Course: CIVL 841-Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics

Name: Ioannis Vazaios

St.ID: 10123567

Assignment: 2-Elastic Finite Element Analysis

Exercise 2a: Derive the shape functions for a 10-Node Element

As illustrated in Figure 1, we have an element in 2 dimensions, positioned in a Cartesian,
coordinate system X, Y and it is formed by 10 nodes. Its shape is arbitrary.


Figure 1: 10-Node Element in a Cartesian Coordinate System
Due to the complexity of its geometry we will have to transfer it to a local coordinate system
, , as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: 10-Node Element in a local coordinate system ,

Y
X
6
9
1
3
8
5
10
2
7
4


6
9
1
3
8
5 10
2
7 4
Therefore quantities like the coordinate X and Y and the displacements u, v will be given by
the following relations:
- x=N
1
*x
1
+ N
2
*x
2
+ N
3
*x
3
+ N
4
*x
4
+ N
5
*x
5
+ N
6
*x
6
+ N
7
*x
7
+ N
8
*x
8
+ N
9
*x
9
+ N
10
*x
10

- y=N
1
*y
1
+ N
2
*y
2
+ N
3
*y
3
+ N
4
*y
4
+ N
5
*y
5
+ N
6
*y
6
+ N
7
*y
7
+ N
8
*y
8
+ N
9
*y
9
+ N
10
*y
10

- u=N
1
*u
1
+ N
2
*u
2
+ N
3
*u
3
+ N
4
*u
4
+ N
5
*u
5
+ N
6
*u
6
+ N
7
*u
7
+ N
8
*u
8
+ N
9
*u
9
+ N
10
*u
10

- v=N
1
*v
1
+ N
2
*v
2
+ N
3
*v
3
+ N
4
*v
4
+ N
5
*v
5
+ N
6
*v
6
+ N
7
*v
7
+ N
8
*v
8
+ N
9
*v
9
+ N
10
*v
10


In which N
1
, N
2
, , N
10
are the shape functions expressed in terms of ,. Continuing, we will
derive the shape functions based on Figure 3 as functions of , N

(,).


Figure 3: Coordinate pairs illustrated per node

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 3 2 2
3 2 2 3 2 2
2 2
1
2
27
2
9
18 9
2
11
1
2
9
2
27
2
27
2
9
9 18 9
2
11
2
11
1
9
2
3
2
*
3 3 3
1
0 0
3
2
* 0 0
3
1
* 0 0 1
3
2
*
3
1
* 1
q q q q q q
q q q q q q
q q q
q
q

q q q q
+ + + + + + =
= + + + =
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

= N




+ =
+
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
2 3
2 2 3
2
2
9
2
9
9
2
9
2
3
1
3
2
3
2
1 *
3
1
1 * 1
3
2
*
3
1
*
N

q q q
q q q
+ =
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
2 3
3
2
9
2
9
3
2
1 *
3
1
1 * 1
3
2
*
3
1
*
N



(0, 2/3)
(0, 1/3)
(0, 0)
(0, 1)
(1/3, 2/3)
(2/3, 1/3)
(1/3, 1/3)
(1, 0)
(2/3, 0)
(1/3, 0)
( ) ( )
3
2
81
18
648
2 2
2
81
2
6
567
18
162
2
18
405
3
6
81
81
2
9
2
2
3
1
2
9
2
3
3
1
9
2
2
3
1
2
3
2
2 2 2
3
2
3
3
2
2
81
2
3
1
3
2
3
1
0 *
3
2
3
1
* 0
3
1
1 *
3
1
3
1
*
3
2
* 1 *
2
4
q q q q
q q q q q q q q
q q q q
+ + + =
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + +
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

= N
( ) q q q q
q q
q
= =

=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
2 2
2
5
3
2
9
2
9
2
27
27
2
3
1
3
2
*
3
1
*
3
1
3
2
* *
3
1
N

( ) ( )
q q q q q
q q q q q q
q q q q q q
2
9
2
9
2
27
18
2
27
27
2
3
1
3
1
3
1
27
2
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
* 0
3
2
1 *
3
2
3
1
* 1 *
2 2 3
2 3 2 2
2
6
+ + =
=
+ +
=

|
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

= N

( )
q q
q
2
9
2
9
2
27
18
2
27
3
1
3
2
* 0
3
2
1 *
3
2
3
1
* 1 *
2 2 3
7
+ + =
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

= N

( )
2 2
2
8
3 2
2
9
2
27
9
27
2
3
2
3
2
*
3
1
*
3
1
3
2
* *
3
2
q q q q
q q
q
= =

=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

= N

( )
3 2 2 2 2 3
9
2
81
18
648
2
81
6
567
18
162
18
405
6
81
3
1
0 *
3
2
3
1
*
3
1
0 1 *
3
1
3
1
*
3
2
* 1 *
q q q q q q q
q q q
+ + + =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

= N

( )
2 2
2 2
10
27 27 27
27
1
3
1
*
3
1
*
3
1
3
1
1
* * 1
q q q
q q q q q
=

=
|
.
|

\
|


= N

Therefore, the shape functions formed for a 10-Node element are a 3
rd
order polynomial,
which could generally be written in the following form:

F(,)=a+b+c+d
2
+e+f
2
+g
3
+h
2
+i
2
+j
3


Exercise 2b: Calculate the first element of the stiffness matrix K
11


We know that the stiffness matrix K is derived by the following relation:

}
=
V
T
DBdV B K (1)

In which matrix B is the strain-displacement matrix and D is the matrix forming our
constitutive law between the stresses and the strains . In this particular exercise we will
use the constitutive matrix for the plane strain case (
zz
=0,
zx
=0,
zy
=0), which was derived in
Assignment 1 (Table 1).

| |
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )
( )
( )( )
( )(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+

+
+ +

=
v
E
v v
v E
v v
Ev
v v
Ev
v v
v E
D
1 2
0 0
0
2 1 1
1
2 1 1
0
2 1 1 2 1 1
1


Table 1: Constitutive Matrix for the Plane Strain Case

In order to derive the B matrix, we will assume the simple case of a 3-node, triangular
element, as illustrated in figure 4.


Figure 4: A 3-Node, triangular Element
In order to simplify the geometry of it we will transfer it to a normalized coordinate system
, as illustrated in figure 5. Continuing, for this normalized triangle we will derive the shape
functions, as in the above exercise, which are functions of , .

Y
X
1
3
2

Figure 5: 3-Node Element in a normalized coordinate system ,
( )
( )
q
q
=


= 1
0 0 1
1
1
N (2)

= =
1
2
N (3)

q
q
= =
1
3
N (4)

Therefore, quantities like X and Y are derived by the following relations:
- X=N
1
*X
1
+N
2
*X
2
+N
3
*X
3

- Y=N
1
*Y
1
+N
2
*Y
2
+N
3
*Y
3


Secondly, we will form the Jacobian Matrix which is illustrated at Table 2.

| |
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
q q

y x
y x
J

Table 2: The Jacobian Matrix

So we derive the following relations from the shape functions for the 3-node element:

1 2 3 2 1 3
3
2
2
1
1
* 0 * 1 * 1 x x x x x x
N
x
N
x
N x
= + + =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c



1 3 3 2 1 3
3
2
2
1
1
* 1 * 0 * 1 x x x x x x
N
x
N
x
N x
= + + =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
q q q q




1
3
2
(0, 1)
(0, 0)
(1, 0)
1 2 3 2 1 3
3
2
2
1
1
* 0 * 1 * 1 y y y y y y
N
y
N
y
N y
= + + =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c



1 3 3 2 1 3
3
2
2
1
1
* 1 * 0 * 1 y y y y y y
N
y
N
y
N y
= + + =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
q q q q


And the Jacobian Matrix has the values illustrated in the following table.

| |
(

=
1 3 1 3
1 2 1 2
y y x x
y y x x
J

And the determinant of the Jacobian Matrix is derived by the following relation:

detJ=(x
2
-x
1
)*(y
3
-y
1
)-(x
3
-x
1
)*(y
2
-y
1
)

Continuing, the reverse matrix of the Jacobian is :

| |
(

=
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c

c
c

c
c
=
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=

1 2 3 1
3 1 1 3 1
det
1
det
1
x x x x
y y y y
J
x x
y y
J
y y
x x
J
q
q
q
q


After we have set the Jacobian Matrix and its reverse we will continue with deriving the
strain-displacement matrix B. Assuming the strain vector [], we can apply the following
relation, []=[][u]
T
. Therefore, the usefulness of matrix B is that connects the strains with
the displacements and we get the following matrices:

| | | | | |
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
c
c
c
c
B =
3 3
2 2
1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
*
v u
v u
v u
x
N
y
N
x
N
y
N
x
N
y
N
y
N
y
N
y
N
x
N
x
N
x
N
x
v
y
u
y
v
x
u
u
T
c

But the shape functions N
i
for i=1 to 3 are functions of , thus we have to apply the chain
rule and in this way we get:

J
y y
x
N
x
N
x
N
det
3 2 1 1 1

=
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c q
q

J
x x
y
N
y
N
y
N
det
2 3 1 1 1

=
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c q
q

J
y y
x
N
x
N
x
N
det
1 3 2 2 2

=
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c q
q

J
x x
y
N
y
N
y
N
det
3 1 2 2 2

=
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c q
q

J
y y
x
N
x
N
x
N
det
2 1 3 3 3

=
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c q
q

J
x x
y
N
y
N
y
N
det
1 2 3 3 3

=
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c q
q

So the B matrix is formed and it has generally the following form:

| |
(
(
(

=
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
B B B B B B
B B B B B B
B B B B B B
B

And its transposed one:

| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
63 62 61
53 52 51
43 42 41
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
36 26 16
35 25 15
34 24 14
33 23 13
32 22 12
31 21 11
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
B B B
B B B
B B B
B B B
B B B
B B B
B
T


In this way we have derived all the necessary components to form our stiffness matrix K.
Initially, we will form the product between the matrices B
T
and D.

| | | |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
=
X63D33 X62D23 X61D13 X63D32 X62D22 X61D12 X63D31 X62D21 X61D11
X53D33 X52D23 X51D13 X53D32 X52D22 X51D12 X53D31 X52D21 X51D11
X43D33 X42D23 X41D13 X43D32 X42D22 X41D12 X43D31 X42D21 X41D11
X33D33 X32D23 X31D13 X33D32 X32D22 X31D12 X33D31 X32D21 X31D11
D23D33 X22D23 X21D13 X23D32 X22D22 X21D12 X23D31 X22D21 X21D11
X13D32 X12D23 X11D13 X13D32 X12D22 X11D12 X13D31 X12D21 X11D11
D
T
B

And thus the W matrix is formed:

| | | | | |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

= =
63 62 61
53 52 51
43 42 41
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
W W W
W W W
W W W
W W W
W W W
W W W
D B W
T


And

| || |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
=
... ... ... ... 32 63 22 62 12 61 31 63 21 62 11 61
... ... ... ... 32 53 22 52 12 51 31 53 21 52 11 51
... ... ... ... 32 43 22 42 12 41 31 43 21 42 11 41
... ... ... ... 32 33 22 32 12 31 31 33 21 32 11 31
... ... ... ... 32 23 22 22 12 21 31 23 21 22 11 21
... ... ... ... 32 13 22 12 12 11 31 13 21 12 11 11
B W B W B W B W B W B W
B W B W B W B W B W B W
B W B W B W B W B W B W
B W B W B W B W B W B W
B W B W B W B W B W B W
B W B W B W B W B W B W
B W


In this way we have created the Matrix A, where [A]=[B]
T
[D][B], and matrix A has the
following form:

| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
66 65 64 63 62 61
56 55 54 53 52 51
46 45 44 43 42 41
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A

At this point we have to note that Matrix A is a 6x6 matrix and A
ij
=(number) for i, j= 1 to 6
and not a function of , . Thus, by using equation (1) the product of B, B
T
and D matrices can
get out of the integral due to the fact that it contains numerical values and not functions. So:

| | | | | || | | | | || |
} }
= =
V
T
V
T
dV B D B dV B D B K
By assuming a constant thickness t for our 3 node element the integral gets the form:

}
A
dA 1 =X+C thus | | A C C A C X dA
A
A
= + = + =
}
0 1
0
0


In which A is the area of our triangular element and the stiffness matrix K gets the following
form:

[K]=t*A*[B]
T
[D][B]

So the first element of the stiffness matrix K
11
is the product K
11
=t*A*A
11
, in which A
11
is
equal to:
- W11=X11D11+X12D21+X13D31=
) 2 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
det
0 0
) 2 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
det
3 2 3 2
v v
v E
J
y y
v v
v E
J
y y
+

= + +
+


- W12=X11D12+X12D22+X13D32=
) 2 1 )( 1 ( det
0 0
) 2 1 )( 1 ( det
3 2 3 2
v v
Ev
J
y y
v v
Ev
J
y y
+

= + +
+

- W13=X11D13+X12D23+X13D33=
) 1 ( 2 det ) 1 ( 2 det
0 0
2 3 2 3
v
E
J
x x
v
E
J
x x
+

=
+

+ +

A11=W11B11+W12B21+W13B31= | |
2
2 3
2
3 2
2
) )( 2 1 ( ) )( 1 ( 2
) )(det 2 1 )( 1 ( 2
x x v y y v
J v v
E
+
+


Thus for the plane strain case:

K
11
= | |
2
2 3
2
3 2
2
) )( 2 1 ( ) )( 1 ( 2
) )(det 2 1 )( 1 ( 2
* * x x v y y v
J v v
E
A t +
+
but detJ=2A
trinagle
so:

K
11
= | |
2
2 3
2
3 2
) )( 2 / 1 ( ) )( 1 (
) 2 1 )( 1 ( 4
x x v y y v
v v A
Et
+
+


Exercise 2c: Consider how the node numbering in Figure 2.4 (of notes) influences the
banded nature of the global equations (Consider the case where the first element on the
left has nodes 1, 2 and 5). Derive an expression for bandwidth as a function of the node
numbers for an element with nodes i, j and k (where i<j<k).

In order to illustrate the effect of node numbering on the bandwidth of the stiffness matrix
we will consider two cases. The first one would be the numbering of the nodes as it is in
Figure 2.4 of the notes. In this case we have three separate stiffness matrices as illustrated in
figure 6 for the three separate elements.






Figure 6: 3-Stiffness Matrices for each of the three elements 1, 2, 3

K1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ui Pi
1 u1 P1
2 u2 P2
3 u3 P3
4 u4 P4
5 u5 P5
6 u6 P6
K2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ui Pi
1 u3 P3
2 u4 P4
3 u5 P5
4 u6 P6
5 u7 P7
6 u8 P8
K3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ui Pi
1 u3 P3
2 u4 P4
3 u7 P7
4 u8 P8
5 u9 P9
6 u10 P10
By combining the matrices above we get the total stiffness matrix for the three elements as
illustrated in figure 7.


Figure 7: Total Stiffness Matrix. The diagonal elements are illustrated with the black line and the bandwidth is
illustrated with the red lines (approximately).
Continuing, we will take into consideration the second case scenario in which the first
element is formed by nodes 1, 2 and 5. In this particular case we will have the following
stiffness matrices for each element (Figure 8).






Figure 8: 3-Stiffness Matrices for each of the three elements 1, 2, 3 for the second case scenario

By combining the matrices above we get the total stiffness matrix for the three elements as
illustrated in figure 9.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ui Pi
K1 K1 K1 K1 K1 K1 0 0 0 0 U1 P1
K1 K1 K1 K1 K1 K1 0 0 0 0 U2 P2
K1 K1 K1+K2 K1+K2 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K3 K3 U3 P3
K1 K1 K1+K2 K1+K2 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K3 K3 U4 P4
K1 K1 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 0 0 U5 P5
K1 K1 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 0 0 U6 P6
0 0 K2+K3 K2+K3 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K3 K3 U7 P7
0 0 K2+K3 K2+K3 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K3 K3 U8 P8
0 0 K3 K3 0 0 K3 K3 K3 K3 U9 P9
0 0 K3 K3 0 0 K3 K3 K3 K3 U10 P10
K1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ui Pi
1 u1 P1
2 u2 P2
3 u3 P3
4 u4 P4
5 u9 P9
6 u10 P10
K2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ui Pi
1 u3 P3
2 u4 P4
3 u5 P5
4 u6 P6
5 u7 P7
6 u8 P8
K3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ui Pi
1 u3 P3
2 u4 P4
3 u7 P7
4 u8 P8
5 u9 P9
6 u10 P10

Figure 9: Total Stiffness Matrix. The diagonal elements are illustrated with the black line. The black arrows are
used as indicators of the bandwidth of the total stiffness matrix in figure7.
By comparing the total stiffness matrices in figures 7 and 9 in can be observed that the
bandwidth of the matrix of the second scenario has increased due to the change of the
numbering of the nodes, a fact that is going to affect both the memory and the
computational time required to solve the problem (Increase in the bandwidth of the matrix
results in additional memory requirements and computational time).

For the second part of this exercise we will derive an expression for bandwidth as a function
of the node numbers for an element with nodes I, j and k, in which I<j<k.

By taking into consideration the piece of information above, we can assume that the degrees
of freedom for each node can be derived using the following expressions:
- Node i: DOF: 2i-1,2i
- Node j: DOF: 2j-1,2j
- Node k: DOF: 2k-1,2k
Assuming that each node has 2 DOF.

By doing this assumption, the stiffness matrix of a 3-node element and the global equations
can be written in the following form.

| || | | |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

k
k
j
j
i
i
k
k
j
j
i
i
k k k k j k j k i k i k
k k k k j k j k i k i k
k j k j j j j j i j i j
k j k j j j j j i j i j
k i k i j i j i i i i i
k i k i j i j i i i i i
P
P
P
P
P
P
u
u
u
u
u
u
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
P u K
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
2 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 , 2 1 2 , 2
2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2
2 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 , 2 1 2 , 2
2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2
2 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 , 2 1 2 , 2
2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 1 2 , 1 2

In this way we have each element of the stiffness matrix expressed in terms of the node
numbering I, j and k. Assuming that the elements of the stiffness matrix are non-zero, it can
be observed that the maximum number of non-zero elements is located at the marked areas
(the stiffness matrix is symmetrical along the main diagonal). By this observation it can be
inferred that half of the bandwidth of the matrix is equal to:

b/2=2k-(2i-1)+1=2*(k-i+1)

Where b: bandwidth of stiffness matrix, k: maximum node number, i: lowest node number
and 2 because we have to DOF per node.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ui Pi
K1 K1 K1 K1 0 0 0 0 K1 K1 U1 P1
K1 K1 K1 K1 0 0 0 0 K1 K1 U2 P2
K1 K1 K1+K2 K1+K2 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K1+K3 K1+K3 U3 P3
K1 K1 K1+K2 K1+K2 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K1+K3 K1+K3 U4 P4
0 0 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 0 0 U5 P5
0 0 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 K2 0 0 U6 P6
0 0 K2+K3 K2+K3 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K3 K3 U7 P7
0 0 K2+K3 K2+K3 K2 K2 K2+K3 K2+K3 K3 K3 U8 P8
K1 K1 K1+K3 K1+K3 0 0 K3 K3 K1+K3 K1+K3 U9 P9
K1 K1 K1+K3 K1+K3 0 0 K3 K3 K1+K3 K1+K3 U10 P10
Therefore, we get the two following expressions:
- Half of the bandwidth=(DOF per node)*[(Maximum difference of node number
between directly connected nodes)+1]
- Half of the bandwidth=(Maximum difference of global DOF of an element)+1

As an example we will use the matrices in figures 7 and 9. By using the first and second
expression respectively for the first matrix we get:

b/2 =2*[(5-2)+1]=8 (element 3)
b/2 =(10-3)+1=8 (element 3)

And if we count the elements of the last column, until we get a zero value, we have 8 matrix
elements. For the second matrix we get:

b/2 =2*[(5-1)+1]=10 (element 1)
b/2 =(10-1)+1=10 (element 1)

And by counting the elements of the last column, we get 10 matrix elements. In this way we
also have a quantitative expression to support our argument above, which due to the
change of the numbering of the nodes at element 1 we get an increased bandwidth as
illustrated in figures 7 and 9.

Exercise 2d: Determine the equivalent nodal forces for a uniform body force over a 6-node
triangle.

In this particular exercise first we will illustrate how we can derive the nodal forces for a
uniform body force over a 3-node element. For the simplicity of the calculations we will
assume only one component for the body force and this is going to be the one along the x
axis as illustrated in figure 10.


Figure 10: Triangular 3-node and 6-node elements with a uniform body force along the X axis
For the case of the 3 node triangle we know that the shape functions are the following:
- N
1
=1--
- N
2
=
- N
3
=

x

In order to perform the integrations that follow we will consider the simple case of a single
integration point with coordinates (1/3, 1/3) in the normalized coordinate system , .
Therefore, we get the following for each respective node:

x triangle x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A W N A d d J N dA N F q
3
1
5 . 0
3
1
3
1
1 2 2
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=
x triangle x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A W N A d d J N dA N F q
3
1
5 . 0
3
1
2 2
1
1
1 2 2 2 2
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=

x triangle x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A W N A d d J N dA N F q
3
1
5 . 0
3
1
2 2
1
1
1 3 3 3 3
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=


The same could be done for the body force component along the Y axis
y
.
Continuing, we will follow the same procedure for the case of a 6-node triangle, which has
the following shape functions:
- N
1
=(1--)(1-2-2)
- N
2
=(2-1)
- N
3
=(2-1)
- N
4
=4(1--)
- N
5
=4
- N
6
=4(1--)

Again, we will a perform a single point integration at (1/3, 1/3) of the normalized coordinate
system , . Therefore, we get the following for each respective node:

x triangle x triangle
x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A
A W N A d d J N dA N F

q
9
1
3
1
3
1
5 . 0
3
1
2
3
1
2 1
3
1
3
1
1 2 2
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=

x triangle x triangle
x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A
A W N A d d J N dA N F

q
9
1
3
1
3
1
5 . 0 1
3
1
2
3
1
2 2
1
1
1 2 2 2 2
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=


x triangle x triangle
x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A
A W N A d d J N dA N F

q
9
1
3
1
3
1
5 . 0 1
3
1
2
3
1
2 2
1
1
1 3 3 3 3
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=


x triangle x triangle
x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A
A W N A d d J N dA N F

q
9
4
3
1
3
4
5 . 0
3
1
3
1
1
3
1
4 2 2
1
1
1 4 4 4 4
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=


x triangle
x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A
A W N A d d J N dA N F

q
9
4
5 . 0
3
1
3
1
4 2 2
1
1
1 5 5 5 5
=
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=


x triangle x triangle
x triangle
i
x triangle x
A
x
A A
A W N A d d J N dA N F

q
9
4
3
1
3
4
5 . 0
3
1
3
1
1
3
1
4 2 2
1
1
1 6 6 6 6
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= |
.
|

\
|
= = = =

}} }
=


Furthermore, the weight of the element is calculated by the following expression:

W
x
=A
element

x
(Intentionally we have ignored the thickness of the element t
element
)

Thus by adding the nodal forces we should get the weight of the element. Therefore:

F
1
+F
2
+F
3
+ F
4
+F
5
+F
6
=A
triangle

x
(-1/9-1/9-1/9+4/9+4/9+4/9)= A
triangle

x
=W
x
. The same applies if
we want to calculate the equivalent nodal forces for a uniform body along the y axis
y
.

Exercise 2e: Derive the equivalent nodal forces for a 6-noded and 10-noded triangle for the
following cases.



For the first case of a 6-node element we can observe that the three nodes that are going to
be loaded due to the linear distributed load P
y
are 1, 2 and 4. Thus the shape functions that
we are going to use are the following:
- N
1
=(1--)(1-2-2)
- N
2
=(2-1)
- 4(1--)
But all the nodes are located at the lowest boundary of the element where =0, thus we get
the following relations:
( )( )
0
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
2 3 2 1 1
1
0
4 3
2
3
1
0
1
0
1
0
1 1
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
(

+ = + = = =
} } }
p
p d p d p d N p F
y

P
y
=P
P
y

( )
6
1
3
1
2
1
3
1
2
2 1 2
1
0
3
4
1
0
1
0
1
0
2 3 2
2 2
p p p d p d p d N p F
y
= |
.
|

\
|
=
(

= = = =
} } }

( )
3
1
4
1
3
1
4
4 3
4 4 1 4 *
1
0
4 3
1
0
1
0
1
0
3 2 2
4 4
p p p d p d p d N p F
y
= |
.
|

\
|
=
(

= = = =
} } }



Therefore, the equivalent nodal forces are:
- Node 1: F
1
=0
- Node 4: F
4
=p/3
- Node 2: F
2
=p/6

So by performing a check we get that 0+p/3+p/6=p/2=1/2*1*p which is the resultant force
of the linearly distributed load.

For the second case we will examine the 10-node triangle. The uniform load p
x
is applied at
the lowest boundary thus the nodes which are going to be examined are 1, 4, 7 and 2.
Therefore, the shape functions that have to be deployed are the following:
- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 3 2 2
1
2
27
2
9
18 9
2
11
1 q q q q q q + + + + + + = N
- + =
2 3
2
2
9
2
9
N
- q
6
27
6
54
3
2
27
2
6
135
4
+ + + = N
- q q
2
9
2
9
2
27
18
2
27
2 2 3
7
+ + = N
But as it has already been mentioned the nodes are located at the lowest boundary where
=0 and the components of each relation above that include are reduced to 0 and we get
the following relations:

( ) ( ) ( )
8 8
9
8
24
8
22
8
8
8
9
3
4
11
1
8
9
3
4
11
2
9
18 9
2
11
1
1
0
4 3 2
1
0
1
0
3 2
1 1
y
y y
y y y
p
p p
p d p d N p F
= |
.
|

\
|
+ = |
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
(

+ = + + = =
} }
q

8 8
4
8
12
8
9
2
1
2
3
8
9
2 2
3
8
9
2
9
2
9
1
0
2
3 4
1
0
1
0
2 3
2 2
y
y
y y y y
p
p
p p d p d N p F
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
(

+ = + = =
} }



8
3
18 * 2
162
18 * 3
405
18 * 4
243
18
162
2
1
18
405
3
1
18
243
4
1
18
162
2
18
405
3
6
81
1
0
2 3 4
1
0
1
0
4 4
y
y
y y y
p
p
p d p d N p F
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
(

+ = + = =
} }



8
3
8
18
8
48
8
27
4
9
6
8
27
2
9
18
2
27
1
0
2 3 4
1
0
1
0
2 3
7 7
y
y
y y y
p
p
p d p d N p F
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
(

+ = + = =
} }



So by performing a check we get that 2p/8+6p/8=p which is the resultant force of the
uniformly distributed load.

Exercise 2f: For a block under uniaxial compression how many elements are needed to get
an exact solution, and what kind of elements should be used?

For this particular exercise we used a numerical model with the geometrical features and the
material properties that are illustrated in figure 11.


Figure 11: Elastic block under uniaxial, uniform loading
We maintained the geometrical features and material properties in all our analyses and the
only thing changing was the number of the elements which form the mesh. In the following
figures we can see the results obtained from each of them by using the software ABAQUS to
perform the numerical analysis. In figures 12, 13, 14 and 15 we can see the different meshes
consisting of 100, 25, 4 and 1 element respectively for each of the quantities examined in
this case. In each figure the 1 axis is equivalent to the X axis of the Cartesian Co-ordinate
System and the 2 axis to the Y respectively.

Smooth rigid
Base v=0

P=100 kPa
E=1000 kPa
v=0.1
1 m
1 m
Smooth rigid
Boundary u=0


Figure 12: Stress and Strain Results for a 100 element mesh


Figure 13: Stress and Strain Results for a 25 element mesh



Figure 14: Stress and Strain Results for a 4 element mesh


Figure 15: Stress and Strain Results for a 1 element mesh
By comparing the analytical with the numerical analyses results we get the following table 3.


Table 3: Analytical vs Numerical Solution

FEM1 FEM2 FEM3 FEM4
100 25 4 1
p (kPa) -100 -100 -100 -100 -100
E (kPa) 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
v 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
syy (kPa) -100 -100 -100 -100 -100
sxx (kPa) -11.11 -11.11 -11.11 -11.11 -11.11
eyy -0.0978 -9.778E-02 -9.778E-02 -9.778E-02 -9.778E-02
exx 0.0 1E-17 1E-17 1E-17 1E-17
Analytical
From the table above it can be observed that the simplicity of the problem makes it easy for
the numerical solutions to easily converge with the analytical one, despite the fact that we
have limited the mesh from 100 elements to 1. Therefore, the mesh in this particular case
does not affect the stress and strain results and in all four cases we have achieved to get the
same vertical stress, strain and horizontal stress result as with the analytical solution.
However, this is mainly because we have a uniformly distributed load and the fact that we
have used solid, quadrilateral, full integration elements to simulate the block. In the
hypothetical case of a concentrated load applied at the middle of the block the results are
expected to vary a lot depending on the density of the mesh. Choosing another type of
elements may also make the results vary depending on the density of the mesh even in the
case of the uniform load.

Exercise 2g: Stresses around a circular opening in elastic solid (Kirsch Problem)

For this particular exercise we have assumed the model with the geometrical features
illustrated at the following figure.


Figure 16: Elastic medium with an opening of a radius= 1m
Because we have assumed a whole model without taking advantage of the vertical and
horizontal axis of symmetry, the boundaries have been set far from the hole in order to
minimize the boundary effects. The boundaries are not fixed in any direction and for this
particular case we have assumed a uniformly distributed load of the same magnitude p=100
kPa applied on all four sides of the model, thus we have an isotropic case (and the stresses
are independent to the angle ) to simplify things. Our medium has a linear elastic behavior
with the following properties:
- Youngs Elasticity Modulus E=100,000 kPa
- Poissons ratio v=0.1
In addition, the following analyses were performed:
- A refined mesh around the hole was generated (Number of elements in total: 42,214
and 80 elements along the periphery of the hole)
- A less refined mesh around the hole was generated (Number of elements in total:
25,762 and 40 elements along the periphery of the hole)
- A sparse mesh around the hole was generated (Number of elements in total: 18,462
and 20 elements along the periphery of the hole)

60 m
60 m
Therefore, different meshes were generated in order to check the effect of the density of
the mesh on the results of the radial and tangential stress/strain when compared to the
analytical solution. In all cases, the type of elements which was used was plane strain,
quadrilateral, full integration elements.
All these three analyses were performed following a 2-step sequence. In the first step we
apply the load all over the elastic medium and then we remove the material within the
boundaries of the hole. Moreover, an additional analysis was performed using the 25,762-
element model in which we reversed the sequence. Thus, in the first step, the material from
the hole was removed and in the second step we were applying the load. The results of all
the analyses performed are illustrated in the following figures.


Figure 17: Radial stress vs. radial distance


Figure 18: Tangential stress vs. radial distance


Figure 19: Final stresses occurring in the normal and reverse case


Figure 20: Final strains occurring in the normal and reverse case

From figures 17 and 18 we can see that the more refined the mesh becomes the closes we
get to the analytical solution for both the radial and tangential stress at the hole boundary.
More specifically, for the least dense mesh the radial stress that we get at the boundary of
the hole is approximately S
rr
10 kPa and the tangential stress S

190 kPa, for the more

refined case S
rr
5 kPa and S

195 kPa and for the most refined mesh we get S

rr
2.5 kPa and
S

198 kPa while the analytical solution is S

rr
=0 kPa and S

=200 kPa.
From figures 19 and 20 we can observe that for the same model if the sequence of steps
performed in the analysis change that does not affect the final results of either the stresses
or strains which are the same in both cases. Of course in the geotechnical problems this not
true. The medium is already in an initial stress condition (geostatic stresses), which vary with
the depth, and when an analysis is performed must be taken into consideration.

So the correct sequence of events must be simulated in order to get the correct deflections
of the cavity formed as the excavation process progress, as it is a time dependent
phenomenon (ways to simulate it in 2 dimensions is either decrease the elasticity modulus
of the material inside the hole or decrease the inner hole pressure to get the pre-
convergence effect).

Exercise 2h: How does the size of a 2D element change the stiffness if the aspect ratio
remains the same?

In order to examine the effect of the element size to the stiffness of the particular element,
we will assume that we have a 3-node, triangular element. This kind of element has a 6X6
stiffness matrix (as we have shown in exercise 2b earlier) and it is the elements of this matrix
that form the stiffness of the element. Thus, in order to had a better idea we should find all
these elements that form the aforementioned matrix. That would be very complicated
though and, because of this fact, we will only examine how the first element of the stiffness
matrix (we have already found it in exercise 2b) is affected by the change of the size of the 3-
node element.
Continuing, for this particular exercise we will assume four elements. The way they are
formed is presented at the following table.


Table 4: Four 3-node element cases in which elements 2, 3 and 4 have a 10 times larger area than element 1

It can be observed at the table above that elements 2, 3 and 4 have an area 10 times larger
than this of the element 1 but they differ in shape. Continuing, we examine the ratios
K11
i
/K11
1
for i=2-4 in order to see the effect of the changing size and shape of the element
on the first element of the stiffness matrix. The results are presented in table 5.


Table 5: K11
i
/K11
1
for i=2-4 for five different values of the Poissons ratio

The reason why the results are presented in this way is because we get to eliminate the
effect of the elasticity modulus (assuming that we have the same material) and the thickness
of the element (which can be assumed that remains constant).
Element Node X Y A
1 0 0
2 0 1 0.5
3 1 0
1 0 0
2 3.16 0 5.0
3 0 3.16
1 0 0
2 4.48 0 5.0
3 0 2.23
1 0 0
2 2.23 0 5.0
3 0 4.48
1
2
3
4
Poisson's ratio 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
k11
2
/k11
1
0.99856 0.99856 0.99856 0.99856 0.99856
k11
3
/k11
1
0.961828 0.90904 0.83279 0.712969 0.49729
k11
4
/k11
1
1.542502 1.59529 1.67154 1.791361 2.00704
Thus, the only quantities we have to take into consideration are the Poissons ratio and the
coordinates of the nodes in the Cartesian system. If we assume that Poissons ratio is v=0.1
then we can see that for element 2, which has the same form as element 1 and it has just
been magnified by 10 times, the first element of the stiffness matrix in both cases 1and 2 is
approximately the same as the ratio is approximately 1. However, if the shape of the
element changes, the value of K11 can vary greatly as we can observe at table5. Additionally,
for elements 1 and 2, regardless the value of the Poisson, ratio K11
2
/K11
1
remains the same
and does not change, while in all other cases this ratio varies greatly.
Therefore, it can be assumed that between two elements that have the same shape and
form changing the size does not really affect the first element of the stiffness matrix. On the
other hand if both the shape form and size change then the first element of the stiffness
matrix can vary greatly.