JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

Vol.78, November 2011, pp.399-428

Deccan Volcanism Linked to the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary

Mass Extinction: New Evidence from ONGC Wells in
the Krishna-Godavari Basin

G. KELLER1, P.K. BHOWMICK2, H. UPADHYAY2, A. DAVE2, A.N. REDDY3,

B.C. JAIPRAKASH3 and T. ADATTE4
1
Geosciences Department, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA,
2
KDMIPE, ONGC, Dehradun, India
3
ONGC, Regional Geoscience Laboratory, Chennai, India
4
Geological and Paleontological Institute, Anthropole, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
Email: gkeller@princeton.edu

Abstract: A scientific challenge is to assess the role of Deccan volcanism in the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (KTB)
mass extinction. Here we report on the stratigraphy and biologic effects of Deccan volcanism in eleven deep wells from
the Krishna-Godavari (K-G) Basin, Andhra Pradesh, India. In these wells, two phases of Deccan volcanism record the
world’s largest and longest lava mega-flows interbedded in marine sediments in the K-G Basin about 1500 km from the
main Deccan volcanic province. The main phase-2 eruptions (~80% of total Deccan Traps) began in C29r and ended at
or near the KTB, an interval that spans planktic foraminiferal zones CF1-CF2 and most of the nannofossil Micula prinsii
zone, and is correlative with the rapid global warming and subsequent cooling near the end of the Maastrichtian. The
mass extinction began in phase-2 preceding the first of four mega-flows. Planktic foraminifera suffered a 50% drop in
species richness. Survivors suffered another 50% drop after the first mega-flow, leaving just 7 to 8 survivor species. No
recovery occurred between the next three mega-flows and the mass extinction was complete with the last phase-2 mega-
flow at the KTB. The mass extinction was likely the consequence of rapid and massive volcanic CO2 and SO2 gas
emissions, leading to high continental weathering rates, global warming, cooling, acid rains, ocean acidification and a
carbon crisis in the marine environment.
Deccan volcanism phase-3 began in the early Danian near the C29R/C29n boundary correlative with the planktic
foraminiferal zone P1a/P1b boundary and accounts for ~14% of the total volume of Deccan eruptions, including four of
Earth’s longest and largest mega-flows. No major faunal changes are observed in the intertrappeans of zone P1b, which
suggests that environmental conditions remained tolerable, volcanic eruptions were less intense and/or separated by
longer time intervals thus preventing runaway effects. Alternatively, early Danian assemblages evolved in adaptation to
high-stress conditions in the aftermath of the mass extinction and therefore survived phase-3 volcanism. Full marine
biotic recovery did not occur until after Deccan phase-3. These data suggest that the catastrophic effects of phase-2
Deccan volcanism upon the Cretaceous planktic foraminifera were a function of both the rapid and massive volcanic
eruptions and the highly specialized faunal assemblages prone to extinction in a changing environment. Data from the
K-G Basin indicates that Deccan phase-2 alone could have caused the KTB mass extinction and that impacts may have
had secondary effects.

Keywords: Cretaceous-Tertiary, Mass extinction, Deccan volcanism, Longest lava flows, Krishna-Godavari Basin.

INTRODUCTION
The biologic and environmental effects of Deccan
volcanism and its potential cause-and-effect relationship with
the demise of the dinosaurs and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary (KTB) mass extinction are the major unsolved
problems in KTB studies today. The Deccan volcanic
province is one of the largest volcanic eruptions in Earth’s
history and today covers an area of 512,000 km2 (Fig. 1A),
or about the size of France or Texas. The original size prior
to erosion is estimated to have been 1.5 million km2 and the
volume of lava extruded about 1.2 million km3, which today
can be seen as layers of lava flows with a total thickness of
3500 m (Fig. 1B; Chenet et al. 2007).
Deccan volcanism has been advocated as the potential

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400 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.1. (A) Map of India with current distribution of Deccan traps, including the Earth’s longest lava flows to the Krishna-Godavari
Basin and out into the Bay of Bengal; black dots mark KTB locations studied. (B) Layered Deccan lava flows (traps) form
Mahalabeshwar. (C) Map of the K-G Basin with locations of Rajahmundry quarries and ONGC wells studied for this report.
(D) Lower and upper basalt flows exposed in the Gauripatnam quarry of Rajahmundry separated by intertrappean sediments of
earliest Danian (zone P1a) age.

cause for the KTB catastrophe for over thirty years (e.g.,
McLean, 1978, 1985; Courtillot et al. 1986, 1988; Duncan
and Pyle, 1988; Venkatesan et al. 1993; Raju et al. 1995;
Sheth et al. 2001; Pande et al. 2004). But this hypothesis
was considered unlikely because a direct link to the mass
extinction remained elusive in the absence of Deccan lava
flows interbedded with marine sediments rich in microfossils
to assess the nature of the mass extinction, and also because
volcanism was generally believed to have occurred over at
least one million years, leaving sufficient time for recovery
between eruptions.
Over the past several years a number of multi-
disciplinary studies have changed this perception and
directly linked Deccan volcanism to the KTB mass
extinction: (1) Improved dating of the 3500 m thick Deccan
lava pile revealed that the major eruptions occurred in three
phases with the initial eruption, phase-1, in the late
Maastrichtian base of C30n (67.4 Ma), the main phase-2 in
C29r below the KTB, and the last phase-3 in the early Danian
base C29n (Fig. 2; Chenet et al. 2007, 2008, 2009; Jay and
Widdowson, 2008). (2) Massive eruptions created the
longest and largest lava flows on Earth (Self et al. 2008a,
b). And (3) a direct link between the main phase of Deccan
eruptions and the KTB mass extinction was documented in
Rajahmundry quarries (Andhra Pradesh) and Jhilmili
(Madhya Pradesh) based on planktic foraminifera, which
suffered the most devastating mass extinction globally
(Keller et al. 2008, 2009a, b, c). At these two localities, no
Maastrichtian marine sediments are exposed but the earliest
Danian species are present in the intertrappean sediments
between phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows.
Still missing from these early results is critical

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION
Fig.2. Relative thickness of Deccan lava flows in each of the three
phases of volcanic eruptions calculated as percent of total
Deccan trap thickness. Ages based on paleomagnetic time
scale (modified from Chenet et al. 2007, 2008).
information concerning the onset and age of the main Deccan
phase, the nature and tempo of the mass extinction relative
to eruption pulses, and the number of the longest lava flows,
here termed ‘mega-flows’. No outcrops exist that can yield
this information because deposition in India occurred mainly
in terrestrial and some shallow inner neritic environments
(e.g., Rajahmundry, Jhilmili), which lack diverse fossil
assemblages, and the lava mega-flows are fused, preventing
environmental studies (Fig. 1D).
The only area that can yield the missing information is
in the Krishna-Godavari Basin, which spans about 75 km
from Rajahmundry towards the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 1C).
During KTB time, there was progressive deepening seaward
from the inner neritic environment of Rajahmundry to outer
neritic depths (100-150 m) accompanied by increasingly
diverse planktic foraminiferal assemblages (Jaiprakash et
al. 1993; Raju et al. 1994). During the Cenozoic, the high
sediment input by the Krishna and Godavari drainage
systems and a complex system of horst and graben structures
resulted in rapid subsidence and today the KTB sequences
dip between 2500 m to 3500 m below the surface towards
the Bay of Bengal. The only access to these critical KTB
records are deep wells drilled by India’s Oil and Natural
Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC) in the K-G Basin. The nature
of information that can be gained from these ONGC wells
is evident from various publications by ONGC scientists
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401
that show a series of lava flows and intertrappean sediments
spanning from the upper Maastrichtian to the lower
Paleocene (e.g., Govindan, 1981; Mehrotra and Sargeant,
1987; Raju et al. 1994, 1995, 1996; Jaiprakash et al. 1993;
Prasad and Pundeer, 2002; Misra, 2005; Raju, 2008).
Despite this effort, locating the precise position of the KTB
in these wells relative to the Deccan mega-flows remained
elusive.
With new insights gained from recent studies, re-
investigation of ONGC deep wells yielded critical
information on the relative timing of the largest and longest
lava mega-flows and the environmental conditions as
inferred from planktic foraminiferal assemblages. Here we
report the results from ten wells from the onshore K-G Basin
and one offshore well (Fig. 1C). The results demonstrate:
(a) up to four of Earth’s longest and largest lava mega-flows
(traps) separated by intertrappean sediments in each phase-
2 and phase-3; (b) the nature and tempo of the mass
extinction, as indicated by sediments below the mega-flows
(infratrappean), and between mega-flows (intertrappean);
and c) the close link between Deccan volcanism and the
KTB mass extinction.
BACKGROUND
Deccan Eruption Phases
Detailed paleomagnetic and radiometric dating (40K/40Ar
and 40Ar/39Ar) of the 3500 m thick Deccan lava pile in the
western Ghats revealed that volcanic eruptions occurred in
a series of rapid pulses grouped in three main phases (Chenet
et al. 2007, 2008, 2009). A rough estimate of the relative
volume can be estimated by the thickness of the major lava
flows in each of the three eruption phases across the Deccan
volcanic province (Fig. 2). Syed F.R. Khadri estimated the
cumulative maximum total thickness as possibly reaching
5000 m (personal communication, 2011). Based on the more
conservative estimate of 3500 m, about 6% of this lava pile
is attributed to the initial and smallest phase-1 (Latifwadi
Formation), which is dated at ~67.4 Ma near the base of
C30n. Less intense volcanic eruptions likely continued
during the late Maastrichtian.
The main phase-2 (Jawhar and Ambenali Formations)
occurred in C29r below the KTB and accounts for about
~80% of the total Deccan thickness. The shear volume of
phase-2 suggests that this eruption phase could have been
detrimental to life. Chenet et al. (2007, 2008) estimated that
each of 30 to 100 major eruptive pulses in phase-2 emitted
volumes ranging from 20,000 km3 to 120,000 km3, attained
a thicknesses up to 200 m, and was emplaced over hundreds
of kilometers in a relatively short time interval in C29r below
402 G. KELLER AND OTHERS
the KTB. The last phase-3 (Mahalabeshwar Formation) is
estimated at about 14% of the total lava pile and began in
the early Danian at or near the base of C29n about 270 ky
after the KTB mass extinction (Fig. 2; time scale of Cande
and Kent, 1995).
The Longest Lava Flows
Paleomagnetic and geochemical studies have correlated
the lower and upper basalt flows of the Rajahmundry quarries
(Andhra Pradesh, Figs. 1D) to the Ambenali and
Mahalabeshwar Formations, or phase-2 and phase-3 of the
Deccan lava pile, respectively (e.g., Knight et al. 2003, 2005;
Baksi et al. 1994; Baksi, 2005; Jay and Widdowson, 2008;
Jay et al. 2009). Age determinations based on 40K/40Ar and
40
Ar/39Ar place these lava mega-flows in C29r and near the
base of C29n, respectively, although error margins are 1%
or 0.6 Ma (e.g., Knight et al. 2003, 2005; Baksi, 2005).
This marks the phase-2 and phase-3 eruptions as the largest
and longest lava flows on Earth, spanning over 1500 km
from the main Deccan province across India to the Krishna-
Godavari Basin and out into the Bay of Bengal (Figs. 1A,
C). Self et al. (2008a) interpreted these mega-flows as very
large volume pahoehoe flow fields that for the last 400 km
of their journey were confined to the pre-existing Godavari
valley drainage system that channeled their flow to the
eastern estuaries near Rajahmundry and into the Bay of
Bengal. They estimated these mega-flows as the world’s
largest at 5000 km3 of eruptive volume.
Deccan and the KTB Mass Extinction
The above studies demonstrate that Deccan volcanic
phase-2 and phase-3 bracket the KTB mass extinction, but
cannot establish a direct link. Paleontological investigations
first discovered this link in 4 to 9 m thick intertrappeans
between phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows in six
Rajahmundry basalt quarries (Figs.1D; Keller et al. 2008;
Malarkodi et al. 2010). In this estuarine environment early
Danian (zone P1a) planktic foraminiferal assemblages
directly overlie the top of phase-2 eruptions and indicate
that the mass extinction occurred at or near the end of this
volcanic phase (Keller et al. 2008). These results were
confirmed in intertrappean sediments in central India
(Jhilmili, Madhya Pradesh, Keller et al. 2009a, b, c).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
ONGC wells from the Krishna-Godavari Basin were
chosen for their apparent continuity across the KTB
transition, the number of basalt flows and intertrappean
sediments, and the availability of recovered cores in addition
to well cuttings. A total of eleven wells have been analyzed
for this study, including one offshore well (G-4-6; Fig. 1C).
Sample material from each well was collected in the ONGC
core library in Rajahmundry and supplemented by samples
from the core libraries at Dehradun and Chennai. Well
samples were taken at 5 m or 1 m intervals from cuttings,
and at 20 cm intervals in recovered core sections. About
200 gr sediments were collected per sample for analysis
and a total of 665 samples were analyzed. Samples were
processed by standard micropaleontological techniques
(Keller et al. 1995).
For biostratigraphic analysis the washed residues of each
sample was searched for foraminifera in several size
fractions, including 38-63 µm, 63-105 µm, 105-150 µm,
150-250 µm and >250 µm in order to analyze all species
from the very small to the very large. Foraminifera were
picked from each size fraction, identified at the species level
and recorded. The species census data was filtered to exclude
down-core contamination that is common in well cuttings.
Theoretically, this means that any species first appearances
may be the result of down-core contamination. To avoid
such artificial range extension, we attributed any isolated
species occurrences at the base of the range to down-core
contamination. Last appearances of species were relied
upon for stratigraphic age control, except for isolated
species that could be the result of reworking. Based on this
filtered dataset, combined with the stratigraphic control
from core intervals, and the resistivity and gamma ray well
log data, good age control was achieved for all wells
analyzed.
Preservation of foraminiferal tests in upper Maastrichtian
sediments ranges from good to poor, with predominantly
poor preservation in very deep wells (> 3000 m) and poor
preservation due to dissolution effects in intertrappean
sediments. In contrast, Danian assemblages are relatively
well preserved. SEM’s of late Maastrichtian and early
Danian planktic foraminifera illustrate faunal assemblages
of the KTB transition in the Krishna-Godavari Basin.
STRATIGRAPHY OF DECCAN BASALT
MEGA-FLOWS
The lithostratigraphy of the Krishna-Godavari Basin as
determined from outcrops (Rajahmundry area) and
subsurface wells is shown in Fig.3. In surface outcrops, the
Rajahmundry sandstone overlies the upper Deccan mega-
flows, or phase-3, and the Tirupati sandstone underlies the
lower Deccan mega-flows, or phase-2. We observed in both
outcrops and recent drilling that the Tirupati sandstone ends
with a marine bed consisting of abundant Turritella, few
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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION
Fig.3. Generalized lithostratigraphy of the Krishna-Godavari Basin (modified after
Venkatarengan et al. 1993). Note the outcrop lithostratigraphy is representative of
Rajahmundry quarries. Well locations studied for this report are located in both sand
(landward) and shale lithologies (basinward).
other macrofossils and rare benthic foraminifera. Below the
Turritella bed sediments consist of clay and silt, representing
flood plain and paleosoils, which alternate with sandstones
indicative of fluvial and channel environments. At the top
of phase-3 mega-flows, an erosion surface marks a major
hiatus, which is overlain by sandstone of middle Oligocene
age and corresponding to the Nimmakuru sandstone (Fig.3).
Phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows are separated by
intertrappean sediments consisting of dolomitic mudstone
at the base followed by estuarine to shallow marine limestone
and paleosoil in the upper part (Keller et al. 2008).
Basinwards from Rajahmundry, the sandstones, shales
and limestones thin out and are replaced by marly and clayey
shales (Fig. 3). Wells for this study were taken from
middle/outer neritic environments that cut through the distal
end-members of the Tirupati sandstone, Razole Formation
and Palakollu shale, as well as from deeper neritic
environments dominated by shales (Fig. 3). In most of the
wells, the Razole Formation consists of up to eight and
occasionally nine Deccan mega-flows separated by
intertrappeans. Three to four and occasionally five mega-
flows are located below the KTB and mark Deccan phase-
2 and three to four mega-flows mark Deccan phase-3 in the
lower Danian (Jaiprakash et al. 1993; Raju et al. 1994, 1995,
1996; Misra, 2005; Raju, 2008; Jay and Widdowson, 2008;
this study).
In the Rajahmundry quarries, the pulsed volcanic
eruptions that created the mega-flows of phase-2 in the
Krishna-Godavari Basin can be differentiated (Keller et al.
2008), but are not separated by intertrappeans as they are in
the Krishna-Godavari Basin wells and logs (Fig. 4).
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403
Resistivity values for normal
sandstones, siltstones and shales vary
between 1-6 qm, unless they are
hydrocarbon bearing. In contrast,
resistivity values for the basalts vary
anywhere from 50 qm to > 200 qm
depending on the degree of sediments
incorporated as a result of erosion at
the base and top. In all wells, e – logs
show high to very high resistivity
peaks against the basalt flows. Most
basalts are seen as a distinct resistivity
peak on the logs, whereas some
basalts are less distinct due to mixed
basalt and sediments. Gamma logs
show significantly lower values in
basalt flows relative to the inter-
trappean clastic sediments (Fig. 4).
The cores and drill cuttings from
these mega-flows are dark grey to greenish grey in colour,
very hard and compact.
Deccan mega-flows in the Krishna-Godavari Basin are
generally 5 m to 15 m thick, except for two wells where the
lava flows in phase-3 are 60 m thick (Fig. 5, CTP-A and
RZL-A). The variation in the number of basalt flows and
variable thicknesses can be explained by topography and
erosion. The variable thickness of intertrappeans is a function
of topography, subsidence and influx of sediments eroded
from shallower areas, as indicated by an abundance of sand
in some wells (Figs. 3, 4, e.g., MTP-A, CTP-A, RZL-1,
PNM-A). The overall pattern of the mega-flows in each
volcanic phase is consistent with sheet flows of very large
volume pahoehoe flow fields, as suggested by Self et al.
(2008a).
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Identifying the KT Boundary
The high-resolution biostratigraphic zonal scheme
developed by Keller et al. (1995, 2002) for the Danian and
by Li and Keller (1998a, b) for the Maastrichtian (Fig. 5) is
applied in the K-G Basin wells. Ages for biozones are
calculated for the time scales of Cande and Kent (1995;
KTB at 65 Ma) and Gradstein et al. (2004; KTB at 65.5
Ma, Fig. 6). The KTB can be globally identified based on a
number of criteria: the mass extinction of planktic
foraminifera, the evolution of the first Danian species within
a few centimeters above the extinction horizon, a clay layer
with a millimeter thin oxidized red layer at the base, an
iridium anomaly in the red layer, and a 2 to 3 permil δ13C
 404
G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.4. Correlation of Krishna-Godavari Basin wells based on biostratigraphy, Deccan mega-flows and well log data (gamma and resistivity). Note that Deccan phase-2 and phase-3
each contain three to four lava flows that represent Earth’s largest longest mega-flows separated by intertrappean sediments. These phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows correlate
with the “fused” lower and upper traps in Rajahmundry quarries.

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION 405

Fig.5. Biostratigraphy and planktic foraminiferal zonal scheme by Keller et al. (1995, 2002) and Li and Keller (1998a,b) for the late
Maastrichtian and early Danian in the El Kef stratotype section and point (GSSP) with illustrations of index species, the Ir
anomaly (Rocchia et al. 1996) and δ13C shift (Keller and Lindinger, l989) are correlated with the paleomagnetic time scale and
Deccan volcanic events. The nannofossil zonal scheme (*) by Tantawy (2003), and the planktic foraminiferal zonation (**) by
Bergren et al. (1995) are shown for comparison.

shift across the clay layer (Fig. 5; Keller et al. l995; Cowie
et al. 1989; Remane et al. 1999). Among these, only
extinction and evolution events are unique KTB-defining
criteria. All others (Ir anomaly, clay and red layers, δ13C
shift) are KTB-supporting criteria that cannot stand alone
as KTB markers because they are not unique events. In India,
all of these KTB markers are present in the Meghalaya
section (Gertsch et al. 2011), but to date the Ir anomaly and
δ13C shift have not been documented in the Krishna-
Godavari Basin due to lack of suitable marine sequences
with high-resolution sample spacing.
daubjergensis, Woodringina hornerstownensis; Fig. 5). The
index species P. eugubina marks this assemblage as zone
P1a, which together with zone P0 (boundary clay) spans
C29r above the KTB. The boundary clay was not observed.
Based on this information, the KTB was placed at the base
of the intertrappean above phase-2 (Figs. 1D). No sediments
are present above the phase-3 mega-flows and sediments
below phase-2 consist of beach sand with rare benthic
foraminifera.
Krishna-Godavari Basin

Rajahmundry Quarries Maastrichtian below phase-2 mega-flows: Zones CF2-CF3

A close link between Deccan volcanism and the KTB
mass extinction was first established in Rajahmundry
quarries based on zone P1a planktic foraminiferal
assemblages in intertrappean sediments between phase-2
and phase-3 lava mega-flows (Fig. 1D; Keller et al. 2008).
These intertrappeans contain the first Danian species, which
evolved in the aftermath of the mass extinction (e.g.,
Parvularugoglobigerina extensa, P. eugubina, Globoconusa
In the Krishna-Godavari Basin, about 75 km seaward
from Rajahmundry, sediment deposition occurred in a
shallow middle neritic environment (<100 m) that deepened
seaward (~100-150 m) (Raju et al. 1994; Keller et al. 2008).
Upper Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal assemblages
below the phase-2 mega-flows average between 20 and 30
species (e.g., PLK-A, NSP-A, NSP-B, ELM-A, RZL-A;
Figs. 7-11), which is typical diversity in middle neritic

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406 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.6. Late Maastrichtian and early Danian planktic foraminiferal zonal schemes and ages of biozones based on two time scales with the
KT boundary at 65.0 and 65.5 Ma. Also shown for comparison are the zonal schemes of Caron (1985), Berggren et al. (1995) and
the nannofossil zonation of Tantawy (2003). CF=Cretaceous Foraminifera.

environments (Keller and Abramovich, 2009). In general,
the most diverse assemblages were observed in the
cored intervals, such as shown for PLK-A and NSP-A wells
(Figs. 7 and 8). Since the cored intervals contain the most
reliable data, the lower diversity in core cuttings is likely an
artifact of preservation and culling of species suspected to
be down-core contaminants. In wells with predominantly
sand and silt deposition, such as MTP-A and PNM-A,
(Figs. 12-13), foraminifera are rare due to increased
dissolution and dilution by high sediment influx.
Biostratigraphic control in these wells is more difficult to
establish.
In ten out of eleven wells analyzed for this study, late
Maastrichtian faunal assemblages below phase-2 mega-
flows are typical of zones CF2-CF3. In the absence of
Gansserina gansseri these two zones cannot be
differentiated. Zone CF2 spans 120 ky (65.66-65.78 Ma)
and zone CF3 spans 1.21 Ma (65.78 to 66.99 Ma, time scale
of Gradstein et al. 2004; Fig. 6). Zone CF3 is nearly
equivalent to the Micula murus nannofossil zone. Saxena
and Misra (1994, 1995) and von Salis and Saxena (1998)
identified the M. murus zone assemblage below phase-2
mega-flows in the RZL-A, NSP-B and PLK-A wells (Figs.
7, 9, 12). Only in the offshore well G-4-F to the northeast of
the K-G Basin (Fig. 1B) is the upper Maastrichtian missing
(zones CF1-CF5, Fig. 14). In this well, a diverse assemblage
of 43 species identifies zone CF6 (69.08-69.61 Ma)
including the index species (first appearance of
Contusotruncna contusa and last appearance of
Globotruncana linneiana) underlying one mega-flow and
the KTB. Zone CF6 precedes Deccan phase-1 dated about
67.4 Ma. Late Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal
assemblages from the K-G Basin are illustrated in Plates
1-3.
Volcanic phase-2 intertrappeans: Zone CF1
In the K-G wells, phase-2 intertrappeans are generally
between 5 m and 15 m thick. But in two wells they reach a
maximum of 60 m (CTP-A and RZL-A; Figs. 1C, 11),
probably due to topographic lows and high sedimentary
influx. Alternatively, this area may be cut by faults and
thrusts. Paleomagnetic and radiometric analyses placed the
Rajahmundry lower traps (equivalent to phase-2 mega-
flows) in C29r below the KTB (e.g., Knight et al. 2003,
2005; Baksi, 2005; Chenet et al. 2007, 2008, 2009), which
is equivalent to zones CF2 (65.66-65.78 Ma) and CF1

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION 407

Fig.7. ONGC well PLK-A with biostratigraphy, species occurrences, phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows plotted against lithostratigraphy
and e-logs (gamma and resistivity). Core segment shown is from the base of the section, and another core segment from the last
mega-flow in phase-3.

Fig.8. ONGC well NSP-A with biostratigraphy, species occurrences, and phase-2 mega-flows plotted against lithostratigraphy and e-
logs (gamma and resistivity). A 4 m cored interval below the first mega-flow of phase-2 records a 50% diversity crash, which
appears to be related to the onset of Deccan phase-2 volcanism. No samples are available from the intertrappean of this well, but
in other wells there is another 50% crash after the first mega-flow (see Fig. 7). Phase-3 mega-flows are not present in NSP-A. A
cosmic spherule was found at 3365 m.

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408 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.9. ONGC well NSP-B with biostratigraphy, species occurrences, phase-2 and phase-3 lava flows plotted against lithostratigraphy
and e-logs (gamma and resistivity). Note the low species diversity in infra- and intertrappeans of phase-2 volcanism is partly due
to poor preservation and dissolution effects.

(65.50-65.66 Ma) and most of the nannofossil Micula prinsii
zone (Figs. 5 and 6). Based on this correlation the phase-2
mega-flows and intertrappeans of the Krishna-Godavari
Basin were most likely deposited in zone CF1 with the onset
of phase-2 volcanism in zone CF2 (Fig. 6). In the K-G Basin
the fragile zone CF1 index species, Plummerita
hantkeninoides, was not observed, either because of poorly
preserved assemblages, or because of exclusion due to stress
conditions. Very few species are present in intertrappean
sediments due to extinctions, dissolution and poor
preservation due to acid rains associated with Deccan
volcanism. The stress conditions during deposition of these
intertrappeans are discussed below.
KT boundary and early Danian: Zone P1a
In Krishna-Godavari Basin wells, the KT boundary is
identified in the intertrappean sediments between phase-2
and phase-3 mega-flows by the lower Danian zone P1a
planktic foraminiferal assemblages. Most wells contain
species that evolved in the lower part of zone P1a (subzone
P1a(1), including Parvularugogloigerina extensa,
P. eugubina, Eoglobigerina edita, Globoconusa
daubjergensis, G. taurica, and Woodringina horner-
stownensis (Figs. 7, 11 and 12). However, most wells also
contain species that evolved in the upper part of zone P1a
(subzone P1a(2), such as Subbotina triloculinoides,
Parasubbotina pseudobulloides, Globigerina pentagona,
Chiloguembelina midwayensis, and Globanomalina
archeocompressa (Plates 4, 5). Because of poor sample
control, these subzones cannot be identified at this time and
must await high resolution sampling in future drilling.
Nevertheless, the current data show that zone P1a is
preserved throughout the Krishna-Godavari Basin during a
period of local volcanic inactivity prior to eruptions of the

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Fig.10. ONGC well ELM-A with biostratigraphy, species occurrences, phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows plotted against lithostratigraphy
and e-logs (gamma and resistivity). Note there are five thin phase-3 mega-flows, but only one in phase-2 below the KTB, which
is likely due to erosion.

last Deccan phase-3, as also observed in Rajahmundry
quarries and Jhilmili, Madhya Pradesh (Keller et al. 2008,
2009a, b).
Volcanic phase-3 intertrappeans: Zone P1b
Volcanic phase-3 began near the C29r/C29N boundary
(Knight et al. 2003, 2005, Baksi, 2005; Chenet et al. 2007,
2008), correlative with the zone P1a/P1b boundary. In the
Krishna-Godavari Basin, the three to four intertrappeans of
phase-3 all contain planktic foraminiferal assemblages
typical of zone P1b, which marks the interval between the
extinction of P. eugubina and P. longiapertura and the first
appearance of Subbotina varianta (Figs. 7-13, Plates 4, 5).
Faunal assemblages show increased abundances of G.
daubjergensis, Guembelitria and biserial species and better
preservation than Maastrichtian assemblages from
intertrappeans of phase-2. However, there are variations
depending on the local depositional environment, such as
in well MTP-A where few species are present due to poor
preservation in sandy shale (Fig. 12).
Danian above Phase-3 intertrappeans: Zone P1c or P2
Sediments above volcanic phase-3 contain the first
significantly more diverse Danian assemblages with the first
larger (> 150 mm) morphotypes after the KTB mass
extinction. In most K-G Basin wells, the assemblage is
indicative of zone P1c with common subbotinids and the
first appearances of Praemurica inconstans and Subbotina

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410 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.11. ONGC well RZL-A with biostratigraphy, species occurrences, phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows plotted against lithostratigraphy
and e-logs (gamma and resistivity). Note the relatively thin mega-flows in phase-2, but absence of foraminifera in the intertrappean
due to dissolution. Note also the unusually thick (55 m) mega-flow in phase-3, which likely is due to topographic variation.

varianta (Figs. 7, 9, 12). But in some wells there is a
significant hiatus with zone P2 overlying P1b, as indicated
by the presence of assemblages with P. uncinata, M.
angulata, M. praeangulata, A. strabocella, and S.
triangularis (e.g., CTP-A, ELM-A, RZL-A, PNM-A, G-4-
F (Figs. 1C, 10, 11, 13, 14). This hiatus may be related to
local topographic variations, as suggested by the locations
of the wells in shallower water (PNM-A), other hiatuses
(G-4-F), and anomalously thick basalt mega-flows (RZL-A
and CTP-A).
BIOTIC EFFECTS OF DECCAN VOLCANISM
Biotic effects of the world’s largest and longest lava flows
Planktic foraminifera in intertrappeans record the
environmental conditions after the eruption of each mega-
flow. In the K-G Basin, this documentation is hampered by
the limitation of samples and poor preservation. The former
is largely a function of the difficulties to recover
intertrappean sediments sandwiched between basalt flows
in deep wells, and the latter is mainly a function of ocean
acidification (acid rain) due to the volcanic eruptions.
Because of the sporadic faunal records in individual wells,
and because nine wells analyzed are within close proximity
to each other in the Krishna-Godavari Basin (Fig. 1C), a
composite was assembled based on nine wells with all data
integrated into the litholog of PLK-A (Fig. 15). All wells
can be easily correlated based on biostratigraphy, gamma
and resistivity logs, and the mega-flows below and above
the KTB (Fig. 4). This dataset offers a glimpse into the
environmental conditions and stresses associated with the
world’s largest and longest lava flows.

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Fig.12. ONGC well MTP-A with biostratigraphy, species occurrences, phase-2 and phase-3 mega-flows plotted against lithostratigraphy
and e-logs (gamma and resistivity). Core segment shown is from the intertrappean just below the mega-lava flow in phase-3. In
this relatively shallow sandy environment, dissolution reduced overall species diversity and no species were recovered from
phase-2 intertrappeans where dissolution is strongest.

Onset of high-stress below phase-2 mega-flows
During the late Maastrichtian, the Krishna-Godavari
Basin wells show normal middle neritic diversity (28
species) during zone CF2-CF3, except for a decrease in the
middle of this zone. Whether or not this diversity low is due
to Deccan volcanism or poor preservation is uncertain,
although it is likely due to culling of suspected down-core
contaminants and poor preservation. Near the end of this
interval, which is likely zone CF2, a 4 m long core in well
NSP-A details the stress conditions immediately preceding
phase-2 mega-flows (Fig.8). At the base of this core, diversity
is normal at 28 species (typical for middle neritic depths,
Keller and Abramovich, 2009), rapidly decreases to 18
species by the middle of the core and drops to a low of 14
species in the uppermost 2 m below the first mega-flow.
This 50% faunal crash is likely due to environmental stresses
attributable to increasing volcanism leading to the acme that
corresponds to the mega-flows of phase-2 in the Krishna-
Godavari Basin. A cosmic spherule was detected at 3365 m
(Fig. 8). Such millimeter-sized metallic spherules are not
uncommon in sediments of any age (Keller et al. 1983). They
originate from extraterrestrial materials that melted during
high-velocity entry into the atmosphere. In contrast, glassy
impact spherules (e.g., Chicxulub impact) result from hyper-
velocity impacts of large meteorites with earth’s surface.
Maximum high-stress in intertrappeans of phase-2
Intertrappean sediments of phase-2 (C29r, zones CF1)
in the Krishna-Godavari Basin wells record severe
environmental stresses in the aftermath of each of the four
mega-flows, as earlier observed by Jaiprakash et al. (1993).
Just 8 species were found after the first mega-flow, 13 and

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412 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.13. ONGC well PNM-A with biostratigraphy, species occurrences, and phase-3 mega-flows plotted against lithostratigraphy and e-
logs (gamma and resistivity). Note that in this relatively shallow, sandy locality, the lower lava flows could not be identified
because they are very small and weathered, or absent. Foraminifera are generally absent in the sandy layers.

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Fig.14. ONGC offshore well G-4-F with biostratigraphy, species occurrences and phase 2 and phase-3 mega-flows plotted against
lithostratigraphy and e-logs (gamma and resistivity). Note there is a single phase-2 megaflow overlying lower Maastrichtian zone
CF6 (69.08-69.61 Ma) faunal assemblages indicating that the upper Maastrichtian below the mega-flow is missing. Poor preservation
and low diversity zone P1a-P1b assemblages are identified between phase-2 and phase-3. Another major hiatus is above the
single phase-3 mega-flow.

12 species after the second and third mega-flows (Fig. 15).
However, these data are not culled for down-core
contamination and reworking. A culled record, eliminating
all isolated single occurrences (open circles; Fig. 15) leaves
just 7 to 8 species (black circles) in the first and second
intertrappeans, and six species in the third intertrappean.
This indicates a 50% reduction from the assemblages in the
infratrappean below, which already suffered a 50% faunal
crash just prior to the onset of mega-flows in Deccan
phase-2 (Figs. 8, 15).
We may argue that this is a crude estimate and that the
actual number of survivors may be higher or lower. However,
since most of the species in this survivor group are among
the environmentally most adaptable (Guembelitria cretacea,
Heterohelix globulosa, Rugoglobigerina rugosa, Trinitella
scotti, Globotruncana arca, G. aegyptiaca, G. dupeublei,
G. conica), and two are KTB survivors (G. cretacea and H.
globulosa), this estimate is probably not far off the mark. A
more accurate assessment must await new coring of the
intertrappeans.
Evidence of the detrimental effects of phase-2 volcanism
has also been observed in the middle to inner neritic marine
environment of the Um Sohryngkew River in Meghalaya,
NE India (Gertsch et al. 2011). At this locality, about
800 km from the main Deccan volcanic province, the last 4
m of sediments below the KT boundary were deposited in
nannofossil Micula prinsii zone (Garg et al. 2006), which is
equivalent to C29R and zones CF1-CF2 below the KTB
(Fig. 6). In this interval, the disaster opportunist
Guembelitria cretacea dominates (~95%), with only rare
and sporadic occurrences of 24 other Cretaceous species.
But in the last meter below the KTB, all but seven species

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414 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

disappeared. This pattern is very similar to that observed in
the Krishna-Godavari Basin and suggests the same
detrimental environmental effects of phase-2 volcanism at
a large distance from the volcanic province.
Based on the current Krishna-Godavari Basin dataset
and the similar record observed in the Meghalaya section,
we conclude that in India and its surrounding area, the
Cretaceous planktic foraminifera were already near
extinction before the KT boundary as a result of the pulsed
volcanic eruptions of phase-2 that created the world’s largest
and longest lava flows (Fig. 15). This data also indicates
that high-stress environmental conditions continued
unabated between the pulsed mega-eruptions and prevented
marine recovery. Such prolonged high-stress conditions
likely resulted from the rapid succession of Deccan eruptions
in phase-2 and the corollary effects of gas emissions, climate
change and increased weathering rates (Gertsch et al. 2011).
KT boundary Event
In all eleven Krishna-Godavari Basin wells analyzed the
intertrappean above the phase-2 mega-flows contain the
earliest Danian zone P1a assemblage and occasionally rare
reworked Cretaceous species (Figs. 7-15) consistent with
previous observations in Rajahmundry quarries (Keller et
al. 2008; Malarkodi et al. 2010). This demonstrates that the
mass extinction of Cretaceous species occurred prior to
deposition of the intertrappean and was coeval with Deccan
volcanic phase-2, suggesting a cause-and-effect relationship.
High-resolution core sampling will be necessary to evaluate
the presence of the boundary clay (zone P0) and lower part
of zone P1a, measure d13C values and evaluate the presence
of Ir and other PGEs.
Continued high-stress in early Danian zone P1a intertrappean
fauna
Intertrappeans between Deccan phase-2 and phase-3
mega-flows were deposited in C29R above the KTB, which
is equivalent to planktic foraminiferal zone P1a, or about
380 ky of the basal Danian (Fig. 6), as also indicated by
40
Ar/39Ar dating of phase-3 mega-flows (Knight et al. 2003,
2005; Baksi, 2005). Evolution of Danian species in this
intertrappean follows the same pattern as observed globally,

Fig.15. Composite species ranges of nine wells in the Krishna-Godavari Basin plotted against biostratigraphy and phase-2 and phase-3
lava flows of the PLK-A well. Cored intervals at the base of the section, below the first phase-2 mega-flow and below the last
mega-flow of phase-3 record the most reliable species richness data. A maximum of 28 species in the upper Maastrichtian is
typical for middle neritic environments (~100 m depth). Note the mass extinction began with the onset of phase-2 volcanism
(50% drop in species richness), with another 50% drop after the first lava flow, and was complete by the last mega-flow at or near
the KTB. Phase-2 intertrappeans: open circles = contamination and reworking, black circles = in situ species.

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION 415

Fig.16. Depth ranking of species in high diversity optimum planktic foraminiferal assemblages from outer neritic to open oceanic
environments of the late Maastrichtian. Most large specialized (k-strategy) species evolved and thrived in thermocline and
subthermocline deep depths. Smaller (r-strategy) species, tolerant of fluctuations in oxygen, salinity and temperature, thrived in
surface, and thermocline depths. (modified from Keller and Abramovich, 2009). 1. Pseudoguembelina palpebra, 2. Heterohelix
planta, 3. Pseudoguembelina hariaensis, 4. Heterohelix navarroensis, 5. Pseudoguembelina costulata, 6. Pseudoguembelina
kempensis, 7. Pseudoguembelina excolata, 8. Rugoglobigerina rotundata, 9. Rugoglobigerina rugosa, 10. Pseudotextularia
elegans, 11. Racemiguembelina fructicosa, 12. Pseudotextularia deformis, 13. Heterohelix globulosa, 14. Plummertita
hantkeninoides 15. Globotruncana aegyptiaca, 16. Rugoglobigerina scotti, 17. Planoglobulina acervulinoides, 18. Hedbergella
monmouthensis, 19. Globigerinelloides aspera, 20. Heterohelix labellosa, 21. Globotruncana arca, 22. Contusotruncana
contusa, 23. Globotruncanita stuarti, 24. Globotruncanita stuartiformis, 25. Heterohelix rajagopalani*, 26. Gublerina acuta,
27. Globotruncanella citae, 28. Laeviheterohelix glabrans, 29. Abathomphalus mayaroensis, 30. Gublerina cuvillieri,
31. Planoglobulina multicamerata.* rare or not present in neritic environments.

although first appearances of some species may differ due
to poor preservation or large sample spacing (Figs. 7-14).
All evolving early Danian species are very small (< 100
mm and frequently < 63 mm), with simple chamber
arrangements and unornamented morphologies that reflect
adaption for survival in highly stressed environments (e.g.,
Keller and Pardo, 2004; Pardo and Keller, 2008). The fact
that these assemblages mirror the global evolutionary pattern
demonstrates that environmental conditions after the main
phase-2 of Deccan volcanism remained stressed in India
and globally.
Continued high-stress in early Danian (zone P1b) Deccan
Phase-3
Faunal assemblages in phase-3 intertrappeans are similar
to zone P1a, except for the disappearance of P. eugubina,
the decreased abundance of early zone P1a species (e.g.,
Parvularugoglobigerina extensa, Eoglobigerina edita,
Woodringina claytonensis, W. hornerstownensis, E.
eobulloides), and increased abundance of other species
(Figs. 8-14). Species sizes remained small, with
morphologies generally < 150 mm, as also observed globally
(Keller, 1988; 1989; Luciani, 2002; Coccioni and Luciani,

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416 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.17. Depth ranking of species in high-stress, low diversity planktic foraminiferal assemblages from middle to inner neritic environments
of the late Maastrichtian. High biotic stress selectively eliminates large specialized (k-strategy) species from subsurface and
thermocline depths, leaving impoverished assemblages. Smaller (r-strategy) species thrive, particularly the low oxygen tolerant
heterohelicids. These biotic effects are also observed in high-stress conditions related to major volcanism. (Modified from
Keller and Abramovich, 2009). 1. Heterohelix planta, 2. Pseudoguembelina hariaensis, 3. Guembelitria cretacea, 4. Heterohelix
navarroensis, 5. Pseudoguembelina costulata, 6. Pseudotextularia elegans, 7. Rugoglobigerina rugosa, 8. Heterohelix globulosa,
9. Globigerinelloides aspera, 10. Hedbergella monmouthensis, 11. Contusotruncana contusa, 12. Globotruncana arca,
13. Globotruncana aegyptiaca, 14. Abathomphalus mayaroensis.

2006; Keller et al. 2007a, b, 2009e). No major differences
are observed between faunal assemblages of the three
intertrappeans, which suggests that environmental conditions
remained tolerable during volcanic phase-3. Alternatively,
since these early Danian species evolved during high-stress
conditions, they were primed for survival, unlike most
species in the late Maastrichtian, which were highly
specialized and adapted for narrow ecological niches
(Abramovich et al. 2003; Keller and Abramovich, 2009).
Recovery after phase-3 Deccan volcanism
Planktic foraminiferal assemblages from sediments
above the last phase-3 mega-flows reveal generally larger
species sizes and increased diversity. On a global basis, the
first Danian species with morphology sizes > 150 mm are
generally observed near the end of zone P1b and full marine
recovery did not occur until zone P1c (Keller, 1988, 1989;
Keller et al. 2009e). It is tempting to speculate that the long
delay in the global ecosystem recovery was due to Deccan
volcanism. Studies are now underway to investigate this
possibility.
DISCUSSION
Planktic Foraminifera – Proxies for Environmental Change
We can assess the biologic effects of Deccan volcanism
based on planktic foraminiferal assemblages, which are
highly sensitive to environmental changes. At the KTB
planktic foraminifera suffered the most devastating mass
extinction with just a few environmentally more tolerant

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION
species surviving for a short time into the early Danian and
the disaster opportunist Guembelitria cretacea the sole long-
term survivor. Consequently, this microfossil group has
become the strongest paleontological proxy for evaluating
the biological effects of catastrophes, whether meteorite
impacts, volcanism or climate change (e.g., Pardo and Keller,
2008; Coccioni and Luciani, 2006; Keller and Abramovich,
2009; Abramovich et al. 2003, 2010).
Planktic foraminifera can be grouped into surface,
intermediate (subsurface) and deep dwellers based on stable
isotopic ranking (Keller, 2001; Abramovich et al. 2003;
Keller and Abramovich, 2009). Optimum assemblages are
characterized by low diversity surface dwellers, high
diversity intermediate dwellers and very low diversity deep
dwellers (below thermocline) (Fig. 16). The intermediate
assemblages consist of many large, ornamented and
highly specialized taxa (K-strategists), adapted to specific
ecological niches and are therefore most strongly
affected by environmental changes, such as variations in
temperature, salinity, oxygen, nutrients and acidity of
the water column. Any variations in these factors can
result in high-stress conditions whether in open oceans,
restricted basins, marginal marine settings or volcanic
activity (Keller and Abramovich, 2009; Kidder and Worsley,
2010).
During high-stress conditions diversity drops most
strongly among intermediate dwellers (K-strategists) leaving
a survivor assemblage of dwarfed species (Lilliput effect)
and less specialized (r-strategist) taxa (e.g., heterohelicids,
guembelitrids, globigerinellids, and few rugoglobigerinids,
pseudoguembelinids, globotruncanids, such as R. rugosa,
P. costulata, G. arca, Fig. 17; Keller and Abramovich, 2009).
Increasing biotic stress results in the complete disappearance
K-strategists, the dwarfing of species more tolerant of
environmental changes (r-strategists) and dominance by low
oxygen tolerant small heterohelicids. At the extreme end of
the biotic response are volcanically influenced environments
which cause the same detrimental biotic effects as observed
in the aftermath of the KTB mass extinction, including the
disappearance of most species and blooms of the disaster
opportunist Guembelitria (Fig. 18, Abramovich and Keller,
2002; Abramovich et al. 2002; Keller, 2003; Keller et al.
2007a). Volcanically induced high-stress conditions have
been documented from Ninetyeast Ridge, Andean volcanism
and the Deccan volcanic province (Keller, 2003; Keller et
al. 2007a; Gertsch et al. 2011; this study).
We can interpret the biologic response of planktic
foraminifera to Deccan volcanism based on global
observations of depth-ranked species and stress conditions
in various habitats (Figs. 16-18). In the K-G Basin the change
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417
from optimum to high-stress assemblage occurred in the 4
m below the Deccan phase-2 mega-flows (Fig. 8). The 50%
gradual decrease in species richness indicates increasing
stress, probably related to increasing volcanic activity
leading up to Earth’s largest and longest mega-flows.
During phase-2 mega-flows super-stress conditions
approached the catastrophic with another 50% drop in
species richness leaving just a few generally dwarfed
survivors in intertrappeans and the mass extinction was
complete at the last mega-flow of phase-2 (Fig. 15). In
general, Guembelitria and Heterohelix species dominate
super-stress to catastrophic conditions (Fig. 18). Their rarity
and absence in the Krishna-Godavari Basin wells is an
artifact of preservation. Above the KTB the low diversity
early Danian assemblages of small, unornamented species
with simple chamber arrangements persisted until after
Deccan volcanism ended with phase-3. This long-delayed
recovery in the marine ecosystem has long been an
enigma. The current K-G Basin data suggest that the
delayed recovery may have been due to continued Deccan
volcanism.
Climate Change and Deccan Volcanism
Major global climate changes occurred during the late
Maastrichtian C29R (zones CF1-CF2), including maximum
Cretaceous cooling at the end of zone CF3, rapid global
warming beginning in zone CF2 reaching a maximum in
zone CF1, followed by rapid cooling in the upper part of
CF1 and across the KTB (e.g., Li and Keller, 1998c; Kucera
and Malmgren, 1998; Olsson et al. 2001; Abramovich and
Keller, 2003; Wilf et al. 2003; Nordt et al. 2003; Keller and
Abramovich, 2009; Kidder and Worsley, 2010). This global
climate change documented in South Atlantic DSDP Site
525 is representative for India, which was at the equivalent
southern latitude (Fig. 19). During the global warming in
CF2 to CF1, deeper water temperatures recorded in benthic
foraminifera increased by about 4°C, whereas surface water
temperatures fluctuated between 15 and 17°C. At the same
time planktic foraminifera suffered under high-stress
conditions leading to species dwarfing (60% of fauna),
decreased diversity and abundance of specialized large
species (e.g., intermediate dwellers). Global temperatures
rapidly cooled about 50 ky or 100 ky prior to the KTB (time
scale of Gradstein et al. 2004). Cooling was accompanied
by a rapid decline in surface, intermediate and deep dwellers
and ended in the KTB mass extinction (Keller and
Abramovich, 2009; Keller et al. 2009e). This end-
Maastrichtian global cooling and mass extinction appears
coeval and likely related to the main Deccan phase-2 in the
Krishna-Godavari Basin.
418 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Fig.18. The effects of increasing environmental stress upon planktic foraminiferal assemblages from optimum to catastrophe conditions
shows the successive elimination of large, specialized k-strategy species, the survival of small r-strategy species, the overall
dwarfing of these species and their great abundance. All of these factors characterize the Lilliput effect and are characteristic also
of high-stress conditions associated with major volcanism (modified from Keller and Abramovich, 2009).

Environmental Effects of Deccan Volcanism
Environmental consequences of Deccan phase-2
eruptions were likely devastating. Based on rare gas bubbles
preserved in Deccan volcanic rocks, Self et al. (2008b)
estimate annual gas rates released at many times the rate of
anthropogenic emissions of SO2 and more than an order of
magnitude greater than the current global background
volcanic emission rate. Chenet et al. (2007, 2008) estimated
gas emissions based on the volume of the largest 30 Deccan
eruption pulses, with each pulse injecting 30-150 GT of SO2
gas over a very short time (decades). Thus each of the 30
Deccan eruption pulses could have injected quantities of
SO2 equivalent to that of the Chicxulub impact (e.g. 50-500
GT). Indeed, the main phase-2 Deccan eruptions are
estimated to have released 30 to 100 times the amount of
SO 2 released by the Chicxulub impact. Given these
estimates, the environmental effects of Deccan volcanism
were likely orders of magnitude worse than those of the
Chicxulub impact.
CO2 and SO2 gas emissions
The global greenhouse warming of about 3-4°C
beginning in zone CF2 and ending in zone CF1 resulted in
major biologic stress for the Maastrichtian fauna leading
to decreased species population abundances, decreased
diversity, and species dwarfing (Fig. 19). Researchers
have attributed this warm event to Deccan volcanism.
However, climate models predict at most a 2°C warming,
suggesting that the CO2 emissions from Deccan volcanism
alone would have been insufficient to cause this warming
(DeConto et al. 2000; Donnadieu et al. 2006). In the absence
of any other likely CO2 source for the rapid greenhouse
warming Deccan volcanism remains the only realistic
event.
Global cooling followed the warm event during the last
~50-100 ky of the Maastrichtian and may be correlative with
the mega-flows of phase-2 Deccan volcanism (Fig. 19). This
cooling could have been the result of SO2 gas released by
Deccan volcanism. SO2 injected into the stratosphere forms
sulfate aerosol particulates, which act to reflect incoming
solar radiation and cause global cooling. Because sulfate
aerosol has a short lifespan in the atmosphere, the cooling
would be short-term (years to decades), unless repeated
injections from volcanic eruptions replenished atmospheric

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION 419

Fig.19. Biotic response to greenhouse warming at South Atlantic DSDP Site 525 (data from Li and Keller, 1998c; Abramovich and
Keller, 2003). During the greenhouse warming, diversity (H’) dropped, large specialized (k-strategy) species reached adulthood
at less than 50% of their former adult size with up to 60% of the specimens dwarfed, and low oxygen tolerant Heterohelix species
temporarily decreased in abundance. Dwarfed species decreased at the end of the Maastrichtian although no recovery occurred
and k-strategy species remained rare (<4% of the total assemblage). Note that we tentatively correlate the global warming and
subsequent cooling of zones CF1-CF2 with phase-2 of Deccan volcanism; the global cooling likely correlates with the phase-2
mega-flows identified in the K-G Basin.

sulfate aerosols and lead to a runaway effect (Self et al.
2008a, b; Kidder and Worsley, 2010).
The cooling may have been amplified by increased
weathering rates. During the latest Maastrichtian warm
event, increased continental weathering of silicates
associated with the consumption of atmospheric CO2 likely
resulted in the drawdown of greenhouse gases that reversed
the warming trend (Dessert et al. 2003; Gertsch et al. 2011).
The global cooling would have been amplified by the SO2
input and acid rains from Deccan volcanism. The ubiquitous
carbon dissolution effects on planktic foraminiferal shells
during phase-2 volcanism observed in the Krishna-Godavari
Basin and in Meghalaya suggest ocean acidification and lend
credence to this scenario.
The kill-effect of Deccan volcanism is therefore not just
the shear volume of SO2 and CO2 injections, but also the
rapid succession of volcanic eruptions and increased
weathering rates that would have compounded the adverse
effects of gas emissions. Environmental consequences
include global warming, cooling, eutrophication from
increased nutrient influx, acid rain and ocean acidification
leading to a carbon crisis in the ocean that prevented recovery
of calcareous micro-organisms. Faunal assemblages from
the K-G Basin support continuously high-stress conditions
during mega-flows of phase-2 volcanism with no recovery
as indicated by the rapid 50% reduction in species diversity
before the first phase-2 mega-flow, another 50% reduction
after the first mega-flow, the lack of even temporary recovery
in subsequent intertrappeans, followed by the complete
mass extinction at the end of the main phase-2 volcanism
(Fig. 15).
CONCLUSIONS
Evidence from eleven ONGC deep wells from the
Krishna-Godavari Basin record two of three major phases

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420 G. KELLER AND OTHERS
of Deccan volcanism: the main phase-2 at the end of the
Maastrichtian accounts for about 80% and phase-3 in the
early Danian for about 14% of the total Deccan volume.
Deccan main phase-2 volcanism and its corollary effects
(warming, cooling, acid rain, ocean acidification, carbon
crisis) are viable and the likely main cause of the KTB mass
extinction. The shear volume and rapid rate of volcanic
eruptions and the number of mega-flows make phase-2
volcanism far more destructive than a single large impact.
Instead of a single instantaneous catastrophe, the KTB
killer was likely a cascade of rapid and massive volcanic
eruptions that formed the largest and longest (1500 km) lava
flows known on Earth, with SO2 and CO2 gas emissions
estimated to have exceeded those of the Chicxulub impact
by at least 30 times (Chenet et al. 2007, 2008). The last
phase-3 of Deccan eruptions in the early Danian was much
smaller (14% of total Deccan Traps) and caused no
significant species extinctions, but resulted in high-stress
conditions that may be the cause for the long delayed full
marine recovery after the mass extinction. Major findings
from the Krishna-Godavari Basin study support this
scenario.
 Deccan phase-2 volcanism (~80% of total Deccan Traps)
began in C29R and ended at the KTB. This interval of
C29R is equivalent to zones CF1-CF2, which span the
last 280 ky of the Maastrichtian and is equivalent to most
of Micula prinsii zone (Fig. 6). However, phase-2
eruptions may have occurred over a much shorter time
interval and mainly concentrated in zone CF1. Deccan
phase-2 ended with massive eruptions that formed
four of Earth’s largest and longest lava mega-flows
(~1500 km) across India and out into the Bay of Bengal.
· The KTB mass extinction began in Deccan phase-2 with
a 50% faunal crash prior to the first of four mega-flows,
followed by another 50% crash after the first mega-flow,
leaving just 6 to 8 survivors. No recovery occurred
between mega-flows and the mass extinction was
complete with the last mega-flows that marks the end of
phase-2 and the KTB.
 The kill effect was likely due to the rapid, pulsed
eruptions of massive CO2 and SO2 gas emissions, leading
to high continental weathering rates, global warming,
cooling, acid rains, ocean acidification and a carbon
crisis that prevented recovery.
 After the KTB mass extinction, early Danian (zone P1a)
assemblages in India mirror the global evolutionary
pattern and global high-stress conditions.
 Deccan phase-3 volcanism (~14% of total Deccan
Traps) began in the early Danian near the C29R/C29N
boundary, which is equivalent to the P1a/P1b boundary
and also formed three to four of Earth’s largest and
longest lava flows. The onset of phase-3 coincided with
the extinctions of P. eugubina and P. longiapertura.
 Deccan phase-3 (zone P1b) reveals no major differences
between faunal assemblages in the three intertrappeans
or the global record. This suggests that environmental
conditions remained tolerable, possibly because volcanic
eruptions were less intense or separated by longer time
intervals, and/or that early Danian species were well
adapted to the environmental stresses.
 Recovery of the marine ecosystem occurred after the
last Deccan phase-3, as indicated by larger species
morphotypes and evolution of more diverse assemblages.
The long delayed post-KTB recovery in the marine
environment has long been an enigma. Data from the
Krishna-Godavari Basin wells suggest that continued
high-stress conditions caused by Deccan volcanism and
its corollary effects may have prevented full recovery
for over 0.5 Ma.
Acknowledgments: This project would not have been
possible without the support of former Director
(Exploration) Dr. D.K. Pande and the current Director Dr.
S.V. Rao of the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd., India.
The senior author is deeply grateful for the permission to
study the Krishna-Godavari Basin wells that made this study
possible. A special thanks to Dr. D.S.N. Raju for sharing his
extensive knowledge of the Krishna-Godavari Basin wells,
and to Dr. Sunil Bajpai who facilitated this study in many
ways. We are also very grateful to Mr. D.K. Bharktya, DGM
(Geology) RGl, Chennai, for taking SEMs of the foraminifera.
This study is based upon work supported by the US National
Science Foundation through the Continental Dynamics
Program, Sedimentary Geology and Paleobiology Program
and Office of International Science & Engineering’s India
Program under NSF Grants EAR-0207407, EAR-0447171,
and EAR-1026271.
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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION 421

Plate 1. SEM illustrations of late Maastrichtian, scale bar = 100 µm. 1. Globotruncanita stuarti (de Lapparent, 1918), Well RZL-A,
3650 m. 2-4. Globotruncanita stuartiformis (Dalbiez, 1955), Wells ELM-A, 3590 m, NSP-A, 3363 m. 5-8. Globotruncana arca (Cushman,
1926), Wells PNM-A, 2555 m, CTP-A, 3980 m, RZL-A, 3650 m. 9-12. GLobotruncana insignis Gandolfi, 1955, Wells PNM-A,
2545 m, RZL-A, 3650 m. 13-16. Globotruncana rosetta (Carsey, 1926), Wells PNM-A, 2565 m, CTP-A, 4010 m, RZL-A, 3650 m.

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422 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Plate 2. SEM illustrations of late Maastrichtian, scale bar = 100 µm. 1-2. Abathomphalus mayaroensis (Bolli, 1951)Well CTP-A,
4010 m. 3-4. Rosita patelliformis (Gandolfi, 1955), Well CTP-A, 3960 m. 5-6. Globotruncanita conica (White, 1928), Wells NSP-A,
3363 m, RZL-A, 3650 m. 7-8. Rosita walfishensis (Todd, 1970), Well CTP-A, 4010 m. 9-10. Globotruncan dupeublei (Caron et
al.1984), Well RZL-A, 3650 m. 11-12. Glotobruncanita pettersi (Gandolfi, 1955), Well PNM-A, 2565 m. 13-15. Rosita contusa (Cushman,
1926), Well PNM-A, 2565 m.

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION 423

Plate 3. SEM illustrations of late Maastrichtian, scale bar = 100 µm. 1. Racemiguembelina fructicosa (Egger, 1899), Well RZL-A, 3650
m. 2. Racemiguembelina powelli Smith and Pessagno, 1973, Well MTP-A, 3160 m. 3-4. Planoglobulina brazoensis (Plummer, 1931),
Well ELM-A, 3590 m. 5-6. Heterohelix labellosa, Nederbragt, 1990, Well NSP-A, 3339.2 m. 7. Pseudoguembelina palpebra Brönnimann
and Brown, 1953, Well NSP-A, 3339.5 m. 8. Planoglobulina carseyae (Plummer, 1931), Well NSP-A, 3339.5 m. 9-10. Heterohelix
globulosa (Ehrenberg), Well NSP-A, 3339.5 m, 3339.2 m. 11-12. Pseudoguembelina hariaensis Nederbragt, 1990, Well NSP-A,
3339.5 m. 13. Heterohelix planata (Cushman, 1936), Well RZL-A, 3650 m. 14-15. Pseudoguembelina costulata (Cushman, 1938),
Well NSP-A, 3339.5 m. 16. Pseudotextularia nuttalli (Rzehak, 1886), Well PNM-A, 2545 m. 17. Pseudotextularia elegans (Rzehak,
1886), Well PNM-A, 2535 m.

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424 G. KELLER AND OTHERS

Plate 4. SEM illustrations of early Danian, scale bar = 100 µm. 1-7. Parasubbotina pseudobulloides (Plummer, 1926), Wells PNM-A,
2345 m, Razole-1, 3385 m. 8-11. Subbotina triloculinoides (Plummer, 1926), Wells PNM-A, 2345 m, 2350 m, Razole-1, 3330 m.
12-15. Subbotina varianta (Subbotina, 1953), Well PNM-A, 2250 m. 16. Globigerina (Eoglobigerina) tetragona (Morozova, 1961),
Well PNM-A, 2295 m.

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 DECCAN VOLCANISM LINKED TO THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY MASS EXTINCTION 425

Plate 5. SEM illustrations of early Danian, scale bar = 100 µm. 1-2. Subbotina trivialis (Subbotina, 1953), Wells PNM-A, 2295 m,
RZL-A, 3365 m. 3. Globoconusa daugjergensis (Brönnimann, 1953), Well PNM-A, 2295 m. 4-6. Eoglobigerina edita (Subbotina,
1953), Well RZL-A, 3370 m. 7-9. Globigerina (Eoglobigerina) pentagona (Morozova, 1961), Well RZL-A, 3370 m. 10-11. Praemurica
taurica (Morozova, 1961), Well PNM-A, 2345 m. 12, 16. Praemurica inconstans (Subbotina, 1953), Well PNM-A, 2350 m.
13-15. Praemurica uncinata (Bolli, 1957), Wells PLK-A, 2565 m, PNM-A, 2190 m.

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426 G. KELLER AND OTHERS
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