Environmental Science

http://ptuas.loremate.com/evs/node/6 March 7, 2012

Q. 1. What are causes of soil pollution? Ans. Soil Pollution. It is resulted due to human activities, such as dumping of wastes, use of agrochemicals, mining operations and, urbanization. Alteration in soil by addition and removal of materials leading to reduced productivity is called soil pollution. Here, soil productivity includes both the quantity and the quality of the produce. Causes of Soil pollution. Types of Soil Pollutants /Sources of Soil Pollution. Many materials adversely affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and reduce its productivity. These include (1) Municipal wastes (2) industrial wastes (3) pesticides, (4) fertilizers and organic manure (5) radioactive wastes, (6) discarded materials and mining operation. Q. 2. Differentiate marine pollution and water pollution. Ans. Water pollution. Addition of harmful materials to water is termed as water pollution. The sources of inland water pollution are community waste water (sewage) and water from industries and agricultural practices. Water pollutants include organic matter, pathogens, chemicals and minerals, solid particles, radioactive wastes and heat. Marine pollution. This type of pollution is common in sea water. The pollution of sea water is due to following reasons (i) Due to spilling of oil from naval transport. (ii) Accidents of oil transporting naval transports. (iii) During loading and unloading of oil in naval transports. (iv) Leakage of oil from the oil wells located nearby sea shore. Q. 3. What are problems associated with e-wastes? Ans. Problems associated with e-wastes Irreparable computers and electronic goods are known as electronic wastes or e-wastes. Most of them are shipped to developing countries for metals like copper, nickel, silicon, gold are recovered by recycling. Recycling the environmental friendly technologies are the methods for treatment of defunct ships and e-wastes. International treaty called Basel Convention drafted in Basel (Switzerland) was result of great demand from developing countries. Q. 4. What is particulate matter? Give prime sources of particulate matter. Ans. Suspended Particulate Matter (5PM). The solid particles or liquid droplets (aerosols) remain suspended in air. For example smoke, soot dust, asbestos etc. SPM above the size of 10 mm is trapped by nasal hair, pharyngeal, tracheal and bronchial mucus. The same are coughed out or deposited in nose as nasal scales. Smaller particles of SPM reach the alveoli. There they may be attacked by phagocytes or pass into living cells. SPM causes irritation in respiratory tract, bronchitis and lung diseases. These particles may cause asbestosis, pneumoconiosis. They also result in reduced visibility. Q. 5. What is equitable use of resources? Ans. The countries of north are more developed whereas the countries of south are less developed.

The developed countries have only 22% of worlds population but they use 88% of its natural resources, 73% of its energy and command 85% of its income. Whereas the less developed countries have 78% of worlds population and use about 12% of natural resources and 27% of energy. Problems of unemployment, poverty and hunger in less developed countries can only be tackled through development. Solution to this problem is to have more equable distribution of resources and wealth. A global consensus has to be reached for balanced distribution of basic resources like safe drinking water, food, fuel, etc. So that the poor in the less developed countries are at least able to sustain their life. Q. 6. What is smog and why is it caused? Ans. Smog (Des Voeux, 1905). Smog is opaque or dark fog having condensed water vapours, dust, smoke and gases (SO2, H2S, NO2 etc.). It causes silvering! glazing and necrosis in plants, allergies and asthma/bronchitis in humans. Some famous smogs of the world are Los Angeles smog (1946), London smog (1952), Tokyo, Rome, New York, Sydney (1970). Smog is of two types: (i) Classical (London) Smog. It occurs at low temperature, contains sulphur gases (hydrogen suiphide, sulphur dioxide), smoke and dust particles. (ii) Photochemical Smog. It is secondary pollutant. It is yellowish brown smog which is formed under oxidising conditions and high temperature over cities and towns that are releasing a lot of nitrogen oxides and unburnt hydrocarbons. In still air the two interact photochemically to produce photochemical oxidants-ozofle, PAN, aldehydes and phenols. Photo-chemical smog does not have, any appreciable amount of primary pollutants. It is also called Los Angeles smog. Effect on biological world. It causes bleaching of foliage of certain plants. It also causes silvering, glazing and necrosis of the leaves. Q. 7. Describe the three measures of water quality. Ans. Water pollution means the introduction into natural water of anything that is foreign to them. It is undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water that may harmfully affect the human life, our industrial processes, living organisms. Three measures of water quality 1. Prevent run-off manure, agrochemicals, like fertilizers and pesticides. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer in the fields. 2. Developing of sewage treatment plants and industrial effluent Treatment system so that all types of pollutants can be removed from it and pure water may be made available for recirculation. 3. Bathing, washing etc. should be prohibited in the vicinity of sources and public awareness regarding water pollution should be treated. Q. 8. What is thermal pollution? Ans. Thermal Pollution. Hot effluents and hot water (e.g., thermal plants/atomic reactors) bring about rise in water temperature. Warm water contains less oxygen, has lower rate of putrescibility resulting in increased organic loading, replacement of green algae by blue-green ones. Many animals fail to reproduce e.g., Trout, Salmon. El Nino is warm ocean or Peru current that recurs after 58 years. It kills marine animals and planktons over large tracts along Peru and Ecudor coasts.

Q. 9. Differentiate primary air pollutants and secondary air pollutants. Ans. Differences between primary air pollutants and secondary air pollutants Q. 10. What does

Environmental (protection) Act 1986 of India mean ? List the major categories of pollutant. Ans. In environmental (protection) Act, 1986 of India environmental pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to environment and environmental pollution means the presence in the environment of any environmental pollutant. There are two basic types of pollutants: Pollutant Categories Pollutants may be categorised in several ways. Some major categories of pollutants are (i) Organic pollutants. Such as DDT, polychiorinated biphenyls (PCBs), oil. (ii) Inorganic pollutants. Such as nitrates, acids found in acid rain, metals. (iii) Acid pollutants. Found in run off from coal mining, Cl formed by a reaction of HC1 gas with moisture. (iv) Radiological pollutants. Which are radioactive chemicals found naturally in rocks, soil and water. (v) Biological pollutants. Are pathogenic micro-organisms such as infectious bacteria, viruses and Protozoa. (vi) Multiple pollutants. These are many pollutants that affect the organism at one time e.g., xenobiotics (foreign chemicals.) (vii) Physical pollutants. Which may have both inorganic and organic component e.g., soil carried in rain water run off from agricultural fields. Q. 11. What is air pollution? List various air pollutants and their sources. Ans. Air pollution. Release of harmful materials into the air is called air or atmospheric pollution. It is the degradation of air quality and atmosphere condition. Air pollutants include gaseous materials, suspended particles and radioactive substances. (a) The gaseous pollutants of air come from combustion in motor vehicles and industries. These include CO, GO2, NO, NO2, SO2, so3, hydrocarbons1 fluorides and photochemical oxidants, such as peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), ozone (03), and aldehydes. PAN is formed in the air by interaction between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight. It is more toxic than the primary pollutants. Increase in toxicity by reaction among pollutants is called synergism. (b) The particulate contaminants of air also come from industries and automobiles. These include fly ash, soot, metal dust, cotton fibres, asbestos, fibres, lead, aerosols (chloroflUorOCarb015 or CFCs), polychiorinated biphenyls (PCBs), tobacco smoke, smog, pollen, spores, cysts and bacteria.

(c) Radioactive substances are released by nuclear explosions and war explosives. Main sources of air pollution 1. Fixed sources. Which include large factories, electrical power plants, mineral smelters, small industries. 2. Mobile sources. They include all sorts of transports. Atmospheric pollutants and their sources Air pollution

Short Answer Type Questions Q. 1. (a) What is acid rain? (b) What are adverse effects of acid rain? Ans. (a) Acid rains. Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide are produced by oxidation of sulphur in the fossil fuels. These gases react with water and form sulphuric acid or sulphurOus acid. These acids when precipitated as rain or snOw create acid rain or acid precipitation. The pH of acid rains is less than 5-6 and could be as low as 4. (b) Effects of acid rains. 1. Acid rain adversely affect plant vegetation by causing chlorosis, necrosis, defoliation and die back. 2. It causes leaching of essential minerals of soil. Toxic minerals left in the soil further kill the plants. 50% of natural forests have been destroyed by acid rain in Germany, Sweden, north east U.S.A., Romania, Poland, etc. 3. Acid rain has also ruined fresh water reservoirs of most industrialised countries, e.g. 80% in Norway, 25% in Sweden, 20% in U.S.A. 4. Acidity dissolves toxic metals like Hg, Pb, Zn, Al. Both acidity and toxic metals kill all types of

aquatic life except some algae and fungi. 5. Acid rain corrodes metals, marble, painted surfaces, slate, stone, etc. The phenomenon is called stone leprosy. Q. 2. Explain different stages of solid waste management. Ans. Solid Waste. Because of various human activities, millions of tonnes of waste is produced every day all over the world. Waste is produced in the households, offices, factories, industries, etc. Household wastes include newspapers, bottles, cans, broken crockery, broken glass, plastic containers, ash, polythene bags, dust or domestic garbage. The discarded solid material after use is called Garbage, Refuse, Rubbish or Solid waste The constituents of solid wastes are similar all over the world but the proportion varies widely from country to country and city to city. Nevertheless, more waste is generated in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Management of Solid Waste Solid waste management involves activities including collection, transfer and transport to suitable sites, and safe disposal of wastes by methods which are environmentally compatible. Collection of Waste. In poor countries like India, collection methods are poor or even absent. Most of the waste remain near the place of source. Domestic garbage is generally thrown in streets or dumped on any available land. The heaps of garbage produce foul smell and are usually spread by stray cattle, pigs, rodents and rag pickers who search some reusable items. The clearance by municipalities is usually irregular. Proper planning demands the provision of collection bins in streets and along roads which must be cleared at least once or twice a day. In developed countries, there are automatic machines for collection of waste. Transfer and Transport of waste. It is the second step of waste management which needs a fleet of transporl vehicles for the transfer of heaps of garbage from street corners or municipal dustbins to disposal sites or places of processing. India cities have only few vehicles (2-5 in city of 10 lakh population) as compared to the amount of waste. Disposal of Solid Wastes 1. Municipal solid wastes are burnt to reduce the volume. 2. Sanitary landfills have been adopted as an alternative to open-burning dumps. 3. Municipal wastes are incinerated and the heat-emitted is used to generate electricity. 4. They are also recycled for various components. 5. Fly ash is used in construction industry or buried as landfills; it is also used for soil amendment as in increases water retention and aeration of soil. 6. e-wastes are buried as landfills or incinerated ; they are also recycled. Q. 3. Taj Mahal is reported to be threatened by Mathura Refinery. Discuss the possible threats that the refinery poses. Ans. The acid depositions react with lime stone, marble and other materials to cause deterioration and disfigure the building material. A good example is Taj Mahal in danger of being destroyed by the components of polluted atmosphere due to pollutant released from the nearby Mathura Refinery.

The Refinery is using low sulphur fuels, emits about 25-30 Tornies of SO2 daily. The emitted SO2 results in acidic precipitation - (both dry and wet) under condensation a flow of wind combined with humidity, in the surrounding area. The acid deposition reacts with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the marble to form calcium sulphate (CaSO4) which causes deterioration. Some of the visible signs of deterioration of the Taj Mahal are as follows 1. Discoloration of the grey or brown rust like stains, especially in the niches and arches. 2. Chipping and breaking of the edges of the marble slabs. 3. Formation/appearance of cracks in marbles. 4. It can also lead to reduction in brightness contrast between objects. Q. 5. Write a note on secondary air pollutant. Ans. Secondary air pollutants. The primary air pollutants (gases, particulates) take part in a wide range of photochemical reactions, forming secondary pollutants. Such new products often cause greater damage than is caused directly by the primary pollutants. The main products that result from light striking the hydrocarbons from exhaust are the olefins (also known as alkenes), ethylenes or unsaturated hydrocarbons, carbon compounds containing double bonds, the aldehydes and the aromatics. The aromatic compounds created photochemically appear to be among the most serious of all air pollutants. One of these compounds benzpyrene, has been proved to induce cancer. Two other photochemical pollutants that appear to cause serious problems are peroxybenzoyl nitrate and peroxyacetyl

nitrate (PAN). Important examples of secondary pollutants are : The smog is a harmful mixture of smoke plus fog. The word was first used in 1905 to describe the combination of smoke and fog that was observed in London and totally obscured visibility for a few hours. This smog resulted from SO2, soot and tarry materials released into the atmosphere by burning of high-sulphur coal. The photochemical smog results from the reaction of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic chemicals in summer sunlight to form ozone. In addition to ozone it contains other photochemical oxidants, including peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and NO2. It also contains the particulates. Some other secondary pollutants are : (a) NO: It is formed by dissociation of NO2 to atomic oxygen and NO. (b) NO2: It is formed in sunlight from NO (NO + O NO2) (c) Hydroxyl radical (OH) : It is formed in sunlight from hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. It reacts with other gases to form acid droplets. (d) Nitrous acid (HONO) : It is formed from NO2 and water vapours. (e) Nitric acid (HNO3) : It is formed from NO2 and is a major component of acid rain. Q. 6. Write the effects of hydrocarbons (HCs), SO2 and NO2. Ans. Effects of hydrocarbons : 1. Benzene and its derivatives are carcinogens. 2. Formaldehyde causes indoor pollution. 3. Some reactive HCs contribute to formation of secondary pollutants. Effect of SO2 SO2 is released into atmosphere from various factories which use ores of Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni and Fe. The sulphur present in these ores is oxidised and SO2 is given out. Besides this vehicle exhaust, burning of coal and oil refineries also give out SO2. SO2 have harmful effects on man and plants. High concentration of SO2 destroys chlorophyll in plants (Chiorosis disease), lysis of the cell occurs, parts of the plant are destroyed and it may result in the death of the whole plant (Necrosis). Even if death does not occur, it results in prevention of growth and productions plasmolysis and various metabolic diseases. Effects of Oxides of nitrogen Nitrogen monoxidc lowers the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Hence NO2 irritates the eyes, nose, bronchial tubes and lungs. Its high concentration proves fatal. Being a strong reducing agent, NO2 attacks metals, textiles and other materials. Nitrogen oxides damage plants also. Q. 7. Write a note on the air pollution caused due to combustion.

Ans. The mobile combustion sources are the main sources of air pollution especially in the cities. They include the locomotives, automobiles and aircrafts. The air pollutants from these are 1. (i) Carbon monoxide (ii) oxides of nitrogen and (iii) a mixture of hydrocarbons. 2. If the petroleum used as fuel in these sources contains lead as an impurity in the form of tetraethyl lead Pb(C2H5)4 and tetramethyl lead Pb(CH3)4 the gaseous discharge mentioned above contains particulate lead compounds. Even if not inhaled, lead is absorbed by the body and causes serious damage to the tissues. It also hampers the haemoglobin formation. 3. Smog. In the presence of sunlight, various unburnt hydrocarbons produced from the automobile combustion react with oxides of nitrogen to form ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates and aldehydes. They are called photochemical oxidants. Together with smoke and fog they constitute smog which has a harmful effect on mans respiratory and nervous system; it also harms the plants and rubber goods. 4. Aerosols. Aerosols are certain chemicals released in the air with force in the form of mist or vapour. The important source of aerosols is the jet aeroplane emissions in the outer atmosphere. The aerosols contain fluorocarbons which deplete the ozone layer in atmosphere. Q. 8. What is water pollution? List various water pollutants. Ans. Water pollution Addition of harmful materials to water is termed water pollution. The sources of inland water pollution are community waste water (sewage) and wastes from industries and agricultural practices. Water pollutants include organic matter, pathogens, chemical and minerals, solid particles, radioactive wastes and heat. (i) Organic matter reaches water in sewage and effluents of certain industries. Decomposers breakdown organic matter, using up the oxygen of water. This kills the animals. Anaerobic bacteria then produce foul-smelling gases. (ii) Pathogens are also brought by sewage. They include bacteria, protozoans and helminth eggs. They cause diseases if taken up with polluted water. (iii) Chemicals and minerals reaching water include fertilizers and pesticides in farm run-off, detergents in bathroom water, and toxic materials (arsenic, cadmium, lead, zinc, copper, mercury and cyanides) in effluents of some industries. (iv) Detergents and Fertilizers. The term detergent is applied to washing materials.

Detergents are composed of complex phosphates, which eventually break down into phosphates usable by aquatic plants. The use of detergents has been responsible for increase in the phosphorus in sewage effluents. Although detergent are not highly toxic to fishes, they do damage to gills and remove protective mucous from gills, skin and intestine. Aquatic invertebrates and cray fish may also be affected by detergents. (v) Toxic metals. Wastes containing different concentration of heavy metals, either individually or in combination, may be toxic to aquatic organisms. For example, Cd is toxic to many organisms after their exposure to low concentration toxicity of chromium to insects and other aquatic forms also varies. Copper is relatively quite acutely toxic to fishand its toxic effect also depends on the hardness of water. Toxic metals responsible for air pollution (e.g., lead, nickel, Cd) may also reach water and harm the aquatic organisms. Lead poisoning of children has been reported from many countries. Adult may also suffer adverse effects including damage to kidney and nervous system and high blood pressure other serious adverse effects are infertility and anaemia. Mercury is also an important toxic pollutant. The Hg (mercury) of waste products is converted by anaerobic bacteria into CH3Hg (methyl mercury) and (CH3)2Hg, (dimethyl mercury), which are poisonous molecules. The effects of mercury poisoning include thermosomal damage and toxic effects on liver, kidney and gills of fishes. (vi) Solid particles of clay and metal dust settle in water from the air. They reduce light needed for photosynthesis and this may disturb food chains and result in loss of water life. (vii) Radioactive dust from mining and processing of uranium enters water. (viii) Thermal pollution of water is caused by the discharge of hot water from power plants and other industries. Q. 9. What are the effects of water pollution? Ans. Effects of Water Pollution 1. Water pollutants reach the sea directly from the coastal cities and ships, and indirectly with river water from distant places. Oil spilled in tanker accidents is a major threat to ocean life. 2. Pollutants impart colour, turbidity, unpleasant smell and taste, and foaminess to water, making it unfit for use. They are detrimental to aquatic plants and animals. Some of them are highly toxic and kill the aquatic organisms. Many infectious diseases spread through contaminated water. Diseases caused by polluted water. 1. Bacterial diseases. Cholera, Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dysentery. 2.. Viral diseases. Jaundice, Polio etc.

3. Protozoanal diseases. Diseases associatd with stomach and intestines e.g. Amoebic dysentery, Giardiasis etc. 4. Helminthic diseases. Infection of some intestinal parasites like Ascaris lumbricoides is through drinking water only. Guinea worm diseases is through Cyclops present in the drinking water. Through contaminated water they reach to another host i.e. man. 5. Some Elements and their Toxicity 6. Water ways become biologically barren. Aquatic organisms can tolerate poisons and other pollutants only in low

concentrations. Excesses may prove lethal. Different (a) Eutrophication (b) Biological magnification organisms have different levels of tolerance or sensitivity to various effluents or poisons and toxicity of most poisons is also affected by environmental factors such as temperatures pH, oxygen content, calcium contets etc. Water ways polluted with zinc and often become biologically barren. Q. 10. Write critical notes on (a) Eutophication. (b) Biological magnification (c) Ground water depletion and ways for its replenishment. Ans. (a) Eutophication. The process by which a body of water becomes barren either by natural means or by pollution extensively rich in dissolved nutrients. It results in the increased primary productivity that often leads to seasonal deficiency in dissolved oxygen. Phosphorus and nitrates dissolved in water acts as nutrients and accelerates the growth of algae that may form a mat on the water surface. The algae use oxygen at night and may deoxygenate the water enough to kill the fish and other animals. The algal mat at the water surface may block light to the submerged plants. The algae may die and sink, and feed the oxygen consuming bacteria. They may be pushed on to the shore by wind and decompose, releasing foul gases such as hydrogen

sulphide. Silt and decaying matter may accumulate and finally fill the lake or pond. This process is called senescence. It is a natural stage in the change of a lake into dry land and it becomes barren.

Biological magnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain. (b) Biological magnification. The phenomenon in which the harmful pollutants (such as pesticides) enter the food chain and get concentrated more and more at each successive trophic level of organism is called biological magnification. This phenomenon is well known for mercury and DDT. Figure on the side shows biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain. Zooplankton (tiny floating animals) in the food chain, accumulated modest levels of DDT. However, small fish, forming the next level of the food chain, must eat zooplankton several times their own weight and thus they accumulated more of DDT. In this manner, the concentration of DDT magnified at successive trophic levels, starting with 0.003 ppb (ppb = parts per billion) in water it ultimately reached 25 ppm (ppm parts per million) in fish-eating birds. High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism birds, which causes thinning of egg shell and their premature breaking eventually causing decline in bird population. (c) Ground water depletion and ways for its replenishment. Underground water is more pure and safe for drinking. It is getting polluted particularly in industrial towns. The common sources of underground water pollution are sewage and industrial effluents spilled over the ground. The fertilizers and pesticides used in fields also act as pollutants. Pollution is also increased due to seepage from refuse dumps, septic tanks and seepage pits. Method to control. Sewage and factory wastes should be treated to clean them before their release into water sources. Q. 11. What is soil pollution? how is solid waste generated Ans. Soil Pollution. Alteration in soil leading to reduced productivity is called soil pollution. The soil pollutants include chemicals, fertilizers, organic manure, pesticides radioactive wastes and discarded household materials. Contamination of soil with human and animal excreta is a serious health hazard. Air and water pollutants also reach the soil and pollute it too.

Flow chart of soil pollution Solid wastes are also generated in industries. 1. Thermal power plants generate tremendous amount of fly ash that is made up of oxides of silica, iron and aluminium, and low concentrations of toxic heavy metals. Fly ash can be used in cement and construction industry, or buried in landfills. There is also a possibility of using it for

soil amendment because it increases moisture retention and aeration of a soil. 2. Industries producing metals, pesticides paper, rubber, dye, chemicals, etc. also generate large amount of hazardous solid wastes that are corrosive, highly inflammable and toxic to humans and other organisms. 3. Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and other harmful chemicals, and also pathogenic microorganisms. Such wastes also require careful treatment and disposal. 4. Defuncts ships. 5. e-wastes. Q. 12. Discuss briefly the following: (a) Radioactive wastes (b) Defunct ships (c) Municipal solid wastes. Ans. (a) Radioactive wastes. Use of nuclear energy has two most serious problems. The first is accidental leakage and the second is safe disposal of radioactive wastes. Wastes from atomic power plants come in the form of spent fuels of uranium and plutonium. People working in such power plants, nuclear reactors, fuel processors1 etc. are vulnerable to their exposure. These also undergo biological magnification and may reach to 75,000 times in birds. Radio isotopes. Many radioactive isotopes like and their compounds are used in scientific researches. The waste water of these research centres contain the radioactive elements which may reach the human beings through water and food chains. Such wastes are first concentrated to educe the volume and then kept for 50-100 years in small ponds within the premises of nuclear power plants. This interim storage causes considerable decay of radioactivity and lessening of heat problem. It has been recommended that subsequent storage should be done in suitably shielded containers buried within the rocks, about 500 m deep inside Earth. However, this method of disposal is meeting stiff opposition from the public. (b) Defunct ships and e-wastes. Defunct ships are a kind of solid waste requiring proper disposal. Such ships are broken down in developing countries because of cheap labour and for scrap metal. They often contain toxic substances such as asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls, tributyltin, lead and mercury. (c) Municipal Solid Wastes. Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash. Municipal solid wastes are wastes from homes, offices, stores, schools, etc. that are collected and disposed by the municipality. The municipal solid wastes generally comprise paper, food wastes, glass, metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc. Burning reduces the volume of the wastes, although it is generally not complete arid open dumps often serve as the breeding ground for rats and flies. Q. 13 What initiatives were taken for reducing vehicular air pollution in Delhi? Has the air quality improved in Delhi?

Ans. Automobiles are the major sources of air pollution in Delhi because it has very high number of cars. Some specific measures taken to reduce vehicular air pollution are as follows 1. Use of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) for its public transport system. 2 Phasing out of old vehicles 3. Use of unleaded petrol. 4. Use of low sulphur petrol and diesel. 5. Use of catalytic converter in vehicles. 6. Application of Euro II norms for vehicles. Because of above mentioned steps taken up by the Government, the air quality of Delhi has improved with a substantial fall in carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen level between 1997-2005. Q. 14. What is nuclear fall-out? Suggest a few protective measures against nuclear fall-out. Ans. Nuclear Fall-Out. The release of radio-active isotopes into the atmosphere after a nuclear explosion is called nuclear fall-out. The latter has both immediate and delayed effects. The immediate effect is through iodine-131 and strontium-90, which enter the human body either directly or through food chain. Radio-active iodine-131 gets concentrated in the thyroid gland like ordinary iodine (1-127). It is used similarly in the synthesis of thyroxine. Through the latter, it reaches every body part and causes damage to white blood coijucles, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, etc. It impairs eye sight and produces sterility, skin cancer and lung tumours. Radio-active strontium (Sr-90) is mistaken for calcium and enters the bones. Here, it causes bone cancer. The isotope also degenerates body tissues. Nuclear fall-out passes on to other areas through air currents. Radio-active isotopes mix up with clouds and reach the soils. Thus an atmospheric nuclear explosion in China was found to have increased background radio-activity in Japan. After entering the food chain, the radio-active isotopes induce mutations in both plants and animals. Protective Measures. There is no mechanism to offset the effect of ionising radiations. All the protective measures are, therefore, preventive in nature. In the first step it is extremely impartant to see that the background radiation does not increase. Prevention of leakage in the nuclear reactors, dumping of nuclear wastes deep in the earth, renunciation of atomic explosions or development of non-radioactive explosion technology are important for the survival of mankind. Q. 15. Write a note on control of radioactive pollution. Ans. Control of Radioactive Pollution. The radioactive wastes which come out from industry, medicinal plants, nuclear reactors should be stored either in closed drums or in very, large underground airtight cemented tanks. Moreover, the intermediate radioactive wastes should be disposed off into the environment after diluting it with some inert material. There should be a ban on nuclear explosions throughout the whole world. Concerted efforts are being made in this direction by several countries, including India. Industrial wastes may be discharged into the environment, only after the necessary treatment so that the radioactivity is at a lower level. Wastes may be discharged into sewer system or into the streams. Before discharge, it is said that low activity wastes are stored for some time, so as to reduce the activity. In case of high activity wastes, they cannot be discharged. Now-a-days, small

quantities of high activities wastes are converted into solids such as concrete and then it is buried underground or in sea. According to recent survey, these wastes may also be converted into glassy or ceramic material which is then calcined to alumina or zirconia and leached. Disposal of wastes at sea has also been tried. Q. 16. Describe role of individual in reducing pollution. Ans. Role of individual in reducing pollution. 1. Use of unleaded petrol or CNG in vehicles as fuel. 2. Use of reformulated gasoline to save ozone in the atmosphere. 3. Use of generators in residential areas should be avoided. 4. Plantation of trees. 5. Excessive and unplanned use of fertilizer should be avoided. 6. Biodegradable material should be used. 7. Do not blow horn with jarring sound. 8. Radio, transistors, T.V., Music system should be kept at low volume to control noise pollution. Q. 17. How are solid wastes generated? Ans. Solid wastes are also generated in industries. 1. Thermal power plants generate tremendous amount of fly ash that is made up of oxides of silica, iron and aluminium, and low concentrations of toxic heavy metals. Fly ash can be used in cement and construction industry, or buried in landfills. There is also a possibility of using it for soil amendment because it increases moisture retention and aeration of a soil. 2. Industries producing metals, pesticides, paper, rubber, dye, chemicals, etc. also generate large amount of hazardous solid wastes that are corrosive, highly inflammable and toxic to humans and other organisms. 3. Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and other harmful chemicals, and also pathogenic microorganisms. Such wastes also require careful treatment and disposal. 4. Defuncts ships. 5. e-wastes. Long Answer Type Questions Q. 1. Describe briefly environmental pollution and pollutant. Ans. Pollution. Pollution is any change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the environment that has the potentiality to harm human life, life of other desirable species, natural resources, cultural assets and industries. Contamination is presence of harmful organisms or their toxins that cause discomfort or disease. Natural pollution is pollution caused by natural sources, e.g., volcanic eruptions, release of methane by paddy fields and cattle, release of carbon monoxide by plants and animals, emission of natural gas, ozone, nitrogen oxides, soil erosion, dust storms, cosmic rays, ultra-violet rays, etc.

Man-made pollution is pollution resulting from human activities like burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, mining, sewage, industrial effluents, pesticides, fertilizers, etc. Amount of man made atmospheric pollution is hardly 0.05% of total but is more dangerous because of its concentration in certain localities, Pollutant. It is a substance (e.g. dust, smoke), chemical (e.g. SO2) or factor (e.g. heat, noise) that on release into the environment has an actual or potential adverse effect on human interests. Pollutant can also be defined as a constituent in the wrong amount, at a wrong place or at a wrong time. Types of pollutants : Pollutants can be of following types : (a) Biodegradable pollutants : The pollutants which are degraded by natural factors and are decomposed by natural activities are biodegradable pollutants. (b) Non-biodegradable pollutants : There are pollutants which cannot be purified by natural methods. Plastic products, many chemicals, long chain detergents, glass, aluminium and many other artificial synthetic products manufactured by man come under this category. Pollution according to physical nature of pollutants. According to the physical nature of the pollutants, the categories include : gases, particulate matter, temperature, noise, radioactivity, etc. These categories can be named as gaseous pollution, dust pollution, thermal pollution, noise pollution, radioactive pollution, etc. Types of pollution according to the part of environment. 1. Air pollution (Atmosphere) 2. Water pollution (Hydrosphere) 3. Soil pollution (Lithosphere) Types of pollution on the basis of origin 1. Natural e.g. volcanic eruption. 2. AnthropogeniC e.g. Man made such as industrial pollution. Air pollution. Release of harmful materials into the air is called air or atmospheric pollution. It is the degradation of air quality and atmosphere condition. Air pollutants include gaseous materials, suspended particles and radioactive substances. Water pollution. Pollutants in surface run off (and storm water) vary according to the nature of land over which it flows. The run off from agricultural land is contaminated with pesticide residues and residues of inorganic fertilizers. The run off from Urban areas mainly contains biodegradable organic pollutants. Industrial sites may contribute to varied types of pollutants like heavy metals, acids and various inorganic compounds. All these pollutants in the run off heavily contaminate our surface water and groundwater resources. Soil pollution. Alteration in soil leading to reduced productivity is called soil pollution. The soil pollutants include chemicals, fertilizers, organic manure, pesticides, radioactive wastes and discarded, household materials. Contamination of soil with human and animal excreta is a serious health hazard. Air and water pollutants also reach the soil and pollute it too. Noise pollution. Unbearable sound is called noise. When sound takes the form of noise then it is called as noise pollution. Sound above 60-70 decibels comes in the noise category. Noise pollution

is the contribution of metropolitan culture and industrial development. The main sources of noise pollution are loudspeakers, pressure horns, supersonic jets etc. Noise pollution causes mental tensions, physical tiredness, loss in learning capacity or complete deafness. To help protect against sound pollution formation of green belts in metropolitan cities and one of the sound proof materials come in use. Q. 2. (a) What are reasons for depletion of ozone layer? (b) List the adverse effects of depletion of ozone layer. Suggest measures to prevent it. Ans. (a) Ozone Depletion. Ozone layer or shield is present in the stratosphere. It protects the earth from short-wave ultra-violet rays (below 300 nm) by changing the same into infra-red rays. A large hole has appeared in ozone shield over Antarctica (first detected by Farman, 1982) and a smaller one over North Pole. Size of the holes varies with the seasons. Ozone hole. During the period 1956-1970 the spring time 03 layer thickness above Anarctica varied from 280-325 Dobson unit. Thickness was sharply reduced to 225 DU in 1979 and 136 DU in 1985. Antarctic air is completely isolated from rest of world by natural circulation of wind called as polar vertex. The decline in spring time, ozone layer thickness is called ozone hole. It was first noted in 1985 over Antarctica. Thinning of ozone shield has also been reported elsewhere (e.g., 8% between 3050NP). Depletion of ozone layer allows harmful ultra-violet radiations to reach earth. It is the major cause of skin cancer, cataract, dimming of eye sight, decrease in immune system and increased susceptibility to herpes. Thinning of ozone shield is being caused by a number of pollutants like chlorofluorocarbolls (14% of total depletion), nitrogen oxides (3.5% depletion), sulphur dioxide, halon, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, chlorine, etc. Many of these are being released by jets flying in the stratosphere and rockets being fired into space. Others are persistent in the troposphere and gradually pass into stratosphere. (1) Ozone layer as protective layer. The ozone layer in the stratosphere is very useful to human beings because it absorbs the major part of harmful ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun. Therefore, it is called protective layer. However, i.t has been observed that

the ozone layer is getting depleted. One of the reasons for depletion of ozone layer is action of aerosols spray propellants. These are the chemicals such as fluorocarbons and chloro_fluorocarbons. These compounds react with ozone gas in the atmosphere thereby depleting it. Scientists all over the world are worried at the destruction of ozone layer. If the ozone layer in the atmosphere is significantly decreased, these harmful radiations would reach the earth and would cause many damages such as skincncergenetic disorders in man and other living forms. Efforts are being made to find substitutes of these chemicals which do not react with ozone. effects of UV radiations on human. 1. In humans, the increased UV radiation increases the incidence in cancer (including nelanoma). 2. Reduces the functioning of immune system. 3. Cornea absorbs UV-B radiations, and a high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of cornea called snow blindness, cataract etc. Exposure may permanently damage cornea and cause cataract. Q. 3. What is air pollution ? Write the main sources, preventive and control measures.

Ans. Air Pollution. Air pollution refers to the release into the atmosphere of materials that are harmful to man, other animals, plants and buildings or other objects. Sources of Air Pollution The major sources of air pollution are fossil fuels (coal and petroleum) and industries. Human Sources. Many activities done by man are the main source of air pollution. These activities can be divided into following categories 1. Combustion activities. 2. Industrial activities. 3. Agricultural works. 4. Use of solvetits. 5. Activities concerned with atomic energy. Preventive measures for air pollution To prevent and control air pollution, two types of measures can be adopted. 1. Instead of releasing poisonous gases containing various pollutants into the atmosphere they could be destroyed or used by some other measures. 2. Converting harmful pollutants to harmless products and then releasing them into the atmosphere. Control measures for minimising air pollution. 1. Simple combustible solid wastes should be burnt in incinerators. 2. Automobiles must be either made to eliminate the use of gasoline and diesel oil or complete combustion is obtained in the engine so that harmful products are omitted. Catalytic converter. Automobiles need to be well maintained so that they do not emit much pollutants. Catalytic converters, having expensive metals namely platinum-palladium and rhodium as the catalysts, are fitted into automobiles for reducing emission of gases. As the exhaust passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into carbon dioxide and water and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas, respectively. Motor vehicles equipped with catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol because leaded petrol inactivates the catalyst. It has been established that installation of catalytic convertors can slash carbon monoxide emission from 90 grams to 3.4 grams per mile run. So if half the vehicles on Delhi and Mumbai roads are made to install such catalytic convertors, then total CO emission in India can be reduced by 70 per cent. 3. There should be cut in the use of agricultural sprays. 4. Excessive and undesirable burning of vegetation should be stopped. 5. Smoking should be stopped. 6. Use of electrostatic precipitators and filters in the factories to minimise atmospheric pollution. 7. Use of tall chimneys can substantially reduce the concentration of pollutant at ground level.

8. Weather forecasts can help in controlling air pollution as the meteorological conditions affect the dispersion, dilution and mixing of various emission and proper operation of factory schedule e.g. when atmospheric stagnation or calm is predicted, a power plant should switch over from coal to gas. 9. Separation of pollutants from harmless gases. 10. Dispersion of pollutants to innocuous products before releasing into atmosphere. 11. Use of electrostatic precipitator and scrubber. An electrostatic precipitator. It removes over 99% particulate matter present in the exhaust from a thermal power plant. It has electrode wires and a stage of collecting plates. The electrode wires are maintained at several thousand volts, which produce a corona that releases electrons. These electrons attach to dust particles and give them a net negative charge within a very small fraction of a second. The collecting plates are grounded and attract the charged dust particles. The velocity of air between the plates must be low enough to allow the dust to fall.

Electrostatic precipitator Scrubber. A scrubber can remove gases like sulphur dioxide. In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray of water or lime. Water dissolves gases and lime reacts with sulphur dioxide to form a precipitate of calcium sulphate or suiphite.

Scrubber Q.4. Make a flow chart of water pollutants. Ans. Water pollutants Flow chart of water pollutants Q. 5. Discuss the harmful effects of water pollution. Ans. Effects of Water Pollution 1. Effect on animals. Oxygen contents become less in polluted water. As a result of this, fishes and other aquatic animals experience fatal effects and the water begins to stink. When the suspended impurities settle down at the bottom of rivers, ponds etc., then algae and other aquatic plants are destroyed. Human beings feeding on poisoned animals developed a crippling deformity called minimata disease. 2. Effect on plant life. If polluted water

is used for irrigation, then the plants or trees get polluted and become diseased. As a result of this, their growth is inhibited. If animals or human beings eat their fruits etc., they cause harmful effects on metabolism. 3. Effect on human or living beings. Drinking of polluted water cause a number of infectious diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentry, jaundice, diarrhoea and skin diseases. Water polluted by metals may cause congenital deformities, anaemia, loss of appetite, bluish lines round the gums etc. Waterborne diseases transmitted through drinking water and food 4. Effect on ecological balance. As polluted water affects plants, animals, human beings, the ecological balance is also disturbed. This produces adverse effect on the environment, e.g., excess of heat or cold, no rainfall on time. 5. The inorganic acids cause damage to metals or concrete structures, pumps etc. by their corrosive activity. Moreover, they produce hydrogen sulphide gas when they come in contact with sludge and mud of the river. 6. Harmful Effects of Industrial Effluents

(a) Industrial effluents give colour and turbidity to the receiving waters. (b) Acids and alkalies present in effluent render the water corrosive and damage the pipes. (c) Heavy metals and other toxic substances may kill fish and other aquatic life, animals and vegetables. (d) The effluents undergo putrefaction to form evil odours and objectionable tastes. (e) The toxic substances may kill the friendly bacteria and the natural purification processes of the streams are thus inhibited. (f) Heated effluents discharged into rivers may cause harmful rise in the temperature of the stream and thus ecosystem of the water course may possibly be changed. (g) Some of the trade substance may contain pathogenic bacteria. Q. 6. Give a brief account of purification of water for public use. Ans. Purification of Water for Public Use The destruction of water-borne pathogens like bacteria, viruses and amoebic cysts by different methods is called disinfection. The process of disinfection involves the killing of those living organisms which can spread or transmit infection through or in water. There are several methods for disinfection of drinking water. The various processes are as follows 1. Disinfection by light. Sunlight is a natural disinfectant. The ultraviolet light is a good source for this purpose. The common source of UV light is a mercury lamp made of quartz. 2. Disinfection by heat. The drinking water can be disinfected by heating it to its boiling point. High temperature kill bacteria. 3. Disinfection by alkalies and acids. The bacteria die in a very short time in highly acidic or alkaline waters. 4. Disinfection by surface active chemicals. In this process, detergents, i.e., surface active substances are used. 5. Disinfection by gases. For routine disinfection and purification of drinking water, chlorine is generally used as it is both efficient and cheap. In India, generally chlorine gas or bleaching powder is used. Besides chlorine, other substances which can

be used for disinfection are bromine and iodine. Ozone is used for disinfecting drinking water in countries like USA, West Germany, France and some African countries. It serves as a disinfectant, removes turbidity and colour producing substances. As ozone is a toxic substance, it is handled very carefully within certain limits. 6. Disinfection by metal ions. Silver ions are bactericidal (kill bacteria) and disinfection occurs even if I part of silver is present in one hundred million parts of water. Moreover, copper ions and zinc ions are also used, as they kill a number of viruses and other micro-organisms. Leaves of tulsi are also responsible of killing viruses and other micro-organisms both in water and milk. 7. Purification by coagulation. Several coagulants like alum, ferric chloride, lime are used, whereby all colloidal particles present in drinking water coagulate. they settle down and thus water can be decantated. 8. Potassium permanganate is a good disinfectant and an oxidising agent. It is added to water of tube well etc. so that bacteria in water die. But being costlier than chlorine, it cannot be used on a commercial scale. Q. 7. What is noise pollution ? List the sources of noise pollution. Ans. Noise pollution. The sound that we hear goes into our brain by way of our ears. Normally, the sound which is pleasing to the ears may be termed as music. The same music may be called noise, if quiet is desired. So, we can define noise as an unwanted sound. Noise is produced due to congestion in urban areas, vehicles, railways, helicopters, jets, rockets, radio, T.V., call bells, alarm clocks, telephone rings, pressure horns, machines or factories, coolers, loudspeakers, mixer grinders, public broadcasting by religious institutions etc. The waves left by supersonic jets give rise to sonic booms or sudden rattling of doors and windows. There are two main characteristics of sound, viz., (a) Pitch and frequency of sound waves and (b) Loudness or intensity of sound waves. The pitch of a sound depends on its frequency. A sound of higher frequency has a higher pitch. The pitch of womans voice is higher than that of a man. The human ear can detect sounds over a wide range of intensities and frequencies. Normally, the human ear is sensitive to sounds having frequencies varying from 17 to 20,000 Hz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second). Those sound waves which have frequency lower than 17 Hz are termed infrasonic and waves which have frequency higher than 20,000 Hz are termed ultrasonic. The unit of loudness or sound intensity is called decibel or dB with zero as the limit of hearing. A tenfold increase in sound intensity increases loudness by 10 dB, e.g., 100 or 102 by 20 dB, 1000 or i0 by 30 dB, 10000 or 10 by 40 dB, 10 by 70 dB, 1012 by 120 dB. An instrument called sound level meter is used. Sound becomes polluting noise at about 80 dB. It becomes uncomfortable above 100 dB. Sources of noise pollution Noise pollution originates from a number of sources like:

agriculture, industry, defence, vehicular traffic, community functions, domestic chorus and personal

entertainments. 1. Domestic Gadgets. Mixers pressure cookers, washing m chines, desert coolers, fans, exhaust fans, air conditioners, vacuum cleaners, telephones, etc. 2. Personal Entertainment. Transistor, radio, record/ cassette player, T.V. 3. Community Functions. Festivals, marriages, politicai social and religious functions, public announcements, crackers. 4. Defence Equipment. Tanks, artillery, practice firing, explosions, rocket launching. 5. Industries. Textile mills, rolling mills, printing presses, engineering establishments, shellers, expellers, stone crushers, saw mills. 6. Builders. Bull dozers, road rollers, dynamite blasting, oncrete mixers, trollies, concrete breakers, scrapers, etc. 7. Agricultural Operations. Harvesters, threshers, tractors, pump sets, lawn mowers, etc. 8. Transport Vehicle. Scooters, motor cycles, mopeds, cars, buses, trucks, trains, helicopters, aeroplanes. Road transport is the major source of noise pollution in towns and cities. Intra-city rail transport causes a lot of noise along the railway lines. Airports produce the maximum noise during landing and take off of aeroplanes.

9. Commercial Establishments. Music, T.V., telephones, exhaust fans, type writers, coolers, air conditioners, etc. Q. 8. Discuss the effects of noise pollution. Explain various measures to control noise pollution.. Ans. Effects of Noise Pollution. Noise affects man adversely in several ways, i.e., having ability to communicate, behaviour etc. Unlike smoke pollution, noise pollution is not visible. Normally, the people remain unaware of noise pollution, till it is too late to overcome it. The human ear has a safety mechanism to protect itself from the damage, provided the exposure to noise is not continuous or for a long period. Excessive noise causes loss of hearing and disturbs mental peace. 1. Impairment of Hearing. The city noise is generally more than the loudness. Therefore, city dwellers are prone to deafness with advancing age. Impairment of hearing is slow at a noise of 80 dB. It is rapid at 90 - 100 dB. An exposure to 90 dB noise for eight hours causes a temporary loss of hearing upto 35 dB. Workers engaged in noisy factories lose the ability to hear soft sounds and whispers within 2-3 years. 2. Damage to Ear Drum and Ear Bones. A sudden loud noise can damage ear drum and displace ear bones. This results in partial or complete deafness. 3. Interference in Conversation and Hearing. Noise of a passing truck or bus interferes in class room teachingif the class room happens to by near the road. You cannot have intimate conversation in a social gathering due to noise. 4. Anxiety and Stress. Long exposure to noise above 90 dB brings about stress and anxiety in many persons. It may lead to fright (sudden and extreme fear). 5. Hypertension. Sound pollution stimulates increased adrenaline hormone secretion rulting in narrowing of blood vessels of the body except brain. This produues high blood pressure or hypertension, over working of heart and abnormal heart rhythm. 6. Eye Sight. Noise pollution causes dilation of eye pupil, impairment of night vision and colour perception. Unwanted light enters the eyes producing glare. The latter may lead to accident. 7. Insomnia. Constant high level noise (e.g., from a nearby function) or noisy interruption (e.g., flights from nearby airport) result in insomnia (sleeplessness), lack of concentration and headache. Control of Nois Pollution 1. Construction of sound-proof rooms for noisy machines in industries. 2. Radios and transistors should be kept at low volume. 3. Use of hornswith jarring sound should be banned. 4. Noise producing industries, aerodromes, railways stations, etc. should be shifted away from the inhabited areas.

5. Proper laws should be enforced to check the misuse of loudspeakers and public announcement systems. 6. Need to enforce silence zone around institutions like educational institutes, residential areas, hospitals, etc. 7. Sound absorbing techniques like acoustical furnishing should be extensively employed. 8. Noise should be deflected away from the receiver by using mechanical devices. 9. Green muffler scheme involves the growing green plants along roadsides to reduce noise pollution. Q. 9. Describe harmful effects of non-ionising radiation, and ionising radiations. Ans. Harmful effect of non-ionising radiation. 1. Eye Sight. Eyes are highly sensitive to ultra-violet radiations. Damage is caused by reflections from coastal sand, snow and directly looking towards sun during eclipse. UV radiations damage the cells of cornea. Cornea has the power to repair the damage in the initial stages but prolonged exposure leads to permanent blindness. 2. Sunburn. UV-radiations injure the cells of germinative layer of the skin and cause rupturing of subcutaneous blood capillaries. It produces blisters and reddening of skin. 3. Mutation and Cancers. Ultraviolet rays increase the incidence of cancers and mutations in man. They effect every part and process of the living beings by inactivating organic molecules (proteins, enzymes, RNAs, DNA) that absorb the rays. Some n1olecules are more sensitive than the others. A few revert back to their original form after initial alteration. The effect of ultraviolet radiations is due to polymerisation and breakage of linkges. Organisms have an inbuilt mechanism to correct or replace the changed molecules by the activity of DNA. However, DNA is itself sensitive to ultraviolet radiations. Its sensitivity is due to its bases, especially pyrimidines which form dimers in the presence of UV radiations. The reaction is reversible in low doses. DNA is also able to repair itself to some extent in the presence of longer wavelengths of light. It is known as photo-reactivation. A photo-reactivating enzyme is. thought to take part in this process. Another repair process independent of light also occurs in DNA. Harmful effects of ionising radiations. Harmful Effects. The effects were first noted in 1909 when it was found that uranium miners suffer from skin burn and cancer due to radiations from the radioactive minerals. Different organisms show different sensitivity to ionising radiations. For example, tests have shown that pine trees are killed at radiations in which oak trees continue to thrive comfortably. It has also been reported that high altitude plants have developed polyploidy (increase in the number of chromosome sets) as a protective mechanism against radiations. Parts of coastal areas in South India have a high degree of background radiation which was formerly considered to be quite harmful to human beings. lonising radiations have both immediate or short-range and delayed or long- range effects. (i) Short Range (Immediate) Effects. They appear within days or a few weeks after exposure. The effects include loss of hair, nails, subcutaneous bleeding, change in number and proportion of blood cells, changed metabolism, etc. (ii) Long Range (Delayed) Effects. They appear several months or even years after the exposure. The effects are caused by development of genetic changes, mutations, shortening of life span, formation of tumours, cancers, etc. The effect of mutations can

persist in the human race. Most of the mutations are harmful. Any increase in their number is, therefore, bound to increase the harmful genetic changes in man. Previously, most of the harmful mutations in man were eliminated through death in the infant or foetus stage. Modern medicines and surgery have increased the survival chances of harmful mutations. They will, therefore, persist and accumulate in human race. Ultimately, the whole human race shall degenerate genetically on account of the cumulative effect of harmful mutations. Q. 10. Write a note on Control of Thermal Pollution. Ans. Control of Thermal Pollution. Though the effects of thermal pollution are not so severe, control of thermal pollution is necessary since in future the effects may worsen. The use of water from a water course for cooling purposes, with subsequent return to the waterway after passage through the condenser is termed as once-through cooling. To reduce the magnitude of the pollution, the outlet water can be made to give up some of its heat to the atmosphere and then may be discharged into the water course. To make it effective, cooling towers are primarily used in many power plants and artificial lakes or cooling ponds are situated in some of the places. 1. Cooling towers. Cooling towers transfer some of the heat from cooling water to the atmosphere, most probably through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling towers are of the following two types (a) Natural draft towers. In such towers, hot water is sprayed down through a rising current of air. The water vapour gives its heat to the counter-current air and gets cooled. The cooled water is collected at the bottom and returned to the water body. However, the installation and operation costs of such towers are high. (b) Mechanical draft towers. In such towers, air flow is forced or induced by fans. Hot water during its passage to water course gets cooled by the action of air. However, these towers are not preferred, as they create annoyable noise due to the operation of fans and operation cost is also high. Evaporative cooling towers cool the water by 10C or more, but they. evaporate nearly 2 per cent or more of water during evaporation. One of the demerits of such towers is that they may form fog under cold weather, creating driving hazards over an extended area. Similarly, in non-evaporative cooling towers, heat is transferred directly to the air by means of heat exchangers. It, however, involves high operational cost. 2. Artificial lakes or cooling ponds. These are the man-made bodies of water which offer one possible alternative to one-through cooling. The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and the water for cooling purposes may be drawn at the other end since the heat would eventually be dissipated through evaporation, the cooling pond would have to be replenished continuously. Such cooling ponds are in use in some locations, but they are not a very attractive alternative since they require so much space. -A one megawatt plant, for example, would require cooling pond with 1000-2000 acres of surface area. In many areas, the cost of using land for this purpose would be too great to justify the procedure. Q. 11. Write a note on Disaster Management. Ans. Disaster is any sudden event of calamity which causes great effect on the human population, plants, animals and property. Disasters are of two types Natural Man made Natural Disasters

1. EarthquakeS. Sudden tremors of the earths surface ar produced due to movement of tectonic plates under the earth. This displacement of earths crust releases energy stored within the earths interior which produces vibratory waves. The intensity of earthquake is measured by Richter, Scale which ranges from 0 to 9. The point from which the earthquake originates is called as epicentre. Prevention, Control & Mitigation (i) Constructing earthquake resistant building in the known earthquake prone zones e.g. wooden houses are preferred in Japan. (ii) Installation of earthquake study centres studying seismic ;activities and analysis of seismic zones. (iii) There must be insurance policies for earthquake victims o rehabilitate them. (iv) Creation of special task forces, fully trained and equipped, to manage such calamities within shortest possible time. 2. Tsunami. The impact of earthquake is high at sea area of origin. In this, most serious form of earthquake, giant seismic tidal waves of as high as 10 metre or more travel at the speed of 1,000 km/hour or faster, away from the epicentre of, the earthquake. Tsunamis may also be caused due to underwater volcanic eruptions or seafloor slumping. Prevention, Control & Mitigation (i) Planting more trees on the coastal areas. (ii) Timely warning and speedy evacuation of people. (iii) Conservation of mangroves in the coastal areas. (iv) Construction of embankments in inhabitable areas. (v) Immediate relief and rehabilitation to the affected people. 3. Drought. A drought is the drying up condition of the land due to insufficient or absence of rainfall for a long period affecting the vegetation1 animal and human life. Control Measures (i) Rain water harvesting and canal irrigation. (ii) Improvement of agricultural practices like dryland forming to conserve water in drought prone areas. (iii) Stopping paddy cultivation in areas of water scarcity and growing drought resistant variety of crops. (iv) Promoting social forestry and wasteland reclamation, growing species according to the ecological requirements of the area. (v) Supplying food, fodder and water to drought-hit people and their rehabilitation with all essential requirements of life. 4. Flood. A flood occurs due to continuous heavy rainfall in an area, overflowing of rivers and submerging the surounding areas damaging life and property. Control

(i) Various preventive measures are proper embankment of water bodies, building check dams on flood-prone streams, prohibiting cultivation in flood plain of rivers and growing forests and perennial trees, interlinking of river of the country and constructing houses on raised platforms and supported by reinforced stilts. (ii) Floods can be controlled by collecting data from meteorological department and alerting the people of affecting area. (iii) Educating the people about the steps to be taken in the event of disaster. (iv) Hill slopes and catchment areas of rivers must be afforested and reforested. 5. Cyclones. A cyclone is powerful circular or oval swirling storm of high velocity wind in the coastal regions of Indian ocean. It is called hurricane in Atlantic ocean, typhoon in Western Pacific and Willy-willy in sea around Australia. Control (i) Afforestation of coastal areas is the best measure. (ii) Construction oldams, embankments, wind breakers etc. (iii) Conservation of mangrooveS in coastal plains. (iv) Better forecast, warning systems with the help of remote sensing satellites. (v) Construction of cyclone proof houses and building in coastal areas. 6. Landslides. Landslide is the sudden downslope movement of a mass of rock or soil due to gravitational pull, generally in the rainy season. Control (i) Afforestation and reforestation in the landslide prone areas is the best measure. (ii) There should be no construction activity in slopy areas. (iii) Proper drainage of surface and sub surface water. (iv) Making concrete support at the base of slope along the road. (v) Construction of curved stone blocks in the risky areas.