Plant Structure

Plants, like multicellular animals

Have organs composed of different tissues, which are in turn composed of cells

 Three basic organs evolved: roots, stems, and leaves They are organi ed into a root system and a shoot system

Roots
! root
"s an organ that anchors the vascular plant !bsorbs minerals and water #ften stores organic nutrients

"n most plants

The absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root tips, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs increase the surface area of the root

$any plants have modified roots

(a) Prop roots

(b) Storage roots

(c) Strangling aerial roots

(d) Buttress roots

(e) Pneumatophores

Stems
! stem is an organ consisting of
!n alternating system of nodes, the points at which leaves are attached "nternodes, the stem segments between nodes

Stems
!n a%illary bud
"s a structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot, or branch

! terminal bud
"s located near the shoot tip and causes elongation of a young shoot

Stems

$any plants have modified stems

(a) Stolons. Shown here on a strawberry plant, stolons are hori ontal stems that grow along the surface' These (runners) enable a plant to reproduce ase%ually, as plantlets form at nodes along each runner' Storage leaves

Stem ,oot (b) Bulbs. *ulbs are vertical, underground shoots consisting mostly of the enlarged bases of leaves that store food' +ou can see the many layers of modified leaves attached to the short stem by slicing an onion bulb lengthwise'

(d) Rhizomes. The edible base of this ginger plant is an e%ample of a rhi ome, a hori ontal stem that grows &ust below the surface or emerges and grows along the surface' -ode

(c) Tubers. Tubers, such as these red potatoes, are enlarged ends of rhi omes speciali ed for storing food' The (eyes) arranged in a spiral pattern around a potato are clusters of a%illary buds that mark the nodes'

,hi ome

,oot

Leaves
The leaf
"s the main photosynthetic organ of most vascular plants

 .eaves generally consist of

! flattened blade and a stalk The petiole, which &oins the leaf to a node of the stem

"n classifying angiosperms

Ta%onomists may use leaf morphology as a criterion (a) Simple leaf. ! simple leaf
is a single, undivided blade' Some simple leaves are deeply lobed, as in an oak leaf' Petiole (b) Compound leaf. "n a compound leaf, the blade consists of multiple leaflets' -otice that a leaflet has no a%illary bud at its base' !%illary bud .eaflet

(c) oubl! compound leaf. "n a doubly compound leaf, each leaflet is divided into smaller leaflets'

Petiole !%illary bud

.eaflet Petiole !%illary bud

Some plant species

(a) Tendrils. The tendrils b! "hich this pea plant clings to a support are modified lea#es. $fter it has lassoed a support% a tendril forms a coil that brings the plant closer to the support. Tendrils are t!picall! modified lea#es% but some tendrils are modified stems% as in grape#ines.

(b) Spines. The spines of cacti% such as this pric&l! pear% are actuall! lea#es% and photos!nthesis is carried out mainl! b! the flesh! green stems.

Have evolved modified leaves that serve various functions

(c) Storage lea#es. 'ost succulents% such as this ice plant% ha#e lea#es modified for storing "ater. (d) Bracts. Red parts of the poinsettia are often mista&en for petals but are actuall! modified lea#es called bracts that surround a group of flo"ers. Such brightl! colored lea#es attract pollinators. (e) Reproducti#e lea#es. The lea#es of some succulents% such as Kalanchoe daigremontiana, produce ad#entitious plantlets% "hich fall off the leaf and ta&e root in the soil.

The Three Tissue Systems: /ermal, 0ascular, and 1round

/ermal tissue 1round tissue 0ascular tissue

 The dermal tissue system

2onsists of the epidermis and periderm

 The vascular tissue system

2arries out long3distance transport of materials between roots and shoots 2onsists of two tissues, %ylem and phloem

 4ylem
2onveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots

Phloem
Transports organic nutrients from where they are made to where they are needed

 1round tissue
"ncludes various cells speciali ed for functions such as storage, photosynthesis, and support

Some of the ma&or types of plant cells include

Parenchyma 2ollenchyma Sclerenchyma 5ater3conducting cells of the %ylem Sugar3conducting cells of the phloem

Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells

P$R()C*+'$ C(,,S 87 m

C-,,()C*+'$ C(,,S 2ortical parenchyma cells

SC,(R()C*+'$ C(,,S : m Sclereid cells in pear 9: m

2ell wall Parench!ma cells

67 m

Collench!ma cells .iber cells

 5ater3conducting cells of the %ylem and sugar3conducting cells of the phloem

/$T(R0C-) 1CT2)3 C(,,S -. T*( 4+,(' S13$R0C-) 1CT2)3 C(,,S -. T*( P*,-(' Sie#e0tube members8 longitudinal #ie" 677 m

5essel Tracheids

Pits

Companion cell Sie#e0tube member Sie#e plate )ucleus 97 m 6: m C!toplasm Companion cell

Tracheids and #essels 5essel element 5essel elements "ith partiall! perforated end "alls

Tracheids

$eristems generate cells for new organs

!pical meristems
!re located at the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots ;longate shoots and roots through primary growth

 .ateral meristems
!dd thickness to woody plants through secondary growth

 !n overview of primary and secondary growth

Shoot apical meristems <in buds= "n woody plants, there are lateral meristems that add secondary growth, increasing the girth of roots and stems' Primar! gro"th in stems ;pidermis 2orte% Primary phloem Primary %ylem .ateral meristems Pith

0ascular cambium 2ork cambium

!pical meristems add primary growth, or growth in length' Pith

Secondar! gro"th in stems Periderm 2ork cambium The cork cambium adds secondary dermal tissue' 2orte% Primary phloem The vascular cambium adds Secondary secondary phloem %ylem and 0ascular cambium phloem'

Primary %ylem

,oot apical meristems

Secondary %ylem

 "n woody plants

Primary and secondary growth occur simultaneously but in different locations
Terminal bud Bud scale $<illar! buds ,eaf scar This !ear;s gro"th (one !ear old) )ode Stem 2nternode -ne0!ear0old side branch formed from a<illar! bud near shoot ape< ,eaf scar ,ast !ear;s gro"th (t"o !ears old) Scars left b! terminal bud scales of pre#ious "inters

3ro"th of t"o !ears ago (three !ears old)

,eaf scar

Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots

Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems

 The root tip is covered by a root cap, which protects the delicate apical meristem as the root pushes through soil during primary growth
2orte% ;pidermis =e! /ermal 1round 0ascular ,oot hair >one of maturation 0ascular cylinder

Primary 1rowth of ,oots

>one of elongation

!pical meristem ,oot cap

>one of cell division

?77 m

 The primary growth of roots

Produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue

#rgani ation of primary tissues in young roots

;pidermis 2orte% 0ascular cylinder ;ndodermis Pericycle 2ore of parenchyma cells 4ylem ?77 m (a) Trans#erse section of a t!pical root. "n the roots of typical gymnosperms and eudicots, as well as some monocots, the stele is a vascular cylinder consisting of a lobed core of %ylem with phloem between the lobes' Phloem ?77 m (b) Trans#erse section of a root "ith parench!ma in the center. The stele of many monocot roots is a vascular cylinder with a core of parenchyma surrounded by a ring of alternating %ylem and phloem'

;ndodermis Pericycle

=e! /ermal 1round 0ascular

4ylem Phloem

:7 m

 .ateral roots
!rise from within the pericycle, the outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder
677 m

(merging lateral root

Corte<

5ascular c!linder

>

(pidermis ,ateral root

Primary 1rowth of Shoots

! shoot apical meristem
"s a dome3shaped mass of dividing cells at the tip of the terminal bud 1ives rise to a repetition of internodes and leaf3 !pical meristem .eaf primordia bearing nodes

/eveloping vascular strand

!%illary bud meristems

7'9: mm

Tissue Organization of Stems

"n gymnosperms and most eudicots
The vascular tissue consists of vascular bundles arranged in a ring
Phloem Sclerench!ma (fiber cells) 4!lem 3round tissue connecting pith to corte<

Pith

=e! (pidermis 5ascular bundle 6 mm Corte< ermal 3round 5ascular

(a) $ eudicot stem. ! eudicot stem <sunflower=, with vascular bundles forming a ring' 1round tissue toward the inside is called pith, and ground tissue toward the outside is called corte%' <.$ of transverse section=

 "n most monocot stems

The vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue, rather than forming a ring
3round tissue

(pidermis

5ascular bundles 6 mm (b) $ monocot stem. ! monocot stem <mai e= with vascular bundles scattered throughout the ground tissue' "n such an arrangement, ground tissue is not partitioned into pith and corte%' <.$ of transverse section=

 The epidermal barrier in leaves

Tissue Organization of Leaves

"s interrupted by stomata, which allow 2#9 e%change between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells within a leaf

The ground tissue in a leaf

"s sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis

The vascular tissue of each leaf

"s continuous with the vascular tissue of the stem

 .eaf anatomy
=e! to labels /ermal 1round 0ascular Sclerenchyma fibers Stoma 1uard cells Stomatal pore ;pidermal cell :7 @m (b) Surface #ie" of a spider"ort (Tradescantia) leaf (,') Apper epidermis Palisade mesophyll

2uticle

*undle3 sheath cell

Spongy mesophyll .ower epidermis 2uticle 4ylem Phloem 0ein 1uard cells 0ein !ir spaces 1uard cells

1uard cells

.igure 9:.6@aAc

(a) Cuta"a! dra"ing of leaf tissues

(c) Trans#erse section of a lilac ?77 @m (Syringa) leaf (,')

 Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants Secondary growth
#ccurs in stems and roots of woody plants but rarely in leaves

The secondary plant body

2onsists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cork cambium

The 0ascular 2ambium and Secondary 0ascular Tissue The vascular cambium
"s a cylinder of meristematic cells one cell thick /evelops from parenchyma cells

 Primary and secondary growth of a stem

(a) Primar! and secondar! gro"th in a t"o0!ear0old stem 6 6 "n the youngest part of the stem, you can see the primary plant body, as formed by the apical meristem during primary growth' The vascular cambium is beginning to develop' > !s primary growth continues to elongate the stem, the portion of the stem formed earlier the same year has already started its secondary growth' This portion increases in girth as fusiform initials of the vascular cambium form secondary %ylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside' 9 The ray initials of the vascular cambium give rise to the %ylem and phloem rays' ? !s the diameter of the vascular cambium increases, the secondary phloem and other tissues e%ternal to the cambium cannot keep pace with the e%pansion because the cells no longer divide' !s a result, these tissues, including the epidermis, rupture' ! second lateral meristem, the cork cambium, develops from parenchyma cells in the corte%' The cork cambium produces cork cells, which replace the epidermis' : "n year 9 of secondary growth, the vascular cambium adds to the secondary %ylem and phloem, and the cork cambium produces cork' B B !s the diameter of the stem continues to increase, the outermost tissues e%terior to the cork cambium rupture and slough off from the stem' @ 2ork cambium re3forms in progressively deeper layers of the corte%' 5hen none of the original corte% is left, the cork cambium develops from parenchyma cells in the secondary phloem' C ;ach cork cambium and the tissues it produces form a layer of periderm' D *ark @ 2ork D *ark consists of all tissues e%terior to the vascular cambium' C .ayers of periderm

;pidermis 2orte% Primary phloem 0ascular cambium Primary %ylem Pith

Pith Primary %ylem 0ascular cambium Primary phloem 2orte% ;pidermis > Phloem ray th 9 w o r 1 4ylem ray

Periderm <mainly cork cambia and cork= Primary phloem Secondary phloem 0ascular cambium Secondary %ylem Primary %ylem Pith

Primary %ylem Secondary %ylem 0ascular cambium Secondary phloem 2ork Primary phloem ? Birst cork cambium th 1row

Secondary %ylem <two years of production= 0ascular cambium Secondary phloem : $ost recent cork cambium

.igure 9:.6Ca

Secondary .ate wood ;arly wood %ylem

Secondary phloem 0ascular cambium

2ork cambium 2ork

Periderm

(b) Trans#erse section of a three0!ear0 old stem (,') 4ylem ray *ark 7': mm .igure 9:.6Cb 7': mm

 0iewed in transverse section, the vascular cambium

!ppears as a ring, with interspersed regions of dividing cells called fusiform initials and ray initials
0ascular cambium

22

4 2

(a) T!pes of cell di#ision. !n initial can divide

transversely to form two cambial initials <2= or radially to form an initial and either a %ylem <4= or phloem <P= cell'

4 2 4 2

2 P

4 2 P

44 2 P

(b) $ccumulation of secondar! gro"th. !lthough shown here

.igure 9:.6Da% b

as alternately adding %ylem and phloem, a cambial initial usually produces much more %ylem'

 !s a tree or woody shrub ages

The older layers of secondary %ylem, the heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals

The outer layers, known as sapwood

Still transport materials through the %ylem

1rowth ring

0ascular ray

Heartwood Secondary %ylem

Sapwood

0ascular cambium Secondary phloem *ark .ayers of periderm .igure 9:.>7

2ork 2ambia and the Production of Periderm

The cork cambium
1ives rise to the secondary plant bodyCs protective covering, or periderm

*ark
2onsists of all the tissues e%ternal to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem and periderm