Introduction to Psychology

Antoni Szeglowski Spring 2014

Contents
1 What is Psychology? 1.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Perspectives in Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Methods of Psychology 2.1 Psychologys Scientic Method Denitions 2.2 Types of Psychological Research . . . . . 2.2.1 Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Surveys and Interviews . . . . . . 2.2.3 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Self-Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9

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3 Biological Foundations of Behavior 3.1 Nature vs. Nurture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Two Major Adaptations for Humans . . . . 3.3 Characteristics of the Nervous System . . . 3.3.1 The Neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Pain Withdrawal Reex . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Action Potential . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Synapses and Neurotransmitters . . 3.3.5 Types of Neurotransmitters . . . . . 3.3.6 Phineas Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.7 Parts of the Nervous System . . . . 3.3.8 Brain Structures and Their Function 3.4 The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Pituitary Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Sensory Processes and Perception 4.1 Perception and Sensation . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Psychophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 From Physical Events to Mental Events . 4.4 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Pupil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Iris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Retina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 The Physics of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Psychological Dimensions of Sound

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1
1.1

What is Psychology?
Denitions
Psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavior and draw conclusions Behavior is everything we do that can be directly observed Mental processes are thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but cannot be directly observed Critical thinking is the process of reecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating evidence Empirical method means gaining knowledge through the observation of events Positive psychology emphasizes human strengths First research lab was opened by William Wundt Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes

1.2

Perspectives in Psychology
Does not account for behavior as a result of changes that occur within the individual (e.g., anxiety) Does not account for degree to which behaviors are a result of choice

Behaviorist perspective focus with the observable behavior that can beobjectively recorded

Biological Perspective focuses on the functioning of genes, brain, nervous system, and endocrine system behavior and psychological phenomena is explained in terms of underlying physical structures and biochemical processes Evolutionary perspective focuses on the importance of behavioral and mental adaptiveness Evolution is the result of natural selection Mental abilities have evolved in many of the same ways that physical abilities have evolved Sociocultural perspective focuses on cross-cultural dierences in the causes and consequences of behavior Argue that understanding a persons behavior requires knowing about the cultural context in which the behavior occurs Cognitive perspective deals with human thought and the processes of knowing (attending, thinking. and remembering, etc) Behavior and thought are conjoined Behavior is only partly determined by environment and past consequences of behavior (Directly contests with behaviorist perspective) Psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious thought Humanistic approach emphasizes a persons qualities, positive growth, and freedom to choose ones destiny

2
2.1

Methods of Psychology
Psychologys Scientic Method Denitions
A variable is anything that can change A theory is a broad ideas or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations A hypothesis is an educated guess that derives logically from a theory An Operational denition provides an objective description to how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a study

2.2

Types of Psychological Research

Descriptive research is about describing some phenomenon determining its basic dimensions and dening what what this thing is, how it occur, and so on. 2.2.1 Observation

Trained observers that look for particular things 2.2.2 Surveys and Interviews

A quick way to get information about people Cannot measure unconscious thoughts Must be clear and understandable 2.2.3 Case Studies

A case study is an in-depth look at a single individual Generally cannot be applied to other persons situations 2.2.4 Self-Report

Self-report is a research method that is used to determine measures of peoples attitudes, behavior, feelings or thoughts Can have unreliable answers biased selection of oences A biased selection of interviewees

3
3.1

Biological Foundations of Behavior

Nature vs. Nurture
The argument that peoples actions are determined by genetics, or by an individuals environment

3.2

Two Major Adaptations for Humans

Ability to walk upright

Bipedalism

Encephalization increase in brain size 3

3.3

Characteristics of the Nervous System

The nervous system is the bodys electrochemical communication circuitry. 3.3.1 The Neuron

Neurons are the nerve cells that handle information processing Every neuron has a cell body, dendrites, and an axon Dendrites are treelike bers projecting from a neuron, they receive information and orient it towards the neurons cell body Axon is the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body and towards other cells (axons carry away ) Myelin sheath is a layer of cells containing fat, it encases and insulates most axons Insulating provides increased speed of nerve impulses Sensory neurons carry information from the sensory receptor cells throughout the body to the brain Motor neurons transmit information from the brain to the muscles of the body Interneurons are responsible for communicating information between dierent neurons in the body Glial cells provide support, nutritional benets, and other functions in the nervous system (the pit crew) 3.3.2 Pain Withdrawal Reex

When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and danger receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the exors to allow withdrawal; some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so exion is not inhibited. Excitatory Input Inhibitory Input 3.3.3 Action Potential

During the action potential, part of the neural membrane opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out Action potentials abide by the all-or-nothing principle 3.3.4 Synapses and Neurotransmitters

Occur when neurotransmitters attach to receptor molecules Neurotransmitters will bind if there is not already something bound Chemistry of neurotransmitter and receptor matches When transmission is completed the neurotransmitter is released back into the synapse (decomposed by enzymes or reabsorbed by the sending neuron)

3.3.5

Types of Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine Involved in muscle contraction, learning, and memory Low levels linked to memory loss and Alzheimers disease GABA Highly concentrated in the brain Inhibits neural activity Low levels of GABA linked to anxiety and depression Glutamate Highly concentrated in the brain Excites neural activity Low levels linked to poor learning ability, non-commensurate emotional responses, and memory failure Dopamine Helps control voluntary movement; aects sleep, mood, attention and learning High levels linked to some psychological disorders Low levels linked to parkinsons disease Norepinephrine Stress stimulates release of norepinephrine Inhibits ring of neurons in the CNS, but excites heart and digestive functions Low levels linked to mood disorders and experience of depression High levels linked to agitation Endorphins Stimulate ring of neurons, depress nervous system activity Manipulations of endorphin activity in brain is associated with pain and pleasure ( endorphin pain) Linked to expressions of emotional behavior (e.g., fear,tension, EUPHORIA) Seratoinin Production occurs within the brain stem Abnormally high and low levels linked to mood disorders LSD suppresses; MDMA excites Antidepressants serve to increase levels in system by blocking reuptake in synapse Oxytocin A hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a role in experience of reward as a result of social bonding Released in mothers who have just given birth Released as a part of a sexual orgasm; thought to correspond to feelings of attachment in romantic scenarios 5

3.3.6

Phineas Gage

Lesions eliminate connections 3.3.7 Parts of the Nervous System

Composed of billions of neurons and nerves throughout the body Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Connects CNS to bodys sensory receptors, muscles, and glands Somatic Nervous System (SNS) Connects CNS to skeletal muscles and skin Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Connects CNS to sensory receptors, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands Sympathetic division of ANS Responsible for governing emergency behavior (e.g. Fight-or-Flight) Parasympathetic division of ANS Responsible for monitoring energy levels and internal bodily functions Two divisions of ANS work in opposition, but correspond anatomically (e.g., parasympathetic division slows heart, sympathetic division accelerates heart) 3.3.8 Brain Structures and Their Function

The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain regulates in higher-level functions Activity associated with cognitive and emotional aspects of mental process Cerebrum: Cerebral cortex Outer surface of cerebrum Billions of cells compose 1/10th Cerebrum: Cerebral hemispheres Brain divided into to symmetrical halves Connected at middle by mass of nerve bers, the corpus callosum, that handles communication between hemispheres Each of two hemispheres has four loves, each responsible for dierent functions: Frontal lobe Role in motor control and cognitive activities Contains Brocas area, linked to language production disorders when damaged Parietal lobe Responsible for sensations of touch, pain, and temperature Thought to be associated with ability to integrate spatial information Occipital lobe Located in the back of the brain Primarily responsible for handling processes associated with visual preception (e.g., color, discrimination, perception of movement)

 Temporal lobe Primarily responsible for handling processes associated with hearing Contains Wernickes area, linked to language comprehension disorders when damaged Cerebrum: Motor cortex Located at the back of the frontal lobe Controls voluntary muscles Cerebrum: Somatosensory cortex Located at the front of the parietal lobe Responsible for processing sensory input from various body areas Cerebrum: Auditory cortex Located at the top of the temporal lobe Receives and processes auditory information Cerebrum: Visual cortex Located at the back of the occipital lobe Receives and processes visual information Cerebrum: Association cortex In many areas of cortex Involved in higher level processes (e.g., planning)

3.4

The Endocrine System

Endocrine systems are a network of gland that supplement the nervous system Responsible for manufacturing and secreting hormones into the blood stream Helps ght infection and disease Responsible for adrenaline production 3.4.1 Pituitary Gland

Master gland produces and secretes several hormones that inuence other endocrine glands In males: Testosterone production occurs in the testes In females: Estrogen is produced mainly in the ovaries

4
4.1

Sensory Processes and Perception

Perception and Sensation

Perception is the process that organizes and interprets sensory information Three Stages of perception: Sensation Neural impulses produced when sensory receptors are stimulated Sensory processes provide the brain with a link to the world 7

 Experience or awareness of internal and external conditions Perceptual organization Brain combines known information and new information to for reproduction of events This is called integration Integration is non-conscious Result of integration process is the perception Travels path least resistance Things pop out or remain salient when we observe them subsiquent times (Trail blazer analogy) Identication and recognition We assign meaning Our brains gather information about the world Integrate process uses information to form representation for meaning for understanding

4.2

Psychophysics
Absolute Threshold The minimal amount of energy that must be present in stimulus to produce a sensory experience at least fty percent of the time e.g., What is the quietest tone that can be heard at a given distance? We are sensitive to environmental changes When things are static for a certain amount of time, we become accustomed to that sensory input and less sensitive to it e.g., Room smells bad, Air freshener when you walk into room fades over time, etc. Allow for more a more rapid reaction to new sources of sensory information Transduction is the conversion of physical energy to neural impulses All sensory information is converted into identical types of neural impulses, but dierent areas of the brain handle dierent sensory domains

How do we measure the intensity of signals?

4.3

From Physical Events to Mental Events

Procedure for separately evaluating sensory processes and decision making behavior Tells us if a participant in a study has a bias towards reporting the presence or absence of a signal If the false alarm rate is too high, that signals a response bias

Signal Detection Theory

4.4

Vision

The Dierent Parts of the Eye and their Functions 4.4.1 Pupil

Pupil The opening at the front of the eye which light passes through

4.4.2

Iris

Iris Constricts or dilates to regulate light In order to control the amount of light entering the eye at the pupil 4.4.3 Lens

Lens Light entering the eye is reversed, inverted, and focused onto the back of the eye Handles focus of near and distal vision 4.4.4 Retina

Retina Located in the back of the eye Contains receptor cells that are sensitive to light (These cells are known as photoreceptors) Organized layers of neurons convert energy from light waves into neural signals There are two types of photoreceptors that line the back of the retina Rods Sensitive to light contrasts (specialized for low light environments darkness) Cones Sensitive to color contrasts (for dealing with bright colorful stimuli) Fovea Small area near the center of the retina Packed with cones Sharpest vision happens here

4.5

The Physics of Sound

Waves Frequency Number of cycles in a given amount of time Amplitude Vertical range of the wave; physical strength 4.5.1 Psychological Dimensions of Sound

Pitch Highness or lowness of source as determined by frequency (Human sensitivity 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz) Loudness Sounds experienced as loud or soft as determined by amplitude (measured in dB) Timbre Captures the complexity of sounds (combinations of waves or pure tones)