CHAPTER 8

VISCOUS FLUID FLOW

The Fluid Flow Equations

The momentum and continuity equations for a flowing fluid can be written in many co-
ordinate systems. In this chapter the Cartesian co-ordinate will be considered.

8.1 The Conservation of Mass

Consider the element shown in Figure 8.1 with the velocity components (u, v, w) at point
(x, y, z) in the x, y and z directions respectively. The density is at that point also.

dx
dy
dz
2
) ( dx
x
u
u

2
) ( dx
x
u
u

y
x
z

Figure 8.1

Allowing the density to change with position, the total mass flowing into the element in
the x direction is

dxdydz
x
u
dydz
dx
x
u
u dydz
dx
x
u
u

) (
]
2
) (
[ ]
2
) (
[

With similar terms dxdydz
y
v

) (
and dxdydz
z
w

) (
for the y and z directions.
Thus the total mass flowing into the element is

dxdydz
z
w
y
v
x
u
]
) ( ) ( ) (
[

This must equal the rate of increase of mass in the element of ddxdydz

Thus.

0
) ( ) ( ) (
=

z
w
y
v
x
u
t

(8.1)

This is the conservation of mass or the continuity equation.


8.2 The Conservation of Momentum
Consider the same element with the stress components
rs
(r=x, y, z ; s=x, y, z) at
position (x, y, z).

dx
dy
dz
y
x
z
2
dx
x
xx
xx

2
dx
x
xx
xx

2
dz
z
xz
xz

2
dz
z
xz
xz

Figure 9.2

xx
,
yy
and
zz
are similar to negative pressures;
xy
,
yz
and
zx
etc are shear stresses.
In addition, by writing an angular momentum balance on the element it is easy to show
that

xy
=
yx
;
yz
=
zy
;
zx
=
xz


The total force on the element in the direction is made up of three terms.

dxdydz
x
dydz
x
x
dx
x
xx xx
xx
xx
xx

)]
2
( )
2
[(

dxdydz
y
dxdz
y
y
dy
y
xy xy
xy
xy
xy

)]
2
( )
2
[(

And
dxdydz
z
dxdy
z
z
dz
z
xz xz
xz
xz
xz

)]
2
( )
2
[(

In addition a body force, such as gravity, with component
x
g may exist giving a force
on the element dxdydz g
x
.

This must balance the acceleration

dxdydz
Dt
Du


Thus the force balance in the x direction becomes,

dxdydz
Dt
Du
z y x
g
xz
xy
xx
x

+

Where

z
w
y
v
x
u
t Dt
Du

=

Similar balances can be written for the y and z equations to give

Dt
Du
g
z y x
x
xz
xy
xx

= +

Dt
Dv
g
z y x
y
yz yy yx


= +

(8.2)

Dt
Dw
g
z y x
z
zz
zy
zx

= +

These constitute the conservation of momentum equations. Before they can be used the
equation of
rs
linking with the velocity components of u, v and w.

8.3 The Rheological Equation

The normal method of obtaining this equation is to consider the stresses in a cube as in
Elasticity Theory (e.g. the Mohr Circle). A simpler method using simple tensor calculus
is outlined below.

Using matrix notation, the stress tensor
rs
is given by,

(
(
(

=
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
rs





We have stated above that
rs
=
rs
; thus
rs
is a symmetric tensor. Furthermore, the
trace of
rs
(viz.
zz yy xx
+ + ) is variant with respect to the orientation of the axis. Thus
a scalar quantity can be identified that usually called as the pressure P as

) (
3
1
zz yy xx
P + + =

Now every tensor can be resolved into an isotropic component and a deviator. Thus,

(
(
(

+
+
+
+
(
(
(

=
P
P
P
P
P
P
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
rs

0 0
0 0
0 0


The first matrix corresponds to the isotropic pressure, the second to the residual stresses
causing distortion or deviation of the fluid element. Defining the Kronecker delta
rs
, as

(
(
(

=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
rs


rs
can be written as,

o rs rs
P + = (8.3)

Where
o
is the deviator component

Consider again the tensor made up of velocity gradients
s
u
r

to form,

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(

z
w
y
w
x
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
u
y
u
x
u
s
u
r


In general, this tensor is not symmetric, but can be made so by taking averages of
diagonally opposite terms to give the rate of strain tensor,

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
z
w
y
w
x
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
x
w
z
u
x
v
y
u
x
u
e
rs
) (
2
1
) (
2
1


The rheological equation which we are seeking is of the form,

( )
rs rs
e f =

Since in various flow we are interested in relating only the deviator components of the
stress and strain components, the tensor
rs
e is split up into two as above, by noting that

) (
3
1
z
w
y
v
x
u
e
V

=

Is the rate of change of volumetric strain, a scalar quantity, so that

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ =
V
V
V
rs V rs
e
z
w
y
w
z
v
x
w
z
u
y
w
z
v
e
y
v
x
v
y
u
x
w
z
u
x
v
y
u
e
x
u
e e

) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1


Or using similar nomenclature to above,

o rs V rs
e e e + = (8.4)

Now the simplest rheological equation relating the deviator components of
rs
and
rs
e is
to say that they are proportional to one another. Thus, let us assume that

o o
e 2 = (8.5)

Where is a constant i.e.

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
+
+
V
V
V
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
e
z
w
y
w
z
v
x
w
z
u
y
w
z
v
e
y
v
x
v
y
u
x
w
z
u
x
v
y
u
e
x
u
P
P
P

) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
2



(8.6)

Thus equating components of the tensor equation (8.6) we have.

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
z
w
y
v
x
u
x
u
P
xx

3
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
z
w
y
v
x
u
y
v
P
yy

3
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
z
w
y
v
x
u
z
w
P
zz

3
2
2 (8.7)
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
x
v
y
u
xy

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
y
w
z
v
yz

|
.
|

\
|

=
z
u
x
w
zx


A long-winded version of equation (8.5) which simply states that the deviator stress and
stain tensors are proportional to one another. For plane laminar motion, equations (8.7)
reduce to


xy
u
y


=

And is clearly the coefficient of dynamic viscosity.


8.4 The Navier Stokes Equations

Now substitute equations (8.7) in (8.2). For example terms such as

) (
z y x
xz
xy
xx

become,
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2 2 2
2
2 2
3
2
z
w
z x
w
y x
v
y
u
z
w
y
v
x
u
x x
u
x
P

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
z
w
y
v
x
u
x z
u
y
u
x
u
x
P

3
1
2
2
2
2
2
2


Similar substitutions can be made for y and z direction momentum balances to give,

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

z
w
y
v
x
u
x z
u
y
u
x
u
g
x
P
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
x
3
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

z
w
y
v
x
u
y z
v
y
v
x
v
g
y
P
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
y
3
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

(8.8)
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

z
w
y
v
x
u
z z
w
y
w
x
w
g
z
P
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
z
3
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

Where v is the kinematic viscosity / .

These are the NavierStokes equations which form the basis of modern fluid mechanics.
They must be solved along with the continuity equation (8.1).

The Navier-Stokes equations also can be written in the polar coordinate system as stated
below:

In r-direction:

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

v
r r
v
x
v v
r r
v
r r
v
g
r
P
r
w
x
v
u
v
r
w
r
v
v
t
v
r
2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2 1 1 1


In -direction:

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

= +

v
r r
w
x
w w
r r
w
r r
w
g
P
r r
vw w
u
w
r
w
r
w
v
t
w
2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2 1 1 1


In x-direction:

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

2
2
2
2
2 2
2
1 1 1
x
u u
r r
u
r r
u
g
x
P u
u
u
r
w
r
u
v
t
u
x

8.5 Special Cases of the Fluid Flow Equations

Equations (8.1) and (8.8) have been solved for only a few special cases, mainly because
equations (8.8) are nonlinear in the velocities. Fluid mechanics tends to split into two
parts (1) viscous flow and (2) inviscid flow. In the former solutions are available for
some special cases.

(1a) Exact solutions where the quadratic terms in (8.8) are identically zero e.g. steady
incompressible flow through a pipe with v =w =0 and thus 0 =

x
u
giving,

2
2
1
x
u
x
P

(1b) Approximate solutions in which the quadratic terms may be neglected e.g. theory of
lubrication or stokes flow past a sphere.

(1c) problems in which the viscosity effects are assumed to occur close to a surface only
e.g. boundary layer theory in which the equations (8.8) are simplified.

In (1c) curvature of the surface is assumed to effect the flow only through the pressure
gradient term
x
P

. Surface shape influences the flow outside

the boundary layer where
the flow is assumed to be inviscid. In this second category of fluid flow problems further
simplifying assumptions are made.

(2a) The flow is inviscid and incompressible so that,

0 =

z
w
y
v
x
u

x
P
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u

1

y
P
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v

1
(8.9)
z
P
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w

1


These are known as Eulers equations.


(2b) In addition the flow is two dimensional so that equations (8.9) reduce to

0 =

y
v
x
u

x
P
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u

1
(8.10)
y
P
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v

1


Because of the simple continuity equation in (8.10), it is possible to introduce a stream
function defined as (for incompressible flow here)


y
u

=

,
x
v

=

(8.10)

This satisfies continuity equation and can be substituted equation (8.10) to give equations
for reducing the number of dependent variables from three (u, v, P) to two ( , P) but
at the expense of having a higher order differential equation. Note that could be
introduced into equation (8.8) in a similar manner if the flow is two dimensional to give
an equation in involving viscosity. The two equations in and P can be reduced to
one in by eliminating P by differentiating the x direction of momentum equation in
(8.10) by y and the y direction equation by x. Of course a fourth order differential
equation is obtained.

(2c) If in addition the flow is irrotational (and this covers a wide range of flows) then,

0 =

x
v
y
u
(8.12)

dy
dx
dy
x
v
dv

+
dx
y
u
du

+
x
v

y
u

Figure 8.3

We can then define a velocity potential which satisfies equation (8.12)


x
u

=

,
y
v

=

(8.13)

And if this is substituted in the equation of continuity (8.10) and equation (8.11) in
(8.12),

0
2
2
2
2
=

y x



0
2
2
2
2
=

y x



These are Laplaces equations familiar in classical physics and they form the basis of
classical hydrodynamics. This theory is described in the incompressible fluid mechanics
course.

(2b) finally, it is possible to integrate the Euler equations along a streamlines to obtain ,
for the simple case of steady flow,

0
2
1
2
=

y
P
s
v


Where v is the velocity
( )
2 2 2
u v w + + , which is one form of Bernoullis equation.

Unfortunately it can only be used if the direction of the streamline is known (e.g. flow in
a pipe) of in conjunction with a solution for or the rest of this course will deal with
problems of type (1c)


8.6 The Dimensionless Equation

Consider, for simplicity, the NavierStokes equations for incompressible flow in two
dimensions. Consider the flow of an unbounded fluid past a fixed obstacle. Take the axis
of x in the direction of the undisturbed velocity of the stream, the magnitude of this
velocity being U. Let d be a typical length of the obstacle. Then transform equations (8.8)
into a dimensionless form by letting,

U
u
u = ,
V
v
v = ,
d
x
x = ,
d
y
y = ,
d
Ut
t = ,
2
U
P
P

=

To give,

0 =


+


y
v
x
u

|
|
.
|

\
|


+


+


=


+


+


2
2
2
2
Re
1
y
u
x
u
x
P
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
(8.16)
|
|
.
|

\
|


+


+


=


+


+


2
2
2
2
Re
1
y
v
x
v
y
P
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v


Where the Reynolds number

Ud
= Re . If we include boundary conditions u =U, v =0 at
infinity, and u =v =0 at the boundary of the obstacle, these become in reduced form
1 = u , 0 = v at infinity and 0 = = v u at a fixed surface independent of d in the
z y x , , space. Furthermore the rheological equations (8.7) can be reduced to,

|
.
|

\
|


+ =

+ =
x
u
P U
x
u
P
xx
Re
2
2
2

|
|
.
|

\
|


+ =

+ =
y
v
P U
y
v
P
xx
Re
2
2
2
(8.17)
|
|
.
|

\
|


+


=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
y
u
x
v U
y
u
x
v
xy
Re
2

Thus for a system with a given Reynolds number Re, the reduced velocities
u
U
and
v
U
,
and the reduced pressures and stresses
2
U
P

,
2
U
rs

are unique functions of the reduced

dimensions .
x y
and
d d


Therefore for two geometrically similar systems
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
. .
d
d
y
y
x
x
e i with similar
boundary conditions, the flow patterns are kinematically similar
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
. .
u
u
v
v
u
u
e i and
the stress distributions are dynamically similar
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
1 2
2 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
. .
d
d
U
U
P
P
e i

. Or, putting
it another way, the pressure and stress at any point in a given geometrical system is
proportional to
2
u , the constant of proportionality being a function of the Reynolds
number only.


|
|
.
|

\
|
= (Re) . .
1
2
F
u
e i
rs

(8.18)

The form of the function
1
F , depends on geometry of the system and the choice of the
typical velocity. U. A common example of this is a friction factor. Equation (8.18) is very
useful when an attempt is being made to find an empirical correlation between stress and
flow pattern in a complex system. Thus, for example the drag coefficient
D
C for the flow
of a fluid over different bodies is normally defined as
2
2
1
2
/
U
d F

, where F is the force on the

body, d a typical linear dimension and and U the density and main stream velocity
respectively.

This coefficient is related to the Reynolds number.


8.7 Some of Navier-Stokes Equation Applications

8.7.1 The flow inside a duct

Umax
h
b
x
u=f(y)
y
u=0


The flow is assumed a steady and 2D fully developed flow, thus the Navier-Stokes
equation can be reduced to:

|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
2
1
y
u
x
u
x
P
y
u
v
x
u
u

Where v=0, 0 =

x
u
and 0
2
2
=

x
u


Thus,

2
2
y
u
x
P

Using integration;

1
1
C y
x
P
y
u
+

2 1
2
2
1
C y C y
x
P
u + +

Applying the boundary conditions the values of C
1
and C
2

are
At y=0 , u=0 0
2
= C

y=h , u=0
x
P h
C

=
2
1


Therefore, the velocity profile inside the duct is

(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
h
y
h
y
x
P h
u
2
2
2


The flow rate can be calculated from

=
h
o
udy b Q
| |dy hy y
x
P b
h
o

=

2
2


h
hy y
x
P b
0
2 3
2 3 2
(

=
2 3 2
3 3
h h
x
P b

x
P bh

=
6
3


The pressure drop
x
P

along the ducting can be estimated by using

Area
Q
V =

where V is average velocity.

Thus,

bh
x
P bh
V

=
6
3


2
6
h
V
x
P
=

or
2
6
h
VL
P

=


8.7.2 The flow in between parallel plates where a top plate is moving at velocity
of U

h
U
x
y
u=0
No pressure
gradient
Linear velocity
profile


From the Navier-Stokes equation;

|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
2
1
y
u
x
u
x
P
y
u
v
x
u
u

Where v=0, 0 =

x
u
, 0 =

x
P
and 0
2
2
=

x
u


Thus,

0
2
2
=

y
u


After integrations,

1
C
y
u
=

2 1
C y C u + =

Using the boundary conditions;

At y=0 , u=0 0
2
= C

y=h , u=U
h
U
C =
1


Therefore, the velocity profile is

h
Uy
u =

And the flow rate, Q inside the parallel plates is

=
h
o
udy b Q
dy
h
Uy
b
h

=
0

| |
h
y
h
b
0
2
2
=
bh
2
1
=


8.7.2 Flow in a Pipe


Using the Navier-Stokes equation in polar coordinate;


|
.
|

\
|

+ +

r
u
r
r r
g
x
P
x
u
u
u
r
w
r
u
v
x


1 1


For a fully developed flow in a pipe;

w=v=0, 0 =

x
u u

, and ignore the gravity force, g

x

=0
Thus,

|
.
|

\
|

r
u
r
r r x
P

1


Applying the integration;

1
2
2
C
x
P r
r
u
r +

= |
.
|

\
|

r
C
x
P r
r
u

1
2
+

2
1
2
ln
4
C r
C
x
P r
u + +

=



By using the boundary conditions,

At r=0 , u=U
max
0
1
= C and
max 2
U C =

Thus,

max
2
4
U
x
P r
u +

or
x
P R
U

=
4
2
max


( )
2 2
4
1
r R
x
P
u

For the flow rate inside the pipe;

=
R
o
rudr Q 2
( )

=
R
o
dr r r R
x
P
3 2
2

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
4 2 2
4 4
R R
x
P

x
P R

8
4


The pressure drop along the pipe can be obtained by:

x
P R
R
Q
V

= =
8
2
2
or
2
8
R
V
x
P
=