$eria and Cameroon which, a thou$h carryin$ some particu ar resemb ances to "antu, were $enetica y unre ated with the atter. Startin$ from <reenber$+s 589=>6 wor!, where he first su$$ested that the "antu an$ua$es were in fact a subbranch of the ar$er "antoid fami y, the meanin$ of this name has chan$ed accordin$ y. <reenber$+s view is fu y supported by today+s mainstream African in$uistics, and the on y issue remains the interna structure of the fami y. There have been numerous attempts to c assify the "antoid an$ua$es. <reenber$+s six branches were revised by a number of subse)uent amendments described we by 7atters 589E9B C1C#C8>6. The one which can be aid as a foundation for today+s 5more or ess6 consensus point of view was the c assification chart proposed in 57i iamson L " ench :1116 and on y s i$ht y cha en$ed since then. 7e $ive this, s i$ht y $enera ised, scheme in the dia$ram be ow. 4ia$ram > Ba'*!i/
2orth Ti!ar 4a!oid Mambi oid Mbe Mamfe "uru <rassfie ds "eboid Tivoid '!oid Iarawan
South
"antu
'astern Momo Rin$ Menchum "ami e!e 2$emba 2!ambe 2un A ternative c assifications vary in detai , but not in $enera . The precise boundary between South "antoid and "antu 5or ?2arrow "antu+ or ?"antu proper+ how it is sometimes put6, especia y the an$ua$es of the "antu Hone A, $eo$raphica y c osest to the rest of the "antoid stoc!, is sti a matter of discussion. Some refer to Ti!ar as a South "antoid an$ua$e, but some consider its "antu affi iation, as does <j demann 5:11>B 8EC#8E=6. %n his recent wor!s on 2orth "antoid 5:11=6, Ro$er " ench tends to put Iarawan into the "antu proper. 3thers su$$ested <rassfie ds and '!oid to be parts of "antu 57i iamson 89;8B :=D6. There are a so some minor disputes about the interna c assification of the <rassfie ds $roup, discussed in 57atters :11>6. Prom the other side, attempts were made to oo! at some "antu ton$ues as actua y non#"antu "antoidB "ennett L Ster! 589;;6 proposed to consider Mbam an$ua$es, ear ier re$arded as inc usive into "antu AC1 and A=1 $roups, as an independent subbranch of South "antoid, and this was ater supported by the authors of the ?At as *in$uisti)ue du Cameroun+ 54ieu L Renaud 89E>6, and in some of the ater
8D8
c assifications 5Se$erer :11E6. There is a hypothesis of puttin$ the Manen$uba an$ua$es of "antu 5$roup A8D in <uthrie+s c assification6 as an independent sub#branch of "antoid 5Hedin$er 89E;6, supported by " ench. %t oo!s as if more research is needed to draw a distinctive ine between "antu and other "antoid stoc!s. "ut for that, one definite y needs more exica and $rammatica data, since the su$$estions made so far were often based on typo o$ica simi arities which, certain y, may testify both a $enetic affi iation and a resu t of an$ua$e contact and conver$ence. The proximity between "antu proper and its northwestern nei$hbours ma!es "antoid an$ua$es a nice and re iab e too for an externa comparison of the "antu an$ua$e materia . So far, this advanta$e was underestimated by historica in$uists. There is no specific "antoid comparative $rammar, and even the phonetic system of the &roto#"antoid an$ua$e is yet to be reconstructed. An amaHin$ an$ua$e diversity which is seen in the tiny "antoid re$ion comparin$ to the vast area occupied by "antu is an obvious obstac e for a comparative research. <enera observations of the "antoid an$ua$es are made in 57i iamson 89;86, 57atters 89E96, 5Hedin$er 89E96, 57atters L *eroy 89E96, and the most recent description of the <rassfie ds an$ua$es is $iven in 57atters :11>6. These wor!s most y consider the issues of subc assification and the ists of ton$ues, but brief y touch some comparative $rammar issues as we . Most of the materia , however, consists of word ists and dictionaries which pay itt e attention to $rammar or, more specifica y, persona mar!in$. 2o phonetic reconstruction is avai ab e for &roto#"antoid in the iterature to date. Thou$h a $ood &roto#<rassfie ds reconstruction is avai ab e in ' ias L a . 589EC6, the study of the phonetic correspondences between a "antoid ton$ues is sti at its very ear y sta$e, one of the attempts bein$ made by Ro$er " ench, whose comparative word ists are referred to hereinafter as 5" ench :11C6. More detai ed, thou$h o der, is the hu$e two#vo ume co ection of word ists by 7i iamson L ShimiHu 5vo . 8, 89=E6 and 7i iamson a one 5vo . :, 89;>6, containin$ basic exicon from near y E1 "antoid an$ua$es. The idea of pro,ectin$ the reconstructed &" system 5see the "antu section above6 to the upper &roto#"antoid eve is bein$ opposed by some recent authors 57atters 89E9B C8C#C8D6. A number of &" consonants seem to have doub e ref exes in both the 2orthwest "antu ton$ues and their "antoid nei$hbours, therefore pointin$ to a conc usion of a fortisN enis opposition in some proto# an$ua$e ancestra to "antu, either &roto#"antoid or even &roto#Ko ta#Con$o 5Stewart 89;>6. Hedin$er 589E;6 and 7atters 589E96 both su$$est in any case that the consonant inventory in &roto#"antoid must have been richer than in proper "antu. This mi$ht be true for the voca ic system as we , as 7atters 589E9B C8D6 presumes there was a nine#vowe structure for &roto#"antoid, with two harmony sets, simi ar to some other more western an$ua$es of "enue#Con$o. The ma,ority of the "antoid an$ua$es appear to have three basic tones, which are a so usua y reconstructed for &". As for the comparative morpho o$y persona mar!ers or persona pronouns, there is no ana ysis accessib e by today. The pronouns of various particu ar an$ua$es are $iven in a number of synchronic description wor!s, word ists and dictionaries 5part y unpub ished6 to be used in the present section. A $reat he p is the ?7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets+ 5@ropp 4a!ubu 89;=#89E16 containin$ basic morpho o$ica data on a number of "antoid an$ua$es. Sti , the number of "antoid an$ua$es whose persona mar!in$ system has been thorou$h y described to date, does not exceed fifty 5out of more than 8D16 accordin$ to our estimations, which can on y a ow us to produce tentative conc usions of the data.
8D:
The $enera observation of the pronomina systems in the "antoid an$ua$es demonstrate that the pronouns tend to be independent from the verb form, un i!e in "antu. 7here they are not, sub,ect mar!ers serve as prefixes to the verb root, and ob,ect ones as suffixes. However, in Iarawan two sets of ob,ective pronouns either immediate y fo ow sub,ect mar!ers 5set 86, or a tempora affix is inserted between them 5set :6. &ossessive pronouns often serve as the indirect ob,ect ones. %n most "antoid ton$ues, there are fewer series of persona mar!ers than in "antuB sub,ect and ob,ect pronouns are often identica , there is no specia cate$ory of emphatic 5stressed6 pronouns, and an$ua$es where a the four basic meanin$s which are distin$uished in "antu are served by the same pronoun are not uncommon. %ndependent possessive pronouns are usua y formed by means of addin$ a c ass prefix, cf. in "afut 5Taman,i :11=6B 596 T]- Zbl T-m T1-m 89#statue 89#my 89#the my statue, the statue of mine 5the one we have been ta !in$ about6
%n such a construction, possessive affixes often become hi$h y f ective and are hard to separateB e.$., in 'simbi the :nd person sin$u ar possessive pronouns for various c asses are e4iB bRB v(, where the consonanta c ass prefix can be distin$uished, but the voca ic persona e ement variesE. %t is interestin$ to note that this mode , which is common p ace in "antoid, is derived from the fo owin$ mode B 5816 V 5vowe assimi ated by the fo owin$ sound6 l c ass prefix l possessive persona mar!er, where the initia V is an ori$ina y independent association partic e, otherwise ca ed associative mar!er 5AM6, co$nate to the "antu "\- which precedes any attribute, nomina or pronomina . Compare the bound forms of 'simbi -6-i ?your+ 5s$., c ass 96 and \emba de-0-( id.M 'simbi -bhR-3R ?my+ 5c ass :6 and \emba de-)-n id., with the sti free partic e in @enyan$ 5886 ba-Sa n b-a :#cats AM :#my my cats
5RamireH 899EB D6
which is structura y identica with a nomina construction i!e 3!u 0j3 R S-a' ?dream of a chi d+ 5" ood 8999B =6. Another common feature of the "antoid pronouns is the wide use of compound forms for au$mented person mar!in$. "y mer$in$ two simp ex pronouns, many "antoid an$ua$es construct new pronouns for dua , inc usive and other extended meanin$s. These compounds sometimes ma!e the pronomina system amaHin$ y richB 7iesemann 589E=B viii6 c aims that <homa a, a <rassfie ds an$ua$e, has the most comp ex persona pronoun system, with as many as 8E forms for a the three persons. These are a "antoid area innovations as we see in \emba inc usive and dua formsB )a b ` X )` k ?we two+, )a b ) oWpgqr_ ?we and you+ 5Harro L Haynes 8998B 8E#896, with the same c ich-s in the nei$hbourin$ <rassfie ds and "eboid an$ua$es 5Cysouw :11>B 8;8#8E86.
Hereinafter, 'simbi forms from 5Co eman, unpub ished6.
8D>
3vera , we can say that the diversity amon$ the forms and the paradi$ms within "antoid is far $reater than in "antu, which is understandab e from a chrono o$ica standpoint, since "antoid is a much o der fami y. %n the charts be ow, we wi demonstrate pronomina forms from a chosen set of "antoid an$ua$es of different subbranches. 1st person singular Tab e :.8 subject Samba#4a!a 52, 4a!oid69 4on$ 52, 4a!oid681 Mambi a 52, Mambi oid688 Kute 52, Mambi oid, Su$a#Kute68: Ti!ar 5268> Tiv 5S, Tivoid68C Mesa!a 5S, Tivoid68D 'simbi 5S, Tivoid[6 2a!i 5S, "eboid68= 2oni 5S, "eboid68; Mbe 5S68E @enyan$ 5S, Mamfe689 *imbum 5S, <rassfie ds, 2!ambe6:1 "amum 5S, <rassfie ds, 2un6:: p_ b 3a 3i 3_ 3gwW3_wW3d 33e-B 3n3[ 3eB N9_3B '- 5 pr_ 3R object p_ 3e 3i 3B g 3s' -3g-B 3k 3] i3i 3l] -xB -3y 5 -3z 3 pr_ 3RB -a possessive 3aa 3! 3!` 1jtWuWer_pWuWvr3 -a3B -n&hB -nv -3iB -3RB -3( -e3 -3y -a 1n-B Sn-B ln-B 3n-{| s$. -a 5tone6 p_pr_ pr_ stressed / emph '` 3e 3i 3 3k 3] i3i
5"oyd 899C6 5" ench :11=a6 88 5&errin 89E1 Y89;>Z6 8: 5Thwin$ 89E;6 8> 57estermann L "ryan 89D:B 8:16, 5Ha$e$e 89=96, 5Stan ey 89986 8C 5Arnott 89E1 Y89=EZ6 8D 5Cassetta L Cassetta 899C6 8= 5<ood :11DB E#816 8; 5*ux :11>6 8E 5&oh i$ 89E86 89 5Mbua$baw 899E6, 5RamireH 899E6 :1 5Piore L &ec! 89E1 Y89;>Z6 :8 *imbum possessive prefixes are a ophones, dependin$ on the fo owin$ sound. :: 57ard 89>E6, 5Hombert 89E16
81
8DC
subject \emba 5S, <rassfie ds, "ami e!e6:> "ami e!e 5S, <rassfie ds, "ami e!e6:C Mundani 5S, <rassfie ds, Momo6:D Meta 5S, <rassfie ds, Momo6:= A$hem 5S, <rassfie ds, Rin$ 76:; *amnso+ 5S, <rassfie ds, Rin$ '6:E @om 5S, <rassfie ds, Rin$ C6:9 Iarawa 5S, Iarawan6>1 "waHHa 5S, Iarawan6>8 Mbu a 5S, Iarawan6 @u un$ 5S, Iarawan6 4u$uri 5S, Iarawan6 3aB N pI p}wWp~gw '-wW9_3R NB 3\
object 3aB -a -}pwWpr_ -#a%3 Ip 3sg 3Z 3\ *[ 5set 86, '[ 5set :6
possessive -a -\3 -#a%3B -n
stressed / emph
pr_
p_p
p_ m B 3: 3\B 3i 3]B 3z 5past6 3y 3yy3 3i'n3 3y
-3 -3B 3a -3iB -i 5after nasa s, bB B 46, \'n\' 5 ]'n\' 5arch6
p_ m B 3:
3]
3yy3 33i'n3
The fo owin$ observations can be made out of the $iven chart. The sub,ect pronoun is based on "3e. Porms in '-, the denta sonant, are witnessed in <rassfie ds and Mamfe an$ua$es, as we as in Iarawa archaic possessive pronouns. Their syntax is c earB they are used exc usive y as bound sub,ect prefixes, whi e forms in 3V are often independent pronouns in the same an$ua$es used to$ether with the prefixed mar!ers, e.$. in Mundani 5&ar!er 89986 or @enyan$ 5RamireH 899E6. %n 2$omba, where sub,ect pronouns are free, their articu ation depends on the initia phoneme of the fo owin$ wordB ' is used before denta s, before ve ars or a pause, and 3 before nasa s and abia s 5Satre :11C6.
:> :C
5Harro L Haynes 89986 5Koorhoeve 89E1 Y89;:Z6 :D 5&ar!er L 4urrant 89916, 5&ar!er 89986 := 57estermann L "ryan 89D:B 8:;6, 5Spreda 899D6 :; 5Hyman 89;96, 5"ut er :11E6 :E 5<rebe L <rebe 89E1 Y89;>Z6 :9 5Schu H 899;6, 5Iones :1186 >1 5*u!as L 7i ms 89=86 >8 A "waHHa, Mbu a, @u un$ and 4u$uri forms hereinafter are from 5" ench :11=6
8DD
The possessive pronouns either have the independent form "3V where the vowe may sometimes differ from that of the sub,ect form, or "-\3 in case they are suffixed. %n the former case, it is the nomina system that sometimes dictates the voca ismB e.$., in Kute, the additiona en$thenin$ or a voca ic sy ab e is added to possessive pronouns ,ust i!e to any noun in associative form 5Thwin$ 89E;B =D6. Suffixed possessive mar!ers add the association partic e "-\- which was a ready mentioned above, and have reduced their fina vowe . The resu ted "-\3 was reduced to -a in those an$ua$es 5 i!e @enyan$, *imbum, "amum6 where the fina "-3 was dropped everywhereB 58:6 Tiv ]-9ep_W?anima +B "ami e!e '\3, *amnso+ -n3B @om -np_, but @enyan$ -\M "ami e!e b_p_ ?be y+, *amnso+ -vgp_, but *imbum -bRM Tiv [-[3n ?heart+B "ami e!e *c3, @om ]-*j3B but @enyan$ -=gM Tiv '3-b!r ?ton$ue+, "ami e!e ld3, *amnso+ -ln3B @om lj3[, but *imbum ldB @enyan$ -gM etc. 57i iamson L ShimiHu Y89=EZM 7i iamson Y89;>ZM Piore L &ec! Y89E1Z6. Since in the ma,ority of "antoid an$ua$es sub,ect pronouns are morpho o$ica y independent, the domain of stressed pronouns in the ri$htmost co umn of the chart above remains to mar! emphasis. A possib e morpho o$ica means for this is redup ication seen in @enyan$ and Mundani. %n "antu, as we remember, it is a so a very widespread construction. %n many "antoid an$ua$es, however, stressed pronouns are not used as a specia series and are identica to the sub,ect pronouns. The ob,ect mar!ers in "antoid are used everywhere, but do not constitute a specific setB they are identica to either the possessive forms, or the sub,ect forms, as is c ear y seen in the chart above. The ob,ect series is seen here as an innovation, ,ust i!e in "antu proper. To summariHe, here are the forms of &roto#"antoid 8st person mar!ersB 58>6 "'- sub,ect 5prefixed6 "3e non#sub,ect 5ob,ect, stressed, possessive6 "-\3 possessive %n the 2nd person singular, we observe the fo owin$ formsB Tab e :.: subject Samba#4a!a 4on$ Mambi a Kute Ti!ar Tiv Mesa!a 'simbi ' nBm ' S S( S 5 s SdaB cB Sd ]S!object \ possessive r_r_ +i S!` 1s 5 b 5 4 -!( stressed / emphatic Sll
S S( Ss cB Sd er_
S S( Ss 5 s Sd er_ (v(B v(
8D=
2a!i 2oni Mbe @enyan$ *imbum "amum \emba "ami e!e Mundani Meta A$hem *amnso+ @om Iarawa "waHHa Mbu a @u un$ 4u$uri
Sn S! `-B gi r_wW ! `B Ss k \ \ S` ~_wW S\ Sn' Sd] Sd 1kk S
SR -S 5 -S S r_wW -! Ss kB S] _ Ir_ S` S` v\ *n 5set 86, n 5set :6 S!B -(S -S - 1g-B Sg-B lg-B 3g-( 5tone6 -( kB `B -` -_
S r_wW
S] \S_ ~_wW
-S\B va -Sa'B -a' 5after nasa s, s6, ]T_g9 5arch.6
Sn'
The common mode s for the sub,ect pronoun here are "!B "( and "S!5Se. "oth seem to correspond phonetica y with the "antu forms, which are reconstructed above as "-5prefixed sub,ect mar!er6 and "V-Se 5non#sub,ect pronoun6. There is a c ear distinction in "antoid between forms in ! and in ( 5 S( 5 Se which cannot be traced bac! to the same proto# an$ua$e root. More o$ica wou d be to su$$est that in &roto#"antoid there were two pronouns, one of them "!- 5"antu k--B the prefixed sub,ect form6, the other one "S!5Se 5the non#sub,ect independent form6. Some "antoid forms with both ! and a5m can be co$nate to &" "-nopqrsstuvwxyqzt the exica correspondences indicated in 5" ench :11C6. The possessive suffix, where it is different from the sub,ect pronoun, is "-( or "-(S, which is a reduced sub,ect form with a homor$anic associative partic e in the front. 7e can reconstruct &roto#"antoid forms for the :nd person sin$u ar pronounsB 58C6 "`"#\%S! 5 "Se "-(#S% 1st person plural: Tab e :.> subject Samba#4a!a 4on$ Mambi a n vr bele 5dua 6 object n bele 5dua 6 possessive EE bele 5dua 6 stressed / emphatic Skk bele 5dua 6 sub,ect 5prefixed6 non#sub,ect possessive
8D;
subject v( 5inc .6 bel 5exc .6 '[3 b( 5 bS[ 4d#a% ]4i~g be4e d44_W5dua 6 4aa 5inc .6 Sar 5exc .6 )B )!R )` k 5dua 6 pgqr_ 5inc .6 )a 5exc .6 vI 5inc .6 b\n& 5exc .6 )n *] 8wWr_ 5inc .6 &h\Y 5exc .6 S`4` 5dua 6 _ ' 5inc .6 _ 5exc .6
object v( 5inc .6 bel 5exc .6 '[3 b( 5 bS[ 4e b]h] #R%bhR4R 4] bee'e 5inc .6 -#a%1 vr_I 4_W5dua 6 4aa 5inc .6 Sar 5exc .6
possessive v( 5inc .6 '[3a er_WuWvIWuWI -4d-
Kute Ti!ar Tiv Mesa!a 'simbi 2a!i 2oni Mbe @enyan$ *imbum
stressed / emphatic v( 5inc .6 bel 5exc .6 '[3 bS[ 4d b]h] #R%bhR4R
-4e4e -#a%1 -rI 4_- 5dua 6 4aa# 5inc .6 Sdr-B 1dr-B ldr-B 3dr5exc .6 -h=_ 5inc .6, - 5exc .6 5tone6 -e
vr_I 4_W5dua 6 4aa 5inc .6 Sar 5exc .6
"amum \emba
"ami e!e Mundani Meta A$hem *amnso+
S( 5dua 6 1[3) 5inc .6 Se 5exc .6 8wW8IWu vwWvI Sn jSn 8wWr_ 5inc .6 &h\Y 5exc .6 S`4` 5dua 6 _ ' 5inc .6 _ 5exc .6
-n& -n b\n
@om Iarawa
&he4i'\{ 5inc .6 &ha4 5exc .6 1[r...-[r
&he4i'\ 5inc .6 *[...-#1%ir 5set 86, '[...-#1%ir 5set :6
s$. 4!B p . v4! 5dua 6 s$. e4R', p . ve4R' 5inc .6 s$. er, p . ver 5exc .6 -4 5inc .6 &he4i 5exc .6 -ir
S`4` 5dua 6 _ ' 5inc .6 _ 5exc .6
1[r
"waHHa Mbu a
>:
4[3 _p
Porms i!e this in @om are often, more correct y, ca ed ?emphatic possessives+ 5" ood 8999B 886.
8DE
subject @u un$ 4u$uri 4c3 4c
object
possessive
stressed / emphatic
The "ba- prefix in both p ura pronouns is a c ear mar!er of noun c ass : 5p ura 6, common for both "antu and "antoid an$ua$es. %ts initia correspondin$ sounds inc ude )- in \emba and 2$omba, and v-5S- in *amnso+ and *imbum. However, whi e in "antu it is used most y in emphatic 5stressed6 pronouns, in other "antoid branches it acts in the sub,ect forms too, a$ain for the simp e reason that the independent sub,ect pronouns have rep aced prefixes in the ma,ority of the "antoid an$ua$es we oo!ed throu$h. %n Rin$ an$ua$es, another c ass : concord prefix "&h- is used with the same function for both p ura pronouns. The common root for the 8st person p ura mar!er is "4e. The Mesa!a ob,ectNemphatic b]h] $oes bac! to "be4e which is found in c ose 'simbi. Iarawan an$ua$es show "4(- where the voca ism is c ose to &roto#"antu "+(-e. However, other "antoid $roups do not seem to have this "-(-, apart from probab y forms in S- 5 v5Samba#4a!a, Mambi a6, which cou d have under$one "+S- X "S-. The Kute pronoun '[3 is an innovation constructed ana o$ica y accordin$ to the :nd person p ura samp e and usin$ the 8st person sin$u ar -3. The voca ic sub,ect mar!er ]- in Mesa!a is the p ura ity mar!er used in a the three persons of the p ura , and besides for the >rd person sin$u ar 5]-4gg W -&by vn ?anima s didn+t come+6 5Cassetta L Cassetta 899CB =6. The use of independent pronouns in the verba phrase is ob i$atory. 2ote that the A$hem inc usive form n, as was noticed on$ a$o, corresponds with the c ass : 5p ura 6 mar!er n- 5Hyman 89;96, so voca ic prefixes of the p ura met here and there in "antoid seem to be non#persona by ori$in. The c usivity 5and dua ity6 feature in the pronomina system of a number of "antoid an$ua$es is a c ear innovation, most y ori$inatin$ its forms from the nomina domain. The A$hem form in the previous para$raph is a $ood examp eM in some other an$ua$es inc usive forms are compound by ori$in 5e.$. "ami e!e bj6, the phenomenon we discussed above, cf. 3!u possessive suffixes -4 58p . exc usive6, -4! 58st dua 6, -4e' 58p . inc usive6 5" ood 8999B E6. %n the <rassfie ds an$ua$es, the distinction is made between "#be-%4e 5as inc usive6 which is derived from "#ba%-+eB and "be-r- 5as exc usive6. %t is possib e to in! the exc usive form in "-r- in some <rassfie ds an$ua$es 5and its co$nates bele in Mambi oid and vr in 4a!oid6 with l-forms of the 8st person p ura we can find in "antu an$ua$es of Hones A#C. There, forms i!e Mbon$e A lk-, Su A li-B Mbede " and A!wa C le- are used to mar! the sub,ect and, as we stated above in the "antu section, are descendin$ from the &" sub,ect mar!er "*-- 5<uthrie 89=;#;8, vo . 8B ;:6, which is otherwise comp ete y absent from "antoid ton$ues outside "antu. The co$nate forms are a so seen in "asaa A /i and A!oose A /a. The ast case is most interestin$B in A!oose /a means ?we exc usive+ whi e 4 is ?we inc usive+ 52urse :11;6, so the inventory is the same as in <rassfie ds but the meanin$s are the opposite. This seems a c ear proof that a6 there were two 8st person p ura pronouns in &roto#"antoid, and b6 &roto#"antoid did not have c usivity. 3utside pronouns, there are probab y more correspondences between "antu and 2orth "antoid to verify this ideaB cf. &" Veg=^, Mambi oid 5@abri6 1eliB Tivoid 5Tiv6 [1kl ?body+ etc. 5" ench :11CB 81D6. The ?rhotacism+ of -*- between vowe s is fre)uent a around the "antoid area 5as we as beyond, in 2C6B cf. "amum '!* ?mouth+ l '!r-a ?my mouth+ 57ard 89>EB C>>6.
8D9
The "ami e!e 8st person p ura pronouns with a fina - 5"be- 6 is the descendant of the same "+ 5Hyman, p.c.6 as the 2orthern and 7est <rassfie ds -4-B seen e sewhere in "ami e!e in a fina position. The reconstructions we can ma!e are the fo owin$B 58D6 "#ba-%+e 5 "+(e "#be-%r sub,ect N non#sub,ect 5inc usive6B sub,ect N non#sub,ect 5exc usive, <rassfie ds6B
8=1
2nd person plural: Tab e :.C subject Samba#4a!a 4on$ Mambi a Kute Ti!ar Tiv Mesa!a 'simbi 2a!i 2oni Mbe @enyan$ *imbum "amum \emba "ami e!e Mundani Meta A$hem *amnso+ @om Iarawa "waHHa [ 3r be'e 5dua 6 be' 5p .6 '1[ b[ 'dB 'da ]bn be'B 1! d- .. -ly 5 - ] b Saa ) b[ b] 3bc r_ _9 1]B 6] 1['...-[' Sc' object bc be'e 5dua 6 be' 5p 6 '1[ b[ 'e vr_9 #R%bhR'R bR -#a%' vr_ Saa S ;9WuW;9IwWv9Wu v9I S nSc r_ v' 6] *n...-#1%i' 5set 86, n...-#1%i' 5set :6 -'e#'%B 1! -#a%' - x 1dd-B Sdd-B ldd-B 3dd-s' 5tone6 - -['B -9I s$. e'B p . ve' 6yB &hi -i' vr_ Saa possessive vEE be'e '1['a ] 5 b[ 5 4[ -e'B -d'estressed / emphatic vcB vZk' be'e 5dua 6 be' 5p .6 '1[ b[ 'd vr_9 #R%bhR'R
v_8
1['
%n the second person p ura , there seems to be a mixture of various roots, but the reconstruction is easy. An obvious one is "#be-%'e which is seen in both main branches of the "antoid stoc!. %t is present in a the series and has re iab e co$nates in the stressed pronouns of the "antu an$ua$es 5@oonHime A b,', "abo e C b['dB Su!uma P .iSd, Ki i H ba'`, etc.6. &roto#Iarawan "Sc' 5in "waHHa, Mbu a, @u un$, 4u$uri etc.6 su$$ests a different voca ism which may fit the &roto#"antu "be-'(e with a dissimi ation of the vowe after the drop of the pre#fina -(-. Porms without the -'- are seen in those "antoid an$ua$es where the nasa was dropped in the fina position or intervoca y, which is a common feature in "ami e!e an$ua$es 5cf. ?five+B 7i iamson 89;>B C:=6. These forms have correspondences in "antu 2orthwestern Hone AB cf. "asaa A bee ?you p . 5ob,.6+, Ma!aa A b[. 3ther of them, i!e in 2a!i, are mere p ura isations of the :nd person sin$u ar with a p ura affixB 2a!i Sn 5 SR ?you s$.+ l bn 5 bR ?you p .+ This is a fre)uent case in other "enue#Con$o an$ua$es 5cf. Cross River6.
8=8
Mbe has a so $enera ised d- for two p ura persons, and the -ly 5 - ] suffix fo owin$ the verb root in the :nd person p ura represents a continuous or occasiona action respective y 5&oh i$ 89E8B 8>6. 7e can therefore reconstruct for &roto#"antoid on y one formB 58=6 "#ba-%'e 5 "'(e sub,ect N non#sub,ect There is no evidence a owin$ us to distin$uish between the two series of pronouns in the p ura . *et+s now compare the "antu system su$$ested ear ier in this wor! with the "antoid one we ,ust proposed. Tab e :.D Bantu subject 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . "iV^_V=^_"3-non subject "#\%3e "#\%Se "#\%+(e "#\%'(e Other Bantoid subject non subject "3eB "'"\3#e% "! "#ba-%+#(%e "#ba-%'#(%e "Se "#ba-%+#(%e "#ba-%'#(%e
4espite stri!in$ simi arities, here are the ma,or differences we see between the two systems in the chart. %n "antu, there is a very c ear distinction between the two series of persona mar!ers. %t ies in both syntax and meanin$B a ?sub,ect+ series pronoun is overwhe min$ y used as a bound form prefixed to the verb root, whi e the ?non#sub,ect+ series is independent in the sentence. %n other "antoid an$ua$es, where persona pronouns are most y free, this distinction is seen on y when re ic prefixes are preserved. 3n the other hand, "antu sub,ect prefix roots are a most fu y absent from other "antoid ton$ues. An obvious conc usion from these two facts wou d be to su$$est that the "antu sub,ect series of pronouns was near y ost in other "antoid an$ua$es 5more pro$ressive from the morpho o$ica standpoint6, rep aced by the independent pronouns which ac)uired the function of the verb sub,ect. The "antu sub,ect set mi$ht have been a chrono o$ica y ear ier ayer of persona mar!ers than the non#sub,ect set which $radua y rep aced the former in most "antoid an$ua$es. Some of them who preserved prefixation to$ether with the independent sub,ect mar!in$ 5 i!e Mundani6 sti have traces of the o d ?sub,ect+ series. To hi$h i$ht the difference between the two series, an interestin$ examp e can be considered from 2omaande, from "antu AC1 $roup. This $roup is often considered as be on$in$ to ?7ide "antu+ rather than to "antu proper, i.e. standin$ c oser to other South "antoid stoc!s. %ndeed, its pronomina system is a mixture of "antu and South "antoid e ements. %n 2omaande, one verba phrase uses two sub,ect mar!ers, accordin$ to the scheme be owB 58;6 &ronoun 8 l 5TenseNAspect6 l 5&ronoun :6 l Kerb Root, where &ronoun : is used optiona y, probab y for an emphatic purpose. %t mi$ht be seen that &ronoun 8 corresponds with the "antu prefixed sub,ect mar!ers, whi e &ronoun : l with the "antu stressed 5emphatic6 pronouns 5two a ophones of each ref ect the vowe harmony6B
8=:
Tab e :.= 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . Pronoun 1 i5 !5 *( 5 * '( 5 ' Pronoun 2 3i 5 3 !5 4( 5 4 '( 5 '
"oth ob,ect and possessive pronouns of 2omaande are co$nate with &ronoun : series and are c ear y derived from them 53i 5 3 ?me+, -a3 ?my+6 5Tay or 89996. Thus, we can witness the process of how the two systems may co#exist to$ether in one an$ua$e. This transitiona sta$e mi$ht have existed at some chrono o$ica point in &roto#"antoid, but then the &" chose the prefixed form to mar! the sub,ect, whi e other "antoid stoc!s $enera ised the syntactica y independent pronouns. &" did not have a distinction between exc usivity and inc usivity. As for &roto#"antoid, we can confirm the sameB thou$h the ma,ority of its sub#branches do show this differentiation in some of their an$ua$es, it seems to have been deve oped innovative y. The reconstructed &roto#"antoid 5"antu inc uded6 pronomina paradi$m can be viewed in the chart be owB Tab e :.; pre!i"ed #subject$ 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . "iV^_V=^_"3-independent #non subject$ "#\%3e "#\%Se "#ba-%+#(%e "#ba-%'#(%e
After the disso ution of the &roto#"antoid community, the fo owin$ processes appear to have ta!en p ace in &"B 8. &refixed persona mar!ers became the basic means of mar!in$ sub,ect in the sentence, whi e the independent pronouns, which ear ier denoted ob,ect, $ained the emphatic meanin$ and were attached to the nouns to form the possessive mar!ers. :. The new ob,ect mar!ers appeared as suffixed forms inserted into the verba form between the sub,ect mar!er and the verb root 5or, in other cases, after the root6. These new mar!ers were usua y the same as the sub,ect mar!ers, thou$h cou d a so be borrowed from the independent pronouns. >. Amon$ the new ob,ect mar!ers, "- -- was an interna "antu innovation 5or a borrowin$ from some indi$enous an$ua$e6. The other "antoid stoc!s, bein$ apparent y more pro$ressive 5as it is often the case with the hi$h y diverse an$ua$es of the ?home and+ re$ion6 have under$one different chan$esB
8=>
8. The prefixed series went virtua y extinct, and subse)uent y the person is mar!ed by the independent pronouns, which former y denoted the ?non#sub,ect+. Some remnants of the o d bound set of mar!ers are seen in the prefixes of the 8#: persons sin$u ar, which are sti in use in a number of an$ua$es. %n )uite a few ton$ues, they are used to$ether with the independent pronounsB @enyan$ 3 '-/g-g ?% went+ 5RamireH 899EB 8>6, cf. a so the 2omaande examp e above. 2oni has $ot a N- prefix attached to every verb in a seria isation chain. :. %n most an$ua$es, there remained two series of persona pronouns. 'mphatic forms are usua y bui t by redup ication of the non#sub,ect pronoun, and ob,ect forms are often made different from the sub,ect by tona variation, because of their position in the verb form or the phrase. >. Most of <rassfie ds an$ua$es, as we as some other "antoid dia ects, deve oped a comp icated system of compound pronouns to mar! c usivity, dua ity and au$mented pronoun forms. Most of them, as we noted ear ier, were constructed by mer$in$ two or three simp ex pronouns to$ether. This area trait affected "antu as we , e.$. 2orthwestern Hone A an$ua$es such as Ma!aa 5Heath :11>6 and "asaa 5Hyman, p.c.6. C. Some innovations appeared, inc udin$ new pronomina roots which are yet to be exp ained by historica ana ysis. A of them are sub$roup innovations which cannot be traced bac! to the &roto#"antoid eve . *%ST 3P A""R'K%AT%32S. exc . inc . p.c. &" &"C p. s$. exc usive inc usive persona communication &roto#"antu &roto#"enue#Con$o p ura sin$u ar A&&'24%J Ba'*( Per4!'al Mar er4 1st person singular
subject object possessiv e stressed / independen t 3ba "-a3
1. :. >. C. D. =. ;. E.
3ro!o A88e A!oose A8D Manen$uba A8D Mo!pwe A:: 4ua a A:C "en$a A>C "asaa AC> 2en ACC
O_iwW9i 3a 5 N Vp_i '\ 'a 3bi3 3
i9_i
3'
8=C
subject
object
possessiv e ir_p ir_p
stressed / independen t p_ p_
9. 81. 88. 8:. 8>. 8C. 8D. 8=. 8;. 8E. 89. :1. :8. ::. :>. :C. :D. :=. :;. :E. :9. >1. >8. >:. >>. >C. >D. >=. >;. >E. >9. C1. C8. C:. C>. CC.
@pa AD> "afia AD> 2u$unu A=: 'wondo A;:a "u u A;C Ma!aa AE> @onHime AEC @wa!um A98 @a!o A9> Mpon$wee 5Myene6 "88a @ota ":D Kiya ">18 Himba ">1: Tso$o ">8 &in,i ">> &unu "C> &ove 5Kove6 ">C 2Hebi "D: 2dumu "=> %yaa ";>c "oma "E: @eyanHi "ED *e!e C8C "abo e C:1 Mboshi C:D "oban$i C>: *in$a a C>= *in$ombe CC8 4o!o CD1 @e e CDD Mon$o C=8 2!en$o C=8 @e a C;D "ushoon$ CE> *en$o a 48: Mitu!u 48>
3a 5 N p_wW9_i N3R 3B 3e p_ 3e i 3i 5 N3i 5 31 3#a%3a3a 5 3 5 3e '\'a '1i '\ 3 ' '- 5 'i'- 5 'a- 5with ob,6 3 i- 5pos6B 5ne$6 ']- 5 U- 5 '['a'a'a'\'e- 5 i'- 5 '0V'1'- 5 '/- 5 '/!la'i- 5 e'i- 5 'e-
p_ p_
p_ 3eB 3e' 5emph6 ir_rw _ W]
-n3 -x3 &Snn3b_ 33 ]
-\pI -3n-\3[ -a1i -'[ipI
pI#'[% 3I ;pr_ pI9;
NpI '&n pI pI '&n '&n[ -3bi-i-'1-h -'n3[ Irp -i-'-a3i -a'i 3b[ e3e e3i 33ii3 e3i '
8=D
subject
object
possessiv e
stressed / independen t
CD. C=. C;. CE. C9. D1. D8. D:. D>. DC. DD. D=. D;. DE. D9. =1. =8. =:. =>. =C. =D. ==. =;. =E. =9. ;1. ;8. ;:. ;>. ;C. ;D. ;=. ;;. ;E. ;9. E1. E8. E:.
'nya 48C @umu 4:> *e$a 4:D Ho oho o 4:E "i a 4>1 2ya i 4>> 2ande 4C: 2yan$a 4C> Ruri ':D> Cha$$a '>1 <usii 'C: @uria 'C> @i!uyu 'D8 Mashami '=:a Moshi '=:a 7un,o '=:b Rombo '=:c <weno '=D <iryama ';:a 4uruma ';:d 4i$o ';> Taita 54awida6 ';Ca Ton$we P88 Su!uma P:8 2yamweHi P:: 2i amba P>8 Remi P>: 2yaturu P>: *an$i P>> <o$o <88 Casu <:: Shamba a <:> Qa amo <>> Ru$uru <>D Mwani <C1> 5<CCc6 Swahi i <C: @omoro <CCd &o$o u <D8
'','i'3#i%3('1i-'#e%'i-a Sa 'e- 5 '- 5 '1i'i- 5 ''i- 5 4hi- 5 N-a SaB 4hi'/i'&i&i'i- 5 i'i'i''iN-B '4i'- 5 'n'''&(- 5 ('#e%''1-B '#i%'i'i- 5 ''i'#i%'i'i- 5 '*4i- 5 'i'i- 5 '(-'-'i3i 'i1e 'e#'e% a'e -'&(- 5 -('ee'e 'ee'e ,'e -'i-a)! 'e'e ['] -'i-a Sa -a Sn ['] -a ! #1%d] ['] -,''ei9_i -n'd -a'd -3B -3i ''e ''e i3
8==
subject
object
possessiv e
stressed / independen t 'e'e 'e'e
E>. EC. ED. E=. E;. EE. E9. 91. 98. 9:. 9>. 9C. 9D. 9=. 9;. 9E. 99. 811. 818. 81:. 81>. 81C. 81D. 81=. 81;. 81E. 819. 881. 888. 88:. 88>. 88C. 88D. 88=. 88;. 88E. 889. 8:1.
Hehe <=: "ena <=> @in$a <=D Tuba H81A Ki i H8: @unyi H8> *aadi 5*aari6 H8=f Manyan$a H8=b @on$o H8= 2tandu H8=$ Mbundu H:8 Su!u H>: Hun$u H>> Mba a HC8 Haya I ':: Ha I 4== Rwanda I 4=8 <anda I ':: Shi I 4D> Co!we @88 *uimbi @8: *ucaHi @8> *uva e @8C *wena @8C *oHi @:8 *uyana @>8 @wan$ari @>> 4ciri!u @>9 Mbu!ushu @C1 %!uhane @C: @weHo *8> @ete *:8 Son$e *:> *uba *>1 @anyo! *>: @aonde *C8 *unda *D: *uwunda *D>
4- 5 '/'/i'/e3!'! 3]- 5 1]- 5 ]'- 5 '0- 5 ']- 5 3'&i'/i- 5 i-B N'- 5 &i'&iN- 5 1ii- 5 N- 5 '&ii- 5 '- 5 '&iN''a- 5 ''9_i '&('i'0i'&('&('#i%#4%i- 5past6, ']-B 9_i 'i'#i%'i'i'&c''''n''['i--'&(-'i-B -N-'&e-N-'i-'&(-'&(-'&(-N-B -'/i-\3a h_ -3 -\-3#[% -aa'i -'/e-
3]'c 3a'k 3k'k
ie 0e#Se%
\3i
3e'e a3e a3a #1%a3e
8=;
subject
object
possessiv e
stressed / independen t
8:8. 8::. 8:>. 8:C. 8:D. 8:=. 8:;. 8:E. 8:9. 8>1. 8>8. 8>:. 8>>. 8>C. 8>D. 8>=. 8>;. 8>E. 8>9. 8C1. 8C8. 8C:. 8C>. 8CC. 8CD. 8C=. 8C;. 8CE. 8C9. 8D1. 8D8. 8D:. 8D>. 8DC. 8DD. 8D=.
2!oya *=: &imbwe M88 *un$u M8C 2yi!a M:> Safwa M:D 2da i M>18 2ya!yusa#2$onde M>8 "emba MC: *amba MDC *en,e M=8 % a M=> 2dendeu e 2818 Tumbu!a 2:8 2yan,a 2>1 Man$an,a 2>8c Sena 2CC Matuumbi &8> \ao &:8 Mwera &:: Ma!onde &:> Mabiha &:D Ma!huwa &>8 @oti &>88 Umbundu R88 2don$a R:: Herero R>8 \eyi RC8 Shona S81 Kenda S:1 Tswana S>8a Sotho s. S>> Qu u SC: Tswa SD8 Tson$a SD> Copi S=8 <iton$a S=:
'[''i'N'/i- 5 'i'a'-B '4i- #'e&% '/i#i%''i'i'/i'/i'/i'#%''&(- 5 'i- 5 'a'i-B '&a'&(-B 'i#i%i'/#]%- 5 '/(- 5 ''/#i%3b#]%'/i'/i'/]-B -*h[e- 5 ,-B 'YeB #]%-B ''&i'/6]'1i-'/6]-'&s -'1i-'&( \'] e'i -N-N--3i -'&( 3]'n 3]'n -'/]- 5 -'/(5 -'-'/0e-'/0i-'/i-'&s -'&n 3 -n'/0d '&a3e \3] 1a3d ]'[ 9_9: ''a -'-'-'&('&(-'&(-an'&a 'ed'&a -'/i-'/i-'/-'/i-'e
8=E
2nd person singular

subject 1. :. >. C. D. =. ;. E. 9. 81 . 88 . 8: . 8> . 8C . 8D . 8= . 8; . 8E . 89 . :1 . :8 . :: . :> . :C . 3ro!o A88 A!oose A8D Manen$uba A8D Mo#!pwe A:: 4ua a A:C "en$a A>C "asaa AC> 2en ACC "afia AD> @pa AD> 2u$unu A=: 'wondo A;:a Ma!aa AE> @onHime AEC @wa!um A98 @a!o A9> Mpon$wee 5Myene6 "88a @ota ":D Kiya ">18 Himba ">1: Tso$o ">8 &in,i ">> &ove 5Kove6 ">C &unu "C> `Sa 5 a "Sa- 7 ` !! (! ^_iwWi S_ ! S_ &-aB &! _i S `( `k`!`( -2k-_g -2k-g r_ Ir_ aSa -_g r_9; S`&! __wWr_ kk - &Sgg -&' r_ S_ -gg -gg S_ S_ S S' -g object -`possessive stressed / independent !Sa
8=9
subject :D . := . :; . :E . :9 . >1 . >8 . >: . >> . >C . >D . >= . >; . >E . >9 . C1 . C8 . C: . C> . CC . CD 2Hebi "D: %yaa ";>c "oma "E: @eyanHi "ED "oma "E: *e!e C8C Mboshi C:D "abo e C:1 A!wa C:: "oban$i C>: "o ia C>Db *in$a a C>=d *in$ombe CC8 4o!o CD1 @e e CDD Mon$o C=8 2!en$o C=8 @e a C;D "ushoon$ CE> *en$o a 48: Mitu!u 48> ( Sc 9I 2-!', `!!!!!/`!!(!a!(-
object
possessive
stressed / independent
-2--
' I I I
- !- !1kB 1
I -- !- -'nS -h
I h
-naB -! -'d- (-!1i -abd
S' !Se (Se
8;1
subject
object
possessive
C= . C; . CE . C9 . D1 . D8 . D: . D> . DC . DD . D= . D; . DE . D9 . =1 . =8 . =: . => . =C . =D .
'nya 48C @umu 4:> *e$a 4:D Ho oho o 4:E "i a 4>1 2ya i 4>> 2ande 4C: 2yan$a 4C> Ruri ':D> Cha$$a '>1 <usii 'C: @uria 'C> @i!uyu 'D8 Mashami '=:a Moahi '=:a Hai '=:a 7un,o '=:b Rombo '=:c <weno '=D <iryama ';:
!-((- 5 !5B !5e (((#!%(-aT! !-5S-B &S5 S!5(5So(!-5(((((- 5 ((- s- 5 -(- (-aT! -a)Tk [.a &S-5 S-5 !5&!(-5&(-5 S5&S- -- (s-B !-5(- (-aT! -a)T! #1%dSa [1` - ((&Se - (kbd -!&d - (&Se &Se (Se
8;8
subject == . =; . =E . =9 . ;1 . ;8 . ;: . ;> . ;C . ;D . ;= . ;; . ;E . ;9 . E1 . E8 . E: . E> . EC . ED . E= 4i$o ';> Taita 54awida6 ';Ca Sa$a a ';Cb Ton$we P81 Su!uma P:8 2yamweHi P:: 2i amba P>8 Remi P>: 2yaturu P>: *an$i P>> <o$o <88 @a$uru <8: Casu <:: Shamba a <:> Qa amo <>> @i#mwani <C1> Swahi i <C:d @omoro <CCd &o$o u <D8 Hehe <=: "ena <=> -(((---(--(- 5 (((((-5 ((- 5 ((- 5 S(- 5 h(&(((-
object - -- (- (-
possessive
stressed / independent .e.e
-a !
kh`
- (- (- --'&(- 5 -(-
.ee.e .ee.e -e
&Se&Se - (- (- (iSe
- (-h(-&(- 5 -&Sveve - (veve
8;:
subject
object
possessive
E; . EE . E9 . 91 . 98 . 9: . 9> . 9C . 9D . 9= . 9; . 9E . 99 . 81 1. 81 8. 81 :. 81 >. 81 C. 81 D. 81 =.
@in$a <=D Tuba H81A Ki i H8: @on$o H8= *aadi 5*aari6 H8=f Mbundu H:8 Su!u H>: Hun$u H>> Mba a HC8 Haya I ':: Ha I 4== Rwanda I 4=8 <anda I '8D Shi I 4D> Co!we @88 *ucaHi @8> *uva e @8C *wena @8C *oHi @:8 *uyana @>8 (- 5 !sS(((((- 5 (#aT*er n-% ('&d Ss- 5 ss- 5 `s(S(- 5 S((- 5 &(!(-
- (-
- c- c- s-
-\\ c -\ s aa (
'/a1] '&aB '&d1a '&a&id
- (- ((5&(5 S5&S - (- c-
iSe Se#Se%
- (-
- (-
Se'e
8;>
subject 81 ;. 81 E. 81 9. 88 1. 88 8. 88 :. 88 >. 88 C. 88 D. 88 =. 88 ;. 88 E. 88 9. 8: 1. 8: 8. 8: :. 8: >. 8: C. 8: D. 8: =. 8: @wan$ari @>> 4ciri!u @>9 Mbu!ushu @C1 %!uhane @C: @weHo *8> @ete *:8 Son$e *:> *uba *>1 @anyo! *>: @aonde *C8 *unda *D: *uwunda *D> 2!oya *=: &imbwe M88 *un$u M8C 2yi!a M:> Safwa M:D 2da i M>18 2ya!yusa#2$onde M>8 "emba MC: *amba MDC !2(- 5 (- 5 S&h((c!!c-B (c(c(c-c(((- 5 &((- 5 &(- 5 &S((-
object - (- (- (-
possessive
stressed / independent !ve !.a #1%!Se
- (-
-&(- 5 -&S- 5 - (- (-
(&Se
8;C
subject
object
possessive
8: E. 8: 9. 8> 1. 8> 8. 8> :. 8> >. 8> C. 8> D. 8> =. 8> ;. 8> E. 8> 9. 8C 1. 8C 8. 8C :. 8C >. 8C C. 8C D. 8C =. 8C ;.
% a M=> 2dendeu e 2818 Tumbu!a 2:8 2yan,a 2>1 2yan,a 2>1 Man$an,a 2>8c Sena 2CC Matuumbi &8> \ao &:8 Mwera &:: Ma!onde &:> Mabiha &:D Ma!huwa &>8 @oti &>88 Umbundu R88 2don$a R:: Herero R>8 \eyi RC8 Shona S81 Kenda S:1
(((((((-(- 5 3(((((!`(-s((s- 5 S-
-'/-
- (-
- --3(- (- (- (-
-an !
Sed'&a
-['1(B naB n!
- (- c- (- c- (-s- 5 -S- ` s -ka
kva '&!1d `va 1aSd ]Sd ]Sa
8;D
subject 8C E. 8C 9. 8D 1. 8D 8. 8D :. 8D >. 8D C. Sotho S. S>> Qu u SC: Tswa SD8 Tswana SD> Tson$a SD> Copi S=8 <iton$a S=: (- 5 S`s- 5 S-5S (-
object --- 5 -S- (-
possessive
- h` - !
Sa'n Sa'n S'a
-&!- (- 5 -s- 5 -S-
&a&!
- ! 2(-2!
aSe (Se
1st person plural

subject 1. :. >. C. D. =. ;. E. 9. 81. 88. 8:. 8>. 8C. 8D. 8=. 8;. 8E. 89. *undu A81 3ro!o A88e A!oose A8D Manen$uba A8D Mo!pwe A:: Su A:> 4ua a A:C "en$a A>C "asaa AC> 2en ACC "afia AD> @pa AD> 2u$unu A=: 'wondo A;:a Ma!aa AE> @oonHime AEC @wa!um A98 @a!o A9> Mpon$we 5Myene6 "88a 4i lk4 5exc 6, /a 5inc 6 "4y] li /i h( 5 h! /i *c *]*]/e bi[ _W5exc 6B _W5inc 6 bz4 r_ S(4 6(- 5 6S_W5exc 6B _W5inc 6 bz4 r_ 4c 5exc 6B 4hd 5inc 6 -[4 &Sc4hc r_ S(4 3]'[ 3]'[ -[4 -[4 3]'[ 3]'[ .4 .4 "-\[ -l`i4 object possessive stressed / independent
8;=
subject :1. :8. ::. :>. :C. :D. :=. :;. :E. :9. >1. >8. >:. >>. >C. >D. >=. >;. >E. >9. C1. C8. C:. C>. CC. CD. C=. C;. CE. C9. D1. D8. D:. D>. DC. DD. D=. D;. DE. D9. @ota ":D Kiya ">18 Himba ">1: Tso$o ">8 &in,i ">> &ove 5Kove6 ">C &unu "C> 2Hebi "D: 2dumu "=> %yaa ";>c "oma "E: @eyanHi "ED 2$ondi C88 *e!e C8C "abo e C:1 A!wa C:: Mboshi C:D "oban$i C>: *in$a a C>=d *in$ombe CC8 4o!o CD1 @e e CDD Mon$o C=8 2!en$o C=8 @e a C ;D "ushoon$ CE> "o ia C>Db *en$o a 48: Mitu!u 48> 'nya 48C @umu 4:> *e$a 4:D Ho oho o 4:E "i a 4>1 2ya i 4>> 2ande 4C: 2yan$a 4C> Ruri ':D> Cha$$a '>1 <usii 'C: *!-5*S3['i *s*!*`*!*`*(lRle/] 5 lib[*!*!*`leb[4[ l!*!l!`*!*!**!*a*!*(*(*b,*(*(.,- 5 .ii*(*(#e%+i-
object
possessive
stressed / independent ]*c I I ]*k
-\*k -*k-*k-\4k -a4! -\*k
b[4d b[4[ -l!-
b[4d
b[4d b[4[ b[4k
-*-*-
-4k -'[4k -[i*
e4c [4k b[i* 0ce b*
-*c-*c-
-a4c -*c
b[4Sd -*(-4(B (4c
-[*c -e*c -4c
b[4Sd bee*S .d4c (4c
-eh(
8;;
subject =1. =8. =:. =>. =C. =D. ==. =;. =E. =9. ;1. ;8. ;:. ;>. ;C. ;D. ;=. ;;. ;E. ;9. E1. E8. E:. E>. EC. ED. E=. E;. EE. E9. 91. 98. 9:. 9>. 9C. 9D. 9=. 9;. 9E. @uria 'C> @i!uyu 'D8 @amba 'DD Mashami '=:a Moshi '=:a Rombo '=:c 7un,o '=:b <weno '=D <weno '=D <iryama ';: 2iy!a ';: 4i$o ';> Taita 54awida6 ';Ca Ton$we P88 Su!uma P:8 2yamweHi P:: 2i amba P>8 2yaturu P>: *an$i P>> <o$o <88 @a$uru <8: Casu <:: Shamba a <:> "ondei <:C Qi$u a <>1 Qaramo <>> Ru$uru <>D Mwani <C1> Swahi i <C: @omoro <CCd &o$o u <D8 Hehe <=: "ena <=> @in$a <=D Tuba H81A Ki i H8: @on$o H8= Manyan$a H8=b *aadi 5*aari6 H8=f *!-5*(-5*S*!*i-B *!l(l((l(T(T(T(- 5exc 6B h(- 5inc 6 h(-i'4i- 5ne$6 *-*---*-+i- 5 (*4i*!*(- 5 *i*i*i*(*(*i*(-5*Sri*(*(*(*i-B *(bd*! ba4B *s- 5 **s*(*s-
object
possessive
-l(-l(c-
-er( -e( -e(
#e%d4a 4k 4k
-Tc-
-erc
4e4e -i-e( [4] .ii4Se i4Se i41e
a4e
i4hSi *Se#*Se%
hSehSe 'eTSe bd*! -*c-*s-*s-]]*c -a*` -a*` ba4` 1d*` 1d*`
8;E
subject 99. 811 . 818 . 81: . 81> . 81C . 81D . 81= . 81; . 81E . 819 . 881 . 888 . 88: . 88> . 88C . 88D . 88= . 88; . 88E . 889 . Mbundu H:8 Su!u H>: Hun$u H>> Mba a HC8 Haya I ':: Ha I 4== Rwanda I 4=8 <anda I ':: Shi I 4D> Co!we @88 *ucaHi @8> *uva e @8C *wena @8C *oHi @:8 *uyana @>8 @wan$ari @>> 4ciri!u @>9 Mbu!ushu @C1 %!uhane @C: @weHo *8> @ete *:8 *(*(*(/(le-B *(*(*(- 5 /(*(rh(*(*(*(*(l(*s*(*(- 5 *S*(*(/c+S(-
object
possessive
i+Se *Se#bSe%
-*(-
a*(
-*s-*(-*(- 5 -*S-
a+i !4e #a%*Sa 1a*Se
8;9
subject 8:1 . 8:8 . 8:: . 8:> . 8:C . 8:D . 8:= . 8:; . 8:E . 8:9 . 8>1 . 8>8 . 8>: . 8>> . 8>C . 8>D . 8>= . 8>; . 8>E . 8>9 . 8C1 Son$e *:> *uba *>1 @anyo! *>: @aonde *C8 *unda *D: *uwunda *D> 2!oya *=: &imbwe M88 *un$u M8C Safwa M:D 2da i M>18 2ya!yusa#2$onde M>8 "emba MC: *amba MDC % a M=> 2dendeu e 2818 Tumbu!a 2:8 2yan,a 2>1 Man$an,a 2>8c Sena 2CC 2yun$we 2 *(*(*c*(*(*(*c*-*c*(*(*--5*S*(*(*(*i*i*i*i*i*i-
object
possessive
-*(-
-4Se
8E1
subject
object
possessive
stressed / independent *Sed'&a
8C8 . 8C: . 8C> . 8CC . 8CD . 8C= . 8C; . 8CE . 8C9 . 8D1 . 8D8 . 8D: . 8D> . 8DC . 8DD . 8D= . 8D; . 8DE .
Matuumbi &8> \ao &:8 Ma!onde &:> Ma!huwa &>8 @oti &>88 Umbundu R88 2don$a R:: \eyi RC8 Herero R>8 Shona S81 Kenda S:1 Tswana S>8a Sotho S. S>> Qu u SC: Tswa SD8 Tson$a SD> Copi S=8 <iton$a S=:
*-*(*('#i%'i*s*(*i*s*ire- 5 r#]%rer#]%4i-
-*--*(-*(-
ffg=^
[h(
-*s-*(-*i-*(-d*s -]s r#]%-rer#]%-]*hs -ir( -4hc r!'a
d*s *4d 1e*4hSe a*a ]4c 9E: r!'a
*h]'n h]'n
h#]%-*hc h#i%h#i%-*h( a*h( e*h(
2nd person plural
8E8
subject 1. :. >. C. D. =. ;. E. 9. 81. 88. 8:. 8>. 8C. 8D. 8=. 8;. 8E. 89. :1. :8. ::. :>. :C. :D. :=. :;. :E. :9. >1. >8. >:. >>. >C. >D. >=. >;. >E. >9. A!oose A8D Manen$uba A8D Mo#!pwe A:: 4ua a A:C "en$a A>C "asaa AC> 2en ACC "afia AD> @pa AD> 2u$unu A=: 'wondo A;:a Ma!aa AE> @oonHime AEC @wa!um A98 @a!o A9> *undu A 7ori A "u u A Mpon$wee "88a Kiya ">18 Himba ">1: Tso$o ">8 &in,i ">> Kove ">C &unu "C> 2Hebi "D: %yaa ";>c "oma "E: 2$ondi C88 *e!e C8C "abo e C:1 Mboshi C:D 2$iri C>8b "oban$i C>: *in$a a C>= "o ia C>Db *in$ombe CC8 4o!o CD1 @e e CDD b-b!l!b!-B !-...-'i `b!'-3i'S's'!'`'!'`/(lR/]bi !b`b['[ '1 5exc 6, bd 5{>p 6 "'1ya i !...'i 'i 'c .]lk-B -'iB .]' 3i[ b[ b,' 9r_ S('
object
possessive
"-\'1[
.ee .]4[ -l!-[' -['
.ee .]4[ .]4[
b[ b,' 9r_ -'i-
-[' &S( /]' S('
-\'k -'k-'k-\k -a! ir_9h
]'c \j \j ]'k
-b-
b['d 3i -b--
b['d
b['d
'cB 'c'[ --'k
'cB 'c'[ e'c
8E:
subject C1. C8. C:. C>. CC. CD. C=. C;. CE. C9. D1. D8. D:. D>. DC. DD. D=. D;. DE. D9. =1. =8. =:. =>. =C. =D. ==. =;. =E. =9. ;1. ;8. ;:. ;>. ;C. ;D. ;=. Mon$o C=8 2!en$o C=8 @e a C;D "ushoon$ CE> *en$o a 48: Mitu!u 48> C#enya 48C @umu 4:> *e$a 4:D Ho oho o 4:E "i a 4>1 2ya i 4>> 2ande 4C: 2yan$a 4C> Ruri ':D> Cha$$a '>1 <usii 'C: @uria 'C> @amba 'DD Mashami '=:a Moshi '=:a Rombo '=:c 7un,o '=:b <weno '=D <iryama ';: 2i!a ';: 4i$o ';> Taita 54awida6 ';Ca &o!omo ';8 Ton$we P81 Su!uma P:8 2yamweHi P:: 2i amba P>8 2yaturu 5Rimi6 P>: *an$i P>> <o$o <88 Casu <:: 3!- 5 3S3!- 5 3(- 5 3S3-3(3(3(3#(%33(3(3-3- 5 3(3(3(33(-B 33-3P3-3(3(l!l/!b('(3(- 5 3!bb-3(3(- 5 3!b- 5 b'i3(3(#!%3(-
object
possessive
stressed / independent ['1k -bSii' ce 3'
-l-
-'['1k -[i'
-'d-3c-
-a'c -'c
biSd -3(-
-[c -e'1c -'c
b[Sd bee'1S .d'c
-a'( -ba-ba-3-3(-3(-a -e'( -e'( ipgi -ba-3(-3(.iSd -Sa3--3PiSd ie -e( ee [s -ec #1%d'] k 5 Sd -k
ae
8E>
subject ;;. ;E. ;9. E1. E8. E:. E>. EC. ED. E=. E;. EE. E9. 91. 98. 9:. 9>. 9C. 9D. 9=. 9;. 9E. 99. 811 . 818 . 81: . 81> . 81C . 81D . 81= . 81; . 81E Shamba a <:> Qa amo <>> Ru$uru <>D Mwani <C1> Swahi i <C: @omoro <CCd &o$o u <D8 %!i#hehe <=: Hehe <=: "ena <=> @i#tuba H81A Ki i H8: @unyi H8> @on$o H8= Manyan$a H8=b *aadi 5*aari6 H8=f @i#mbundu H:8 @i#su!u H>: 4i#Hun$u H>> <i#mba a HC8 Haya I ':: Ha I 4== Rwanda I 4=8 <anda I ':: Shi I 4D> Co!we @88 *uva e @8C *ucaHi @8> *oHi @:8 *uyana @>8 @wan$ari @>> 4ciri!u @>9 3(- 5 33(3#(%3(3#S%h(3#(%3(3(3(be'! #ba-%'B l- 5 ls/(ls-B 'sl(ls'(l('('(3(3(3(3(3('(3(3(l(3(3(3(- 5 3S-
object
possessive
stressed / independent iSi 3Se3Se 3Se#3Se%
-Sa-
-Sa-h(-3(-3(- 5 -Sa-
-ls-ls-ls-
-]]-'c -a'` ee'!
ba-'` 1d'` baa'k
-3(-3(-B -ba-ba-3(-
iSe 3Se#3Se%
-3i-
a'(
-3i-3(-3(- 5 -3S-
a'1i !'e
8EC
subject
object
possessive
stressed / independent #1%a3Se
819 . 881 . 888 . 88: . 88> . 88C . 88D . 88= . 88; . 88E . 889 . 8:1 . 8:8 . 8:: . 8:> . 8:C . 8:D . 8:= . 8:; . 8:E .
Mbu!ushu @C1 %!uhane @C: @weHo *8> @ete *:8 Son$e *:> *uba *>1 Ciin#!anyo! *>: @aonde *C8 *unda *D: Uru#wund *D> Shi#n!oya *=: &imbwe M88 *un$u M8C 2yi!a M:> Safwa M:D 2da i M>18 2ya!yusa#2$onde M>8 "emba MC: *amba MDC % a M=> 3(3c3'('('c3(3c(3c3#-%3c3(3(3(3-- 5 3S3(3(3(-
-3(-
-'(-
-ba-3(-
(3Se
8ED
subject 8:9 . 8>1 . 8>8 . 8>: . 8>> . 8>C . 8>D . 8>= . 8>; . 8>E . 8>9 . 8C1 . 8C8 . 8C: . 8C> . 8CC . 8CD . 8C= . 8C; . 8CE . 8C9 2dendeu e 2818 Tumbu!a 2:8 2yan,a 2>1 2yun$we 2C> Sena 2CC Matuumbi &8> \ao &:8 Mwera &:: Ma!onde &:> Mabiha &:D @oti &>88 Ma!huwa &>8 Umbundu R88 2don$a R:: Herero R>8 \eyi RC8 Shona S81 Kenda S:1 Tswana S>8a Sotho S. S>> Qu u SC: 3(3(3(3(3(3-3(- 5 33(3(3(3(3(b(- 5 vs3(3s'i3('#]%l!l#]%3(-
object
possessive
-3--Sa- 5 -3(-
-'-
3Sed'&a vaa3Se
-3(-3(-
3Se)!
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Arnott, 4.7. 89E1 Y89=EZ. Tiv. %nB @ropp 4a!ubu, M.'. 5ed.6 7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets. Ko . :. 7est African *in$uistic Society. "astin, \vonne, CoupeH, A. L Mann, M. 8999. Continuity and 4iver$ence in the "antu *an$ua$esB &erspectives from a *exicostatistica Study. TervurenB MRAC. "ennett, &. L Ster!, I. 89;;. South#Centra 2i$er#Con$oB a Rec assification. Studies in African *in$uistics E, 89;;B pp. :C8#:;>. "enveniste, 'mi e. 89;8. &rob ems in <enera *in$uistics. Miami. " ee!, 7.H.%. Y8E=:#8E=9Z. A Comparative <rammar of South African *an$ua$es. *ondonB TrjbnerM <re$$ %nternationa , 89;8. " ench, Ro$er. 89E9. A proposed new c assification of "enue#Con$o an$ua$es. Afri!anische Arbeitspapiere, @| n, 8;B pp. 88D#8C;. " ench, Ro$er. :11C. The "enue#Con$o *an$ua$esB a &roposed %nterna C assification. Manuscript YhttpBNNwww.ro$erb ench.infoZ. " ench, Ro$er. :11=. Iarawan "antuB 2ew 4ata and %ts Re ation to "antu. Manuscript YhttpBNNwww.ro$erb ench.infoZ. " ench, Ro$er. :11=a. The 4 54on$6 *an$ua$e and %ts Affinities. Manuscript YhttpBNNwww.ro$erb ench.infoZ. " ood, Cynthia. :11>. The 3!u 2oun C ass System. \aound-B S%* Cameroon. "oyd, Raymond. 89E9. Adamawa#Uban$i. %nB "endor#Samue , Iohn 5ed.6 2i$er#Con$o *an$ua$es. 2\ l *ondonB *anham, 89E9. &p. 8;E#:8D. "oyd, Raymond. 899C. Historica perspectives on Chamba 4a!a. @| nB Rjdi$er @|ppe. "ut er, *indsay @. :11E. *o$ophoric 'ffects and C "indin$. Manuscript. Campbe , *y e. 899E. Historica *in$uistisB an %ntroduction. 'dinbur$hB 'dinbur$h University &ress. Campbe , *y e L &oser, 7i iam. :11E. *an$ua$e C assificationB History and Method. Cambrid$eB Cambrid$e University &ress. Co eman, A. 'simbi 4ictionary. Manuscript YhttpBNNwww.ro$erb ench.infoZ. Coo!, T.*. 89;8. Report of the "enue#Con$o 7or!in$ <roup of the 7est African *in$uistic Society. NN Actes du Ee Con$r(s de a Soci-t- in$uisti)ue de +Afri)ue 3ccidenta e. Anna es de +Universite d+Abid,an, Serie H, :B DD9#D;C, Abid,anB Universit- d+Abid,an. Creisse s, 4enis. 899>. 4escription des an$ues n-$ro#africaines et th-orie syntaxi)ue. <renob eB '**U<. Cysouw, Michae . :11>. The &arady$matic Structure of &erson Mar!in$. 3xfordB 3xford University &ress. 4e 7o f, &au . 89;8. The 2oun C ass System of &roto#"enue#Con$o. The Ha$ueB Mouton. 4emuth, @atherine A isonM Parac as, 2icho as <re$ory, L Marchese, *yne . 89ED. 2i$er#Con$o noun c ass and a$reement systems in historica and ac)uisition perspective. %nB &apers from the 8Dth African in$uistics conference, p. ;E#E:. 'd. by Russe <a en Schuh. Supp . 9 to Studies
8E;
in African in$uistics. *os An$e esB African Studies Center L 4ept. of *in$uistics, Univ. of Ca ifornia at *os An$e es 5UC*A6. 4emuth, @atherine A isonM Parac as, 2icho as <re$oryM L Marchese, *yne . 89E=. 2i$er#Con$o noun c asses and a$reement systems in an$ua$e ac)uisition and historica chan$e. %nB 2oun c asses and cate$oriHation, p. CD>#C;8. 'd. by Co ette <rineva d Crai$. Typo o$ica studies in an$ua$e, n. ;. Amsterdam L &hi ade phiaB Iohn "en,amins &ub . 4ieu, Miche L Renaud, &atric!. 89E>. Situation in$uisti)ue en Afri)ue centra e l inventaire pr- iminaireB e Cameroun. At as in$uisti)ue de +Afri)ue centra e. At as in$uisti)ue de Cameroun. &arisB ACCTM \aound-B 4<RST N C'R43T3*A. 4ixon, R.M.7. 899;. The rise and fa of an$ua$es. Cambrid$eB Cambrid$e University &ress. 'hret, Christopher. 899E. An African C assica A$eB 'astern and Southern Africa in 7or d History, 8111 ".C. to A.4. C11. Char ottesvi eB University &ress of Kir$inia. 'hret, Christopher. 8999. Subc assifyin$ "antuB Stem#Morpheme %nnovations. %nB Hombert L Hyman 5eds.6, "antu Historica *in$uistics. CS*% *ecture 2otes, no. 99, pp. C>#8CE. StanfordB CS*%. ' ias, &., *eroy, I., L Koorhoeve, I. 89EC. Mbam#2!am or 'astern <rassfie ds. Afri!a und }bersee, *JK%%, pp. >8#81;. Piore, *ynne L &ec!, &atricia. 89E1 Y89;>Z. *imbum. %nB @ropp 4a!ubu, M.'. 5ed.6 7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets. Ko . :. 7est African *in$uistic Society. <iv`n, Ta my. 89;:. Studies in Chi"emba and "antu <rammar. SA*, supp. >. <ood, Ieff. :11D. A S!etch of 2a!i <rammar. M&% 'KA, Manuscript. <ood, Ieff L <j demann, Tom. :11=. The "antu verba prefixes and S#Aux#3#K order in "enue#Con$o. S3AS, University of *ondon, :: Apri :11=. <rebe, @ar L <rebe, 7innifred. 89E1 Y89;>Z. *amnso). %nB @ropp 4a!ubu, M.'. 5ed.6 7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets. Ko . :. 7est African *in$uistic Society. <reenber$, Ioseph. 89DD. Studies in African *in$uistic C assification. 2ew HavenB Compass. <reenber$, Ioseph. 89=>. The *an$ua$es of Africa. The Ha$ueB MoutonM %IA* :9.8, " oomin$tonB %ndiana University &ress. <reenber$, Ioseph. 89;:. *in$uistic evidence re$ardin$ "antu ori$ins. Iourna of African History, 8>. <reenber$, Ioseph. 89;;. 2i$er#Con$o noun c ass mar!ersB prefixes, suffixes, both or neither. %nB &roceedin$s of the Eth conference on African in$uistics, p. 9C#81C. 'd. by Martin Mou d L Thomas Ioseph Hinnebusch. Supp . ; to Studies in African in$uistics. *os An$e esB African Studies Center L 4ept. of *in$uistics, Univ. of Ca ifornia at *os An$e es. <r-$oire, C aire. :11>. The "antu *an$ua$es of the Porest. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. >C9#>;1. <j demann, Tom. :11>. <rammatica iHation. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. 8E:#89C. <uthrie, Ma co m. 89CE. The C assification of the "antu *an$ua$es. *ondonB 4awsonsM 3xfordB 3xford University &ress. <uthrie, Ma co m. 89=;#89;8. Comparative "antu. An %ntroduction to the Comparative *in$uistics and &ehisotry of the "antu *an$ua$es. Ko s 8#C. Parnborou$hB <re$$ %nternationa &ub ishers. Ha$e$e, C aude. 89=9. 's)uisse in$uisti)ue du Ti!ar. &arisB S'*AP. Harro, <retchen, L Haynes, 2ancy. 8998. <rammar S!etch of \emba. \aound-B S%* Cameroon. Heath, Teresa. :11>. Ma!aa. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. >>D#>CE. Hedin$er, Robert. 89E;. The Manen$uba *an$ua$e 5"antu A.8D, Mbo C uster6 of Cameroon. *ondonB University of *ondon. Hedin$er, Robert. 89E9. 2orthern "antoid. %nB The 2i$er#Con$o an$ua$es 5ed. by Iohn Theodor "endor#Samue 6, %nB *anham l 2ew \or! l *ondonB University &ress of America, p. C:8#C>1. Hombert, Iean#Marie. 89E1. *e < roupe 2oun. %nB Hyman, *arry L Koorhoeve, Ian 5eds.6, *es c asses nomina es dans e bantou des <rassfie ds. *+expansion bantoue, vo . 8. &arisB S'*AP, pp. 8C>#8=>. Hyman, *arry. 89;9. A$hem <rammatica Structure. %nB SC3&%* ;. *os An$e esB UC*A. Hyman, *arry. 89E1. "aban!i and the Rin$ <roup. %nB Hyman, *arry L Koorhove, Ian 5eds.6, *es c asses nomina es dans e bantou des <rassfie ds. *+expansion bantoue, vo . 8. &arisB S'*AP, pp. ::>#:DE. Hyman, *arry. :11>. Se$menta &hono o$y. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. C:#DE.
8EE
Hyman, *arry. :11;. 2i$er#Con$o Kerb 'xtensionsB 3verview and 4iscussion. %nB Se ected &roceedin$s of the >;th Annua Conference on African *in$uistics, ed. 4oris &ayne L Iaime &eca, pp. 8C9#8=>. Somervi eB Cascadi a &roceedin$s &ro,ect. Iohnston, Harry. 8989#89::. A Comparative Study of the "antu and Semi#"antu *an$ua$es. Ko s 8#:. 3xfordB C arendon &ress. Iones, Randy. :118. &rovisiona @om#'n$ ish *exicon. \aound-B S%* Cameroon. @rause, <.A. 8E9D. 4ie Ste un$ des Temne innerha b der "antusprachen. Qeitschrift fjr afri!anische, ostasiatische und oHeanische Sprachen, no. 8. &p. :D1#:=;. @ropp 4a!ubu, Mary 'sther. 7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets. Ko s 8#:. 7est African *in$uistic Society. 89;=#89E1. *on$tau, Se but L " ench, Ro$er. :11;. Taro! 4ictionary. @| nB Rjdi$er @|ppe. *ucas, I. L 7i ms, A. 3ut ine of the *an$ua$e of the Iarawa in 2orthern 2i$eria 5& ateau &rovince6. %nB Afri!a und }bersee, vo . CD, no. 8#:. *ux, 4avid. :11>. 2oni &rovisiona *exicon. \aound-B S%* Cameroun. Maho, Iouni. :11>. A C assification of the "antu *an$ua$esB an Update of <uthrie+s Referentia System. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. =>9#=D8. Mbua$baw, Tanyi 'yon$. 899E. @enyan$ *exicon. \aound-B Society for @enyan$ *iterature, CA"TA*. Meeussen, Achi e. 89=D. Reconstructions $rammatica es du bantou. TervurenB Mus-e Roya de +Afri)ue Centra e 5MRAC6. Meeussen, Achi e. 89=;. "antu $rammatica reconstructions. Africana in$uistica >, Anna es van het @onin! i,! Museum voor Midden#Africa =8B ;9#8:8. Tervuren. Meeussen, Achi e. 89;=. 2oun c ass systems in 2i$er#Con$o. Tervuren. Meinhof, Car . 891=. <rundHj$e einer ver$ eichende <rammati! der "antusprachen. "er in. Miehe, <udrun. :11C. *es pronoms persone es dans es an$ues $ur. %nB %brisHimow, 4. L Se$erer, <. 5eds.6 Syst(mes de mar)ues personne es en Afri)ue. Co ection ~Afri)ue et *an$a$e, E, p. 8D8#8=:. *ouvain l &arisB &eeters. MoniOo, \. 899D. *e &roto#<baya B 'ssai de in$uisti)ue comparative histori)ue sur vin$t#et#une an$ues d+Afri)ue centra e. *ouvain#&aris B &eeters. Mous, Maarten. :11>. 2en. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. :E>#>1=. Mu!arovs!y, Hans. 89;=#89;;. A Study of 7estern 2i$ritic. Ko s 8#:. KiennaB %nstitut fjr Ae$ipto o$ie und Afri!anisti!. 2urse, 4ere!. :11;. Tense and Aspect in "antu. 3xfordB 3xford University &ress. Appendices 8#:B httpBNNwww.ucs.mun.caNdnurseNtabantu.htm 2urse, 4ere! L &hi ipson, <-rard. :11>. Towards a Historica C assification of the "antu *an$ua$es. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. 8=C#8E8. 2urse, 4ere! L &hi ipson, <-rard. :11>a. %ntroduction. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. 8#8:. 3 son, @enneth. :11C. An 'va uation of 2i$er#Con$o C assification. S%* %nternationa . &ar!er, ' iHabeth. 8998. Conditiona s in Mundani. %nB Tense and Aspect in 'i$ht *an$ua$es of Cameroon. Stephen Anderson and "ernard Comrie 5eds6. &p. 8=D#8EE. &ar!er, ' iHabeth, L 4urrant, Christine. 8991. Mundani#'n$ ish *exicon. \aound-B S%* Cameroon. &errin, Mona. 89E1 Y89;>Z. Mambi a. %nB @ropp 4a!ubu, M.'. 5ed.6 7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets. Ko . :. 7est African *in$uistic Society. &oh i$, Iames. 89E8. The Mbe KerbB a 4escription of the Kerb System of Mbe, a *an$ua$e of the 2orth Cross River State, 2i$eria. Manuscript. &oHdnia!ov, @onstantin L Se$erer, <ui aume. :11C. Reconstruction des pronoms at anti)ues et typo o$ie des syst(mes pronominaux. %nB %brisHimow, 4. L Se$erer, <. 5eds.6 Syst(mes de mar)ues personne es en Afri)ue. Co ection ?Afri)ue et *an$a$e+, E, p. 8D8#8=:. *ouvain l &arisB &eeters. RamireH, Cristi. 899E. The @enyan$ 2oun &hrase. \aound-B S%* Cameroon. Schadeber$, Thi o. 89E8. The Heiban <roup. Ko . 8B The Survey of @ordofanian. Hambur$B He mut "us!e. Schadeber$, Thi o. :11>. Historica *in$uistics. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. 8C>#8=>. Schu H, <eor$e. 899;. @om *an$ua$e <rammar S!etch. &art 8. \aound-B S%* Cameroon.
8E9
Se$erer, <ui aume. :11:#:11;. *es mar)ues personne es dans es an$ues africaines, Ybase de donn-es en i$neZ. httpBNNsuma e.v,f.cnrs.frNpronoms. Se$erer, <ui aume. :11E. *es an$ues 2i$er#Con$o. %nB STUVWX a.. YQhe tov, A.\.Z :11E. b eTi#bWeWB cVibVieW#efTcbf VhWUW. B fVTUcVXW febV#TVTiicbWW eXTicVTVf. YThe 2i$er#Con$o *an$ua$esB Structura and 4ynamic Typo o$y. Saint#&etersbur$B Saint#&etersbur$ University.Z Spreda, @a us 7. 899D. 4raft and 2otes Towards a S!etch <rammar of Meta+. \aound-B S%* Cameroon. Stan ey, Caro . 8998. 4escription morpho#syntaxi)ue da a an$ue ti!ar 5par -e au Cameroun6. *i eB Soci-t- %nternationa de *in$uisti)ue. Stewart, Iohn M. 89;=. Towards Ko ta#Con$o reconstructions 5inau$ura ecture6. *eidenB *eiden University &ress. Taman,i, &ius 2. :11=. Concord and 4& structure in "afut. Afri!anisti! on ine, no. D9D. Tay or, Carrie. 8999. &ronouns in 2omaande. \aound-B S%* Cameroon. Thwin$, Rhonda A. 89E;. The Kute 2oun &hrase and the Re ationship "etween Kute and "antu. &aper presented to the Pacu ty of the <raduate Schoo of the University of Texas. Ar in$tonB University of Texas. Torrend, I. 8E98. A Comparative <rammar of South#African "antu *an$ua$es. *ondonB @e$an &au . Kansina, I. 8991. &aths in the RainforestB Toward a History of &o itica Tradition in ')uatoria Africa. MadisonB University of 7isconsin &ress. Koorhoeve, Ian. 89E1 Y89;:Z. "ami e!e. %nB @ropp 4a!ubu, M.'. 5ed.6 7est African *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets. Ko . :. 7est African *in$uistic Society. Koorhoeve, Ian L 4e 7o f, &au . 89=9. "enue#Con$o 2oun C ass Systems. *eidenB Afri!a#Studiecentrum. 7ard, %da C. 89>E. The &honetic Structure of "amum. "u etin of the Schoo of 3rienta Studies, University of *ondon, Ko . 9, 2o. : 589>E6, pp. C:>#C>E. 7atters, Iohn R. 89E9. "antoid overview. %nB The 2i$er#Con$o an$ua$es 5ed. by Iohn Theodor "endor#Samue 6, p. C18#C:1. University &ress of America, by arran$ement with the Summer %nstitute of *in$uistics 5S%*6. 7atters, Iohn R. :11>. <rassfie ds "antu. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hi ipson, <. 5eds.6, The "antu *an$ua$es. *ondon L 2ew \or!B Rout ed$e. &p. ::D#:D=. 7atters, Iohn R. L *eroy, Iac)ue ine. 89E9. Southern "antoid. %nB The 2i$er#Con$o an$ua$es 5ed. by Iohn Theodor "endor#Samue 6, p. C>8#CC9. University &ress of America, by arran$ement with the Summer %nstitute of *in$uistics 5S%*6. 7e mers, 7i iam '. 89;8. The typo o$y of the proto#2i$er#@ordofanian noun c ass system. %nB &apers in African in$uistics, p. 8#8=. 'd. by Chim#7u @im L Herbert Prederic! 7a ter Stah !e. Current in)uiry into an$ua$e and in$uistics, n. 8. Carbonda e %* L 'dmonton 5Canada6B *in$uistic Research %nc. 7erner, A ice. 8989. %ntroductory S!etch of the "antu *an$ua$es. *ondonB @e$an &au , Trench, Trubner L Co. *td.M 2ew \or!B '.&.4utton L Co. 7estermann, 4iedrich. 89:;. 4ie westernen Sudansprachen und ihre "eHiehun$en Hum "antu. "er inB de <ruyter. 7estermann, 4iedrich L "ryan, Mar$aret. 89D:. The *an$ua$es of 7est Africa. Handboo! of African *an$ua$es :. *ondonB 3xford University &ress. 7iesemann, U. 89E=. %ntroduction. %nB U.7iesemann 5ed.6, &ronomina Systems. Tjbin$enB 2arr, pp. viii#ix. 7i iamson, @ay. 89;8. The "enue#Con$o *an$ua$es and %,o. CT*B ;, pp. :CD#>1=. 7i iamson, @ay. 89;>. "enue#Con$o Comparative 7ord ist, vo . :. %badanB 7est African *in$uistic Society. 7i iamson, @ay. 89EE. *in$uistic evidence for the prehistory of the 2i$er 4e ta. The ear y history of the 2i$er 4e ta. '.I. A a$oa, P.2. AnoHie and 2. 2Hewunwa 5eds6. Hambur$B He mut "us!e Ker a$. 7i iamson, @ay. 89E9. "enue#Con$o 3verview. %nB The 2i$er#Con$o an$ua$es, ed. by Iohn "endor#Samue , pp. :C;l:;C. *anham l 2ew \or! l *ondonB University &ress of America. 7i iamson, @ay. &roto#%,oid Reconstructions. Porthcomin$. 7i iamson, @ay L " ench, Ro$er. :111. 2i$er#Con$o. %nB Heine, "ernd and 2urse, 4ere! 5eds6 African *an$ua$es l An %ntroduction. Cambrid$eB Cambrid$e University press, pp. 88C:. 7i iamson, @ay L ShimiHu, @iyoshi. 89=E. "enue#Con$o Comparative 7ord ist, vo . 8. %badanB 7est African *in$uistic Society.
891
abcdeWXf .. L gWhWiWXf .. YA!senova, %.S. L Toporova, %.2.Z 8991. XTTeT X feVcVb. WcbXfB ?fbf+. Y%ntroduction to the "antu Studies. MoscowB 2au!a.Z ie .. eT TcVWTe X e bf feT. NN gi ecVVVf UeXcVTcb ccUTWXfe. g. :, . :. B ?fbf+, :11=. . >:;#C8>. YKydrin K.P. :11=. &ersona &ronouns in South Mande *an$ua$es. %nB 7or!s by the %nstitute of *in$uistic Research. Ko . :, no. :. Saint#&etersbur$B 2au!a. &p. >:;#C8>.Z STUVWX a.. YQhe tov, A.\.Z :11E. b eTi#bWeWB cVibVieW#efTcbf VhWUW. B fVTUcVXW febV#TVTiicbWW eXTicVTVf. YThe 2i$er#Con$o *an$ua$esB Structura and 4ynamic Typo o$y. Saint#&etersbur$B Saint#&etersbur$ University.Z

Reconstructing Benue-Congo Person Marking I: Proto-Bantoid Kirill V. Babaev

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Reconstructing Benue-Congo Person Marking I: Proto-Bantoid Kirill V. Babaev

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RECONSTRUCTING BENUE-CONGO PERSON MARKING I: PROTO-BANTOID Kirill V.

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"auchi#<urmana 4u!a @ain,i *a!e @ambari @amu!u Reshe "asa

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

Tab e 8.> Person 8s$. :s$. 8p . :p . subject "N"-"*-"3-object "-N"- -"-*P"-3P-

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

ob,ect pronoun N affix

-!- 5 #a%S 5 #a%S! 5 -2!- 5 2(- 5

-*!- 5 -*- 5 -*(-l!- 5 -l(-r#i%- 5 -re

' 5 -'!- 5 -'e 5 -'( 5 'i 5 -a'( 5

"ased on fu data of Appendix.

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

&! 5 -#(%&Se - (- 5 - !-'e- 5 -'!- 5 -'/-

-e4 5 -i4 5 -a4! 5 -4e 5 4( -h( 5 #h%i-

stressed 5emphatic6 pronoun

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

Hereinafter, 'simbi forms from 5Co eman, unpub ished6.

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Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

object 3aB -a -}pwWpr_ -#a%3 Ip 3sg 3Z 3\ *[ 5set 86, '[ 5set :6

possessive -a -\3 -#a%3B -n

p_ m B 3: 3\B 3i 3]B 3z 5past6 3y 3yy3 3i'n3 3y

-3 -3B 3a -3iB -i 5after nasa s, bB B 46, \'n\' 5 ]'n\' 5arch6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

Sn S! `-B gi r_wW ! `B Ss k \ \ S` ~_wW S\ Sn' Sd] Sd 1kk S

-S\B va -Sa'B -a' 5after nasa s, s6, ]T_g9 5arch.6

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possessive v( 5inc .6 '[3a er_WuWvIWuWI -4d-

stressed / emphatic v( 5inc .6 bel 5exc .6 '[3 bS[ 4d b]h] #R%bhR4R

vr_I 4_W5dua 6 4aa 5inc .6 Sar 5exc .6

"ami e!e Mundani Meta A$hem *amnso+

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&he4i'\ 5inc .6 *[...-#1%ir 5set 86, '[...-#1%ir 5set :6

S`4` 5dua 6 _ ' 5inc .6 _ 5exc .6

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

subject @u un$ 4u$uri 4c3 4c

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

"A"A'KB Reconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

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Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

possessiv e ir_p ir_p

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stressed / independent ]c I I ]k

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a+i !4e #a%Sa 1aSe

-s-(-i-(-ds -]s r#]%-rer#]%-]hs -ir( -4hc r!'a

ds 4d 1e4hSe aa ]4c 9E: r!'a

h#]%-hc h#i%h#i%-h( ah( eh(