Linga Worship in India

Tilak 1 Shantanu Tilak Viraj Shah Iconography 7 February 2014.
LINGA PUJA: A RECURRENT THEME IN INDIAN RELIGION Religious customs that exist across the world often pique our curiosity. There are some very peculiar customs that are prevalent even today. Phallic worship is one such peculiar custom. Worship of the phallus is one of the oldest customs in our universe. Rites related to phallic worship have changed through the centuries, but the object of reverence (the phallus itself) has remained constant.1 Across the world, there are several traditions that promote phallic worship. This research paper aims to briefly analyse the custom of phallic worship across different cultures but focuses mainly on linga worship in India, with the concept of Shiva being worshipped as a phallic deity at the forefront. It also discusses the evolution and types of the linga, and the methods of worship.
PHALLIC WORSHIP ACROSS CULTURES Even though the primary focus of this research paper is detailing phallic worship in India, it is important to note that there are examples of phallic worship in other countries across the world, dating back to ancient times as well as the present. PHALLIC WORSHIP FROM THE PAST THE ASSYRIANS Assyria was a kingdom situated in northern Mesopotamia. It was considered to be the centre of one of the largest empires of the Middle East. It corresponds to modern day Turkey
Mack, Allen. Phallic Worship: World-Wide and Centuries Long. JMS Books LLC. 2012. Pg.1. Print.
Tilak 2 and Iraq. It first sprung up as an independent state in the 14th Century BC and later established its power in Mesopotamia.2 Among the inhabitants of the Assyrian kingdom, the God Bel was considered to be the procreator. His wife is the Goddess Mylitta, and is considered to be the queen of fertility. Another deity, named Vul, is the god of the atmosphere, and worshipped as a giver of abundance. On Assyrian cylinders, he is portrayed to be a phallic deity. His consort is the Goddess Shala. Thus, Assyrian culture is a good example of phallic worship from ancient times.3
THE PHOENICIANS Phoenicia is a historical settlement which corresponds to modern day Lebanon. It also includes the adjoining areas of Israel and Syria. The people that inhabited the area were mainly merchants, craftsmen, trader and colonizers of the realm of the Mediterranean in the 1st Millenium BC. 4 According to Phoenician mythology, Ouranos and Gaia mated and produced multiple Gods such as Kronos, Ipaetus, Hyperon and Oceanus. Virgil has said that the products of the Earth were a result of copulation between Jupiter and Juno. St. Augustin has said that the sexual organs of a man were consecrated at the temple of Liber and those of a woman at the
"Assyria". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2014 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39555/Assyria>.

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Westropp, Hodder. On Phallic Worship. Journal of the Anthropological Society of India. Vol.8. Royal
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Pg. cxxxviii. Web. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3025178?seq=3
"Phoenicia". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2014 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/457123/Phoenicia>.
Tilak 3 sanctuaries of Libera to orchestrate the synthesis of the products of the Earth. They were then named father and mother respectively. 5 Roman culture describes a festival in which women carry a phallic structure to the temple of Venus outside the Colline gate and present it to the reproductive parts of the Goddess during the month of April, when the productive powers of the Earth are at their peak. Similar festivals related to fertility are also carried out in certain religious groups of America, as well as some isolated islands in the Pacific Ocean.6 Thus, there have been, and still are, several traditions that lay emphasis on the maintaining the fertility of the Earth, and these often involve the phallus as a symbol of prosperity and fertility.
EXAMPLES OF PHALLIC WORSHIP THAT ARE PREVALENT TODAY THE HOUNEN FERTILITY FESTIVAL A good example of phallic worship that is practiced today as well is the Hounen Fertility festival in Komaki Japan. On March 15th of every year7, devotees carry the dankon, or large wooden phalli are carried from the Kumano-jinja shrine to the Tagata-jinja shrine in the form of a procession. The phallus, which is two and a half meters long and weighs around four
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1878. Pg. cxxxviii. Web. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3025178?seq=3
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Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1878. Pg. cxxxviii. Web. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3025178?seq=3
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Honen Matsuri (Harvest Festival) at Tagata Shrine (Jinja/ Temple). Japan Guides Online. N.p. n.d. Web.
http://www.japanguides.net/aichi/honen-matsuri-harvest-festival-at-tagata-shrine-jinja-temple.html
Tilak 4 hundred kilograms is an offering to Mitoshi-kami (the God of fertility) to ask for a bountiful harvest.8 PHALLIC WORSHIP IN BHUTAN Tourists visiting Bhutan have been intrigued by the customs of phallic worship practiced there. Large paintings of phalluses are often hung up outside households.9 This custom of phallic worship is drawn from the story of the Flaming Thunderbolt of the divine madman: Lama Drukpa Kunley. According to what is told by the myth connected to this practice, the phalluses that have been represented as paintings have the ability to protect the inhabitants of whatever structure they are hung up on.10 Thus, apart from fertility, protection is another concept that is associated with the phallus.
FREUD AND HIS ROLE IN POPULARIZING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PHALLUS Freud put forward a lot of comprehensive discourse about how sexuality controlled the lives of people. Even though his own son Jung disagreed with his theories and arguments, Freud played an important role in bringing sexuality to the forefront with regards to academia
Tagata Shrine Hnen Festival festival for fertility hnen-matsuri. Japanese Photo Archives. N.p. n.d.
Web. http://www.japan-photo.de/e-frucht.htm
Skoch, Iva. Wanderlust: Penis worship in Bhutan.Global Post Online. January 4, 2011. Web.
http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/asia/101227/penis-travel-bhutan
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Grunert, Peter. Bhutan, the Kingdom of the Clouds. BBC Online. May 17, 2012. Web.
http://www.bbc.com/travel/feature/20120416-kingdom-in-the-clouds-of-bhutan/2
Tilak 5 and human behaviour. He was the first to discuss sexual repression and its impacts on human behavior and mental health.11 Semitic religion totally demolished paganism, and also obliterated the powerful image of the phallus from religious customs. Freud was responsible for bringing the phallus and along with it the concept of phallic worship to the forefront of modern discourse, by making arguments initially based upon sexual repression and later called the phallus a symbol of power. Freud brought back the image of the phallus despite the fact that it was castrated from the cloud of thought of the West.12 Freuds theories about sexuality laid emphasis on the phallus, and often discussed the complexes associated with it- for men who possessed one, and in terms of females, who lacked one as well. Freuds point of view greatly affected the reading of visual art as well as symbols of cultural significance. To Freud, all pointy, long objects such as umbrellas, pens et.al. were considered As phallic symbols. Taking all these factors into consideration, he put forth the Oedipus Complex theory and said that boys often deal with Castration Anxiety and girls with penis Envy.13 Thus, Freud played an important role in bringing topics related to sexuality to the forefront.
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Manola K., Gayatri. Interpreting symbolism of the Linga: Contrasting Freudian analysis with ideas of the
Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 1. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults
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Tilak 6 LINGA WORSHIP IN INDIA: ORIGIN There is much speculation about the origins of ling worship in India. Until recent times, it was believed that the practice of phallic worship or linga worship in India has its roots in a relatively later period, but not before the Imperial Gupta Period. 14Seals in Harappa indicate that the linga cult may be around 5000 years old. This conclusion was drawn my Sir John Marshall and several other renowned experts such as A Aiyappan. However these claims have later been disputed by archaeologists like Doris Srinivasan, who has stated that the structure represents a divine bull man. However, the very prominent erect phallus depicted may indicate that it was an object of worship. 15Speculation about the antiquity of the linga cult has been supported through the comprehensive analysis of several other archaeological finds as well. A clay seal from Basarh depicting a linga and yoni was speculated to be the earliest depiction of phallic worship in India. In the Archaeological Report presented in 1907-1908, a miniature linga as well as a yoni were described, which were recovered from the areas located north of the Dhamek Stupa Sarnath. Both the aforementioned specimens were found to belong to the same period upon being dated. They gave a foundation to the timeline of the Linga Cult in India. 16 Further knowledge was obtained from the Archaeological Report of 1909-1910, by R.D. Banerji, which described a Shiva-linga from Bhita, preserved at the Lucknow Museum.
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Sur K., Atul. Beginnings of the Linga Cult in India. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
Published by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 1931. Pg.149. Web. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41688232
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Tilak 7 Inscriptions show that it dates back to the 1st Century BC. Other valuable artefacts include a phallus symbol unearthed at Gudimallan, which is a village located six miles north east of Renigunta, which was described by T.G. Rao in the Archaeological Report. It depicted the human phallus in a very realistic and also bore the symbol of Shiva on its front facet, and is,till date, worshipped by locals of the area, who call it Parmeshvara. It has been seen that the structure bears resemblance to the Yaksha sculpture at Sanchi , and hence it has been dated to around the second century BC. 17 Rigvedic passages provide references regarding linga worship and date it back to a millennium and a half earlier than the previously mentioned dates.18 These texts describe how Indra was prayed to in order to hinder the worshippers to Shishna19 (Shishna literally means phallus or phallic deity)20, from disturbing the rites of singers. Another reference is made to these worshippers of a phallic deity in the stories recounted by the singers of how they destroyed the cities inhabited by these worshippers. These references point out the existence of a phallic cult during Vedic times.21 From all this evidence, we can speculate that the
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A Newsletter Archive from Exotic Indian Art. The Forms of Shiva in Visual Arts. ExoticIndiaArt.2006. pg. 5.
Web. http://shivarea.com/_literature_41687/Forms_of_Shiva
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Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 3. Web.
Tilak 8 concept of linga worship originated as early as the Indus Valley Civilization. Artefacts of possible divine significance bearing phallic symbolism have also been found at Indus Valley sites, and this further fuels this possibility. 22 The material evidence as well as the aforementioned Rigvedic passages indicate that the inhabitants of the prosperous settlements of the Indus Valley did practice some form of phallic worship.23 Prehistoric archaeological finds may allow us to push back the origin of the linga cult ato a millennium and a half earlier. These finds include phallic earthenware unearthed from several areas of Baroda in Gujarat and a phallic symbol found in the excavations at the Shevaroy hills in the Salem district, preserved as a part of the Foote collection at the Madras Museum. The latter has been speculated to have been used for icon worship or as some sort of a charm to ward off fertility.24 Linguistic paleontology has helped us to throw more light onto the origin of phallic worship in India. In his research paper on Non-Aryan Loans in Indo Aryan, linguistic palaeontologist Przyluski has proved that the words lingala (plough) and linga (manhood
https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults
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Tilak 9 or phallus) have the same connotation or meaning as well as Austro Asiatic roots. He has explicitly stated that the word linga when considered meaning phallus has equivalents in the Non-Aryan languages of the East, but none in the Indo-European languages of the Aryan people in the West. The Sanskrit equivalent i.e. langalam, has both physiological as well as agricultural connotation, which is not hard to relate to. This shows that the concept of phallic worship was borrowed by some Indo-Aryans from the aborigines of India, who had prior knowledge of this custom. The paucity of this custom in Indo-Aryan regions fuels the plausibility of this data.25 The epics contain several references to phallic worship. For example, Ravana is shown to have possessed a golden linga as an object of worship, since he was a devout disciple of Shiva. The linga cult is depicted as an Aryan cult for the first time in the epics, but in the Rigvedic texts, it is regarded as a Non-Aryan cult. Thus, when it comes to origin, the linga cult in India has non-Aryan roots. It dates back to Neolithic times and also flourished during the times of the Indus Valley civilization, as inferred from the references in the Rigveda. The concept of phallic worship was integrated into Shaivism during the epic period.26 Thus, phallic worship is quite an ancient tradition in India, and has been vastly studied by archaeologists and other experts, including linguistic palaeontologists, all of who helped to trace its origin.
THE SHIVA LINGA
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Tilak 10 Shiva is one of the Gods of the triad including Brahma and Vishnu. He is considered as the Destroyer whereas the other two are the Creator and the Protector respectively. He is often depicted as an ascetic, living in the Himalayan mountains with his wife, Parvati. He possesses a trident, wears a black serpent around his neck, accompanied by a necklace of skulls. His vahana is a white bull named Nandi. He wears a cloth made of tiger skins and also wears a crescent moon in his matted jata, which was presented to him as his share of the products obtained after the oceans were churned into place. He has three eyes, the third being on his forehead, and they represent the three Vedas or the three phases of time- past, present and future.27 The Ganges river is intertwined in his matted hair, since he was the one that protected the Earth by mitigating the damage the Ganges would have caused by crashing down onto the Earth with full force. 28 Though Shivas human form is described with great detail in the Puranas, he is most often worshipped in the form of a lingam or phallus. It is not meant to make any form of an offensive statement to those unacquainted with the myths associated with this practice of phallic worship. However, the fact that it represents the male and female reproductive organs makes it hard for people to worship it without impure thoughts springing up in their minds.29
EVOLUTION OF THE SHIVA LINGA OVER TIME The Guddimallam LInga in Andhra Pradesh dating back to around the 2nd-1st Century BCE is considered to be the most ancient archaeological specimen with respect to linga
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Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.271. Print. Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.279. Print.
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Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.280. Print.
Tilak 11 worship in India. From the initial realistic and crude representation of the linga, its depiction has developed into a fairly stylistic and compact form. The lingas from Aravalem as well as Mathura feature this sort of a simplistic representation. Later lingas feature three parts, the bottom two being inserted into a yoni. The top portion represents Shiva. Another later llinga is the Mukhalinga, which depicts faces or heads on the main structure. The several types of lingas have been discussed in a later section of this research paper.30
MYTHS ASSOCIATED WITH THE WORSHIP OF THE SHIVA LINGA SHIVA CASTRATES HIMSELF: A MYTH FROM THE SHIVA PURANA This myth is found in the Shiva Purana, and describes how Lord Shiva established his supremacy over Brahma and Vishnu. When the universe was being recreated from destruction (Shiva orchestrates the process of destruction or pralaya) and was in the stages of being just one large ocean, the three Gods of the triad (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) arose from the oceans. The Earth was devoid of substance; it was just one giant casket filled to the brim with monumental waters. 31 Brahma embraced the Shakti (creative power, manifested as a Goddess) of Lord Shiva and told him to perform the task of creation. Upon hearing this, Shiva agreed to do so and plunged into the ocean, but remained hidden for around a thousand celestial years. After this long period of time had elapsed, Vishnu told Brahma that he would grant him a Shakti that would grant him the supreme power of creation. After Vishnu did so, Brahma performed the monumental task of creation and filled the universe from the heavens to the underworld with gods, demons, serpents, Rakshasas as well as humans.32 Upon seeing that Brahma had performed the task of creation, Shiva was infuriated, and decided to destroy all that had been created. He then breathed a massive flame which
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Shah, Viraj. Iconography. Class Notes. Print. Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 138. Print Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 139. Print
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Tilak 12 burnt and ravaged all of Brahmas creations.33 Brahma, upon obersving the wrath of Shiva, was in total awe, and praised him. He then advised Shiva to let the world be restored to equilibrium through creation. Shiva responded by saying that he would let Brahma do as he wishes with the excess energy used by him for destruction. Brahma asked Shiva to transfer all his power into the Sun, so that he can be the Supreme Power- the creator, protector as well as the destroyer. Having the power of the Sun, Shiva would be able to destroy the world and envelop everything in fire at the end of his aeon.34 Amused by this, Shiva castrated himself and let his linga fall to the ground, saying that the only good function of his linga is for the creation of progeny. The linga broke through the Earth and soared above into the skies, like a giant pillar. Vishnu took the form of a boar and burrowed into the ground, searching for the bottom, and Brahma searched for the top, soaring into the sky as an elegant swan. Neither of them could find its boundaries.
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After the two had given up on the quest assigned to them, a celestial voice said that the
linga of Lord Shiva, if worshipped with immense devotion would grant all worldly desires. Hearing this, Brahma and Vishnu decided to worship the linga with all their heart.36
SHIVA IS CASTRATED BY THE SAGES OF THE PINE FOREST: A MYTH FROM THE BRAHMANDA PURANA This myth is a slight twist on the one related to sage Bhrigu, and recounts how Shiva was cursed by a group of sages living in a hermitage within a pine forest. Shiva became infuriated due to Satis death at Dakshas sacrifice, and began to roam around the pine forest, from hermitage to hermitage. The wives of the Brahmins became attracted to him and began to follow him from place to place. Thinking that he was deluded and impure, and not realizing that he was lord Shiva himself, the sages of the pine forest cursed Shiva to lose his manhood.37
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Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 139. Print Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 140. Print Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 140. Print Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 141. Print Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 143. Print
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Tilak 13 Upon the loss of Shivas manhood, the world plunged into chaos. The celestial bodies were in a state of total imbalance, the Sun gave no heat and the purifying flames had no lustrous texture to them. Upon realizing something was wrong, the sages went and consulted Brahma and retold the sequence of events to him. Upon thinking for a while, Brahma told the sages that the man they had cursed was no ordinary Brahmin, but Lord Shiva himself. Once Brahma interceded, the sages decided to invoke Shiva, and reversed the curse through reverence and worship.38 They then worshipped Shiva in the form of a linga.39
CURSE OF THE SAGE BHRIGU: A MYTH FROM THE PADMA PURANA According to the Padma Purana, the reason why lord Shiva is worshipped in the form of a linga is the result of a curse laid upon him by the sage Bhrigu.40 The myth is a Vaishnavite one41, and describes how Sage Bhrigu was sent to discover which of the Gods of the Triad (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) was the greatest. Upon coming to Shivas abode, he was instructed by the doorkeeper to wait outside, since Lord Shiva was with his wife, Devi. Bhrigu obeyed orders, but upon waitingfor a long time, his patience was exhausted. He cursed Shiva to be worshipped as a linga, since he refused to meet the sage as a direct consequence of his lust.42 This myth is like a sort of reflection of the Daksha myth, since both begin with a sacrificial congregation. However Shiva is deprived of his share of the sacrifice, and he is reduced from heterodoxy to orthodoxy. Since this myth is a Vaishnavite one, it also describes Vishnu as being the supreme God, and escapes unaffected, since he allows the Brahmin to treat him in a condescending and contemptuous manner, just as the Pine Forest sages tried to treat Shiva, but in vain.43
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Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 148. Print Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.280. Print. Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.280. Print. Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 148. Print Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.281. Print. Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 149. Print
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Tilak 14
TYPES OF LINGAS WORSHIPPED There are several types of Shiva lingas worshipped in Indian culture. A detailed account of all these types as well as their subtypes has been given by Gopinath Rao. These classifications have been made on the basis of data obtained from Shaiva agamas as well as other texts. 44 Taking reference from the Makutagama, the Sthiralingas or Achala lingas45 (immovable or permanent) are classified into the Daivika, Arsaka, Ganapa and the Manusa lingas. The Kamikagama groups classify the shiva lingas into six types namely the Svayambhuva, Daivika, Arsaka, Ganapatya, Manusa and the Banalingas.46 Svayambhuva lingas are considered to be the most holy, since they are naturally occurring. They are said to have existed since time immemorial. Chala lingas are movable and temporary. They are often made of wood, clay, precious stones or metal.47 Banalingas are naturally occurring stones that can be obtained from the beds of holy rivers such as the Narmada, the Ganga as well as the Reva. These are often carried by Shaivites as symbols of ritual worship. 48 The manmade lingas or the Manusa lingas comprise the largest category of lingas. They are most often made up of three tiers- the first is the square shaped lower section, the middle takes the shaped of an octagon and the topmost tier is circular. The top tier is called the Rudrabhaga and represents Lord Shiva. Offerings of water and other ritualistic objects like flowers are made to this portion, while the other two sections are inserted into a pedestal as well as the ground. The Brhatasamhita mentions the linga having a similar structure but does not explicitly name each tier. Demarcations or lines
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Banerjea, Jitendra Nath. Siva. The Development of Hindu Iconography. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.457.
Print
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Shah, Viraj. Iconography. Class Notes. Print. Banerjea, Jitendra Nath. Siva. The Development of Hindu Iconography. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.458.
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Shah, Viraj. Iconography. Class Notes. Print. Banerjea, Jitendra Nath. Siva. The Development of Hindu Iconography. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.458.
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Tilak 15 on the structure called Brahmasutras serve the purpose of distinguishing the nut from the shaft.49 As told by the Mukutagama, these brahmasutras or demarcations are not supposed to be shown on the Daivika and Arsaka lingas, which are associated with divinity, but can be depicted on lingas made by human hands i.e. Manusa lingas. The Manusa lingas are further subdivided into types based on the proportions of the three tiers. These names include Sarvasana, Vardhamana, Svastika, Sarvadesika and Trairasika. Siva lingas can also be classified according to how the Rudrabhaga is crafted. If the Rudrabhaga has fluted facets, which function as a means of draining water, then it is called a Dharalinga. The number of fluted facets, according to the Suprabhedagama, is either five, seven, nine, twelve, sixteen, twenty four or twenty eight50. The Astotarasatta and Sahasra lingas have 108 and 1000 emblems carved onto them respectively.51 Mukhalingas depict human heads carved onto the main linga. It has been established by the Karanagama that the mukhalinga must have faces measuring thirteen and a half angalas, and can have either 5, 4 , 3 or 1 face (s) on them. When the linga has one face, it is shown in the front. A three headed one lacks a head at the back. It also mentions that the number of heads depicted ona linga are determined by the number of doors to the shrine, but it has been observed that this concept has not always been strictly followed. Similar rules are laid down by the Rupadamana, but it has no mention of five faced lingas. Four faced lingas, according to the Rupadamana, have the western face white, the southern black and ferocious looking, the northern face bright red, and the eastern one the color of a warm, well kindled fire. The Panchamukhalinga (having 5 heads) represents the five aspects of Shiva namely-
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Tilak 16 Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusa and the final one- Isana, which has not been decoded by even the Yogis.52
THE 12 JYOTIRLINGAS: The Jyotirlingas are a set of 12 lingas situated across India in elaborate shrines. They are, till date, worshipped by several vehement devotees. Pilgrimages are widespread to these special shrines. The Dvadasa Jyotirlinga prayer is said to liberate all those who chant it of all their troubles. Chanting this prayer is also believed to grant worshippers enlightenment and freedom from the cycle of life. Eating the holy offerings made to these lingas is said to free devotees from all their sins.53 The twelve structures each have a different name. They are: Vishwanath (Kashi), Mallikarjuna (Srisailam), Mahakaleshwar (Ujjain), Bhimashankar (Maharashtra), Kedarnath (Uttarakhand), Omkareshwar (Madhya Pradesh), Tryambakeshwar (Maharashtra), Nageshvar (Aundha-Nagantha), Rameshwar (Tamil Nadu), Ghrushneshvar (Maharashtra), Amarnath (Jammu & Kashmir) and Vaidyanatha (Jharkhand).54 The Panchabhuta represent the five elements, we worship and pray to them every day. The Gayatri mantra is said to invoke only light, which has the ability to grant us divine powers. The other elements are also capable of granting divine gifts, when invoked with appropriate incantations and chants. Therefore, by worshipping the twelve holy Jyotirlingas and the auspicious aura that surrounds them, we can rid our lives of darkness and obtain salvation.55 KEDARNATH PILGRIMAGE
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JYOTIRLINGA: THE STORY OF THE LIGHT. Shaivam Online. N.p. n.d. Web.
http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/sp/spjyoti.htm
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Shah, Viraj. Iconography. Class Notes. JYOTIRLINGA: THE STORY OF THE LIGHT. Shaivam Online. N.p. n.d. Web.
Tilak 17 In November, an idol of Lord Shiva is transported from kedarnath to Ukhimath, and reinstated back to the former in May. The shrine is open to pilgrims during this period of time. It is closed in October-November, till April. When closed, the shrine is immersed in snow and worship is practiced at Ukhimath. The scenic view from the ancient shrine is breathtaking. Kedarnath is situated at Uttarakhand, near the Mandakini river. The best time to visit is in the month of October. One can take a Char Dham yatra during this time in order to show the intensity of their devotion. The temple is elaborate and extravagant in design. It is made up of stone, and has a Grabha Griha for worship. It also possesses a mandap, where pilgrims and worshippers gather. A statue of Nandi (Shivas vahana; a bull) stands guarding the shrine.56
THE ICE LINGA AT THE AMARNATH CAVE IN KASHMIR The ice linga at Amarnath is a Svayambhu linga, since it is naturally occurring and hence is considered extremely holy. The legend associated with the linga is quite elaborate. In this particular cave, Shiva is said to have taught Parvati the secret of creation and immortality. Two mating doves taking shelter in the cave eavesdropped on their conversations and hence upon learning the secret, became capable of being reborn repeatedly. They made the cave their permanent place of residence, and many travellers and pilgrims have reported seeing the pair of doves as they approach the ice lingam (phallic symbol of Lord Shiva), which is an ice stalagmite, traversing through harsh paths. The ice linga waxes and wanes with the moon. Bu its side are two other lingas, representing Parvati and Ganesha.57 The path to Amarnath is long and harsh, and tests the devotion of the pilgrim. The fact that so many devout worshippers make their way every July or August towards the holy cave shows that it is of great religious significance.58
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Kedarnath. Kedarnath Online. N.p. n.d. Web. http://www.badarikedar.org/kedarnath.aspx JYOTIRLINGA: THE STORY OF THE LIGHT. Shaivam Online. N.p. n.d. Web.
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Pilgrimage to the Amarnath Cave. KOAUSA Online. N.p. n.d. Web.
http://www.koausa.org/Nature/amarnath.html
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HOW TO WORSHIP A LINGA The worship of a linga is quite a simple process, but there are several factors that affect how auspicious the process of worship is. It is most beneficial to worship a linga at midnight. The location is another major determining factor.Worship in a cow shed, a temple, or at the banks of a holy river is a lot more auspicious. The process is quite straight forward. One must recite the mantra Om Nama Shivaya during the process of worship. Offerings of either coconut water, cow milk, betel oil and even flowers can be made. Significance is also attached to applying bhasmas and also to wearing rudrakshas.59
CONCLUSION: Thus, phallic worship is quite a prevalent practice in India, as well as other parts of the world, as described in this comprehensive research paper. The custom may be slightly odd, but the myths associated with it according to the Indian school of thought have a deeper significance that enables us to understand the existence of our world today, and how we came into being. Therefore, we must leave all our corrupt thoughts behind and make our devotion be heartfelt. Shiva is only one single aspect to phallic worship. There are so many other similar customs across the world that have a similar concept, and this really gives us food for thought with regards to sexual themes being incorporated into religion so freely. It shows us that religion has no boundaries, and does not hesitate to incorporate themes that are considered crass or vulgar in everyday life. ----------------------------------------------------------x-----------------------------------------------------
59
Worship Method of Shiva Lingas. Kamakoti Online. N.p. n.d. Web.
http://www.kamakoti.org/kamakoti/details/shivapuranam5.html
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Works Cited
1. A Newsletter Archive from Exotic Indian Art. The Forms of Shiva in Visual Arts. ExoticIndiaArt.2006. pg. 5. Web. http://shivarea.com/_literature_41687/Forms_of_Shiva
2. "Assyria". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2014 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39555/Assyria>. 3. Banerjea, Jitendra Nath. Siva. The Development of Hindu Iconography. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.457-460. Print
4. Doniger, Wendy. Rudra and Shiva. Hindu Myths. Penguin Classics. 138-149. Print
5. Grunert, Peter. Bhutan, the Kingdom of the Clouds. BBC Online. May 17, 2012. Web. http://www.bbc.com/travel/feature/20120416-kingdom-in-the-clouds-ofbhutan/2 6. Honen Matsuri (Harvest Festival) at Tagata Shrine (Jinja/ Temple). Japan Guides Online. N.p. n.d. Web. http://www.japanguides.net/aichi/honen-matsuri-harvestfestival-at-tagata-shrine-jinja-temple.html 7. JYOTIRLINGA: THE STORY OF THE LIGHT. Shaivam Online. N.p. n.d. Web. http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/sp/spjyoti.htm 8. Kedarnath. Kedarnath Online. N.p. n.d. Web. http://www.badarikedar.org/kedarnath.aspx
9. Mack, Allen. Phallic Worship: World-Wide and Centuries Long. JMS Books LLC. 2012. Pg.1. Print. 10. Manola K., Gayatri. Interpreting symbolism of the Linga: Contrasting Freudian analysis with ideas of the Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 1-3. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Bet ween_Freud_and_early_Indian_Linga_Cults
Tilak 20 11. "Phoenicia". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2014 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/457123/Phoenicia>. 12. Shah, Viraj. Iconography. Class Notes. Print. 13. Skoch, Iva. Wanderlust: Penis worship in Bhutan.Global Post Online. January 4, 2011. Web. http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/asia/101227/penis-travel-bhutan 14. Sur K., Atul. Beginnings of the Linga Cult in India. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Published by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 1931. Pg.149-153. Web. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41688232 15. Tagata Shrine Hnen Festival festival for fertility hnen-matsuri. Japanese Photo Archives. N.p. n.d. Web. http://www.japan-photo.de/e-frucht.htm
16. Westropp, Hodder. On Phallic Worship. Journal of the Anthropological Society of India. Vol.8. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Pg. cxxxviii. Web. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3025178?seq=3 17. Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.271-281. Print. 18. Worship Method of Shiva Lingas. Kamakoti Online. N.p. n.d. Web. http://www.kamakoti.org/kamakoti/details/shivapuranam5.html

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Tilak 1 Shantanu Tilak Viraj Shah Iconography 7 February 2014.

"Assyria". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.

Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2014 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39555/Assyria>.

"Phoenicia". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.

Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2014 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/457123/Phoenicia>.

Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 1. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults

Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 2. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults

Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 2. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults

Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 2. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults

Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 3. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults

Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 3. Web.

Indian Linga Cult. N.p. n.d. pg. 3. Web. https://www.academia.edu/3389048/Interpreting_the_Symbolism_of_the_Linga_Between_Freud_and_early_In dian_Linga_Cults

THE SHIVA LINGA

Wilkins, W J. Shiva. Hindu Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. 2004. Pg.280. Print.

Pilgrimage to the Amarnath Cave. KOAUSA Online. N.p. n.d. Web.

Worship Method of Shiva Lingas. Kamakoti Online. N.p. n.d. Web.

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