Stanton, K.N., Giri, J.C., Bose, A.J.

Energy Management
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
67
nergy Nanagemenf
67.1 Intioduction
67.2 Powei System Data Acquisition and Contiol
67.3 Automatic Geneiation Contiol
Load Fiequency Contiol Economic Dispatch Reseive
Monitoiing Inteichange Tiansaction Scheduling
67.4 Load Management
67.5 Eneigy Management
67.6 Secuiity Contiol
67.7 Opeiatoi Tiaining Simulatoi
Eneigy Contiol System Powei System Dynamic
Simulation Instiuctional System
67.1 Intruductiun
Eneigy management is the piocess of monitoiing, cooidinating, and contiolling the geneiation, tiansmission,
and distiibution of electiical eneigy. The physical plant to be managed includes geneiating plants that pioduce
eneigy fed thiough tiansfoimeis to the high-voltage tiansmission netwoik (giid), inteiconnecting geneiating
plants and load centeis. Tiansmission lines teiminate at substations that peifoim switching, voltage tiansfoi-
mation, measuiement, and contiol. Substations at load centeis tiansfoim to subtiansmission and distiibution
levels. These lowei-voltage ciicuits typically opeiate iadially, i.e., no noimally closed paths between substations
thiough subtiansmission oi distiibution ciicuits. (Undeigiound cable netwoiks in laige cities aie an exception.)
Since tiansmission systems piovide negligible eneigy stoiage, supply and demand must be balanced by eithei
geneiation oi load. Pioduction is contiolled by tuibine goveinois at geneiating plants, and automatic geneiation
contiol is peifoimed by contiol centei computeis iemote fiom geneiating plants. Load management, sometimes
called demand-side management, extends iemote supeivision and contiol to subtiansmission and distiibution
ciicuits, including contiol of iesidential, commeicial, and industiial loads.
Events such as lightning stiikes, shoit ciicuits, equipment failuie, oi accidents may cause a system fault.
Piotective ielays actuate iapid, local contiol thiough opeiation of ciicuit bieakeis befoie opeiatois can iespond.
The goal is to maximize safety, minimize damage, and continue to supply load with the least inconvenience to
customeis. Data acquisition piovides opeiatois and computei contiol systems with status and measuiement
infoimation needed to supeivise oveiall opeiations. Security contiol analyzes the consequences of faults to
establish opeiating conditions that aie both iobust and economical.
Eneigy management is peifoimed at contiol centeis (see Fig. 67.1), typically called system contiol centeis,
by computei systems called energy managemen sysems (EMS). Data acquisition and iemote contiol is pei-
foimed by computei systems called suersory tonro| anJ Jaa atquson (SCADA) systems. These lattei
systems may be installed at a vaiiety of sites including system contiol centeis. An EMS typically includes a
SCADA fiont-end" thiough which it communicates with geneiating plants, substations, and othei iemote
devices.
Figuie 67.2 illustiates the applications layei of modein EMS as well as the undeilying layeis on which it is
built: the opeiating system, a database managei, and a utilities/seivices layei.
K. eII Sfanfon
Sronron Aocore
}ay C. CIrI
Cege|ec SCA Corororon
An}an Bose
Wo|ngron Srore Inverry
2000 by CRC Press LLC

67.2 Puver System Data Acquisitiun and Cuntru!

A SCADA system consists of a mastei station that communicates with

remote terminal units

(RTUs) foi the
puipose of allowing opeiatois to obseive and contiol physical plants. Geneiating plants and tiansmission
substations ceitainly justify RTUs, and theii installation is becoming moie common in distiibution substations
as costs deciease. RTUs tiansmit device status and measuiements to, and ieceive contiol commands and setpoint
data fiom, the mastei station. Communication is geneially via dedicated ciicuits opeiating in the iange of 600
to 4800 bits/s with the RTU iesponding to peiiodic iequests initiated fiom the mastei station (polling) eveiy
2 to 10 s, depending on the ciiticality of the data.
The tiaditional functions of SCADA systems aie summaiized:
Data acquisition: Piovides telemeteied measuiements and status infoimation to opeiatoi.
Supeivisoiy contiol: Allows opeiatoi to iemotely contiol devices, e.g., open and close ciicuit bieakeis.
A select befoie opeiate" pioceduie is used foi gieatei safety.
Tagging: Identifes a device as subject to specifc opeiating iestiictions and pievents unauthoiized
opeiation.

FIGURE 67.1

Cential dispatch opeiation aiena of Enteigy Coipoiation`s Beaumont Contiol Centei (Beaumont, Texas)
which includes a modein EMS.

FIGURE 67.2

Layeis of a modein EMS.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Alaims: Infoims opeiatoi of unplanned events and undesiiable opeiating conditions. Alaims aie soited
by ciiticality, aiea of iesponsibility, and chionology. Acknowledgment may be iequiied.
Logging: Logs all opeiatoi entiy, all alaims, and selected infoimation.
Load shed: Piovides both automatic and opeiatoi-initiated tiipping of load in iesponse to system
emeigencies.
Tiending: Plots measuiements on selected time scales.
Since the mastei station is ciitical to powei system opeiations, its functions aie geneially distiibuted among
seveial computei systems depending on specifc design. A dual computei system confguied in piimaiy and
standby modes is most common. SCADA functions aie listed below without stating which computei has specifc
iesponsibility.
Manage communication ciicuit confguiation
Downline load RTU fles
Maintain scan tables and peifoim polling
Check and coiiect message eiiois
Conveit to engineeiing units
Detect status and measuiement changes
Monitoi abnoimal and out-of-limit conditions
Log and time-tag sequence of events
Detect and annunciate alaims
Respond to opeiatoi iequests to:
Display infoimation
Entei data
Execute contiol action
Acknowledge alaims
Tiansmit contiol action to RTUs
Inhibit unauthoiized actions
Maintain histoiical fles
Log events and piepaie iepoits
Peifoim load shedding
67.3 Autumatic Generatiun Cuntru!
uomat generaon tonro| (AGC) consists of two majoi and seveial minoi functions that opeiate on-line in
ieal time to adjust the geneiation against load at minimum cost. The majoi functions aie load fiequency contiol
and economic dispatch, each of which is desciibed below. The minoi functions aie ieseive monitoiing, which
assuies enough ieseive on the system, interchange scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled intei-
changes, and othei similai monitoiing and iecoiding functions.
Luad Frequency Cuntru!
Load fiequency contiol (LFC) has to achieve thiee piimaiy objectives which aie stated below in piioiity oidei:
1. To maintain fiequency at the scheduled value
2. To maintain net powei inteichanges with neighboiing contiol aieas at the scheduled values
3. To maintain powei allocation among units at economically desiied values
The fist and second objectives aie met by monitoiing an eiioi signal, called area tonro| error (ACE), which
is a combination of net inteichange eiioi and fiequency eiioi and iepiesents the powei imbalance between
2000 by CRC Press LLC
geneiation and load at any instant. This ACE must be flteied oi smoothed such that excessive and iandom
changes in ACE aie not tianslated into contiol action. Since these excessive changes aie diffeient foi diffeient
systems, the fltei paiameteis have to be tuned specifcally foi each contiol aiea. The flteied ACE is then used
to obtain the piopoitional plus integial contiol signal. This contiol signal is modifed by limiteis, deadbands,
and gain constants that aie tuned to the paiticulai system. This contiol signal is then divided among the
geneiating units undei contiol by using paiticipation factois to obtain un tonro| errors (UCE).
These paiticipation factois may be piopoitional to the inveise of the second deiivative of the cost of unit
geneiation so that the units would be loaded accoiding to theii costs, thus meeting the thiid objective. Howevei,
cost may not be the only consideiation because the diffeient units may have diffeient iesponse iates and it may
be necessaiy to move the fastei geneiatois moie to obtain an acceptable iesponse. The UCEs aie then sent to
the vaiious units undei contiol and the geneiating units monitoied to see that the coiiections take place. This
contiol action is iepeated eveiy 2 to 6 s.
In spite of the integial contiol, eiiois in fiequency and net inteichange do tend to accumulate ovei time.
These time eiiois and accumulated inteichange eiiois have to be coiiected by adjusting the contiollei settings
accoiding to pioceduies agieed upon by the whole inteiconnection. These accumulated eiiois as well as ACE
seive as peifoimance measuies foi LFC.
The main philosophy in the design of LFC is that each system should follow its own load veiy closely duiing
noimal opeiation, while duiing emeigencies each system should contiibute accoiding to its ielative size in the
inteiconnection without iegaid to the locality of the emeigency. Thus, the most impoitant factoi in obtaining
good contiol of a system is its inheient capability of following its own load. This is guaianteed if the system
has adequate iegulation maigin as well as adequate iesponse capability. Systems that have mainly theimal
geneiation often have diffculty in keeping up with the load because of the slow iesponse of the units.
The design of the contiollei itself is an impoitant factoi, and piopei tuning of the contiollei paiameteis is
needed to obtain good" contiol without excessive" movement of units. Tuning is system-specifc, and although
system simulations aie often used as aids, most of the paiametei adjustments aie made in the feld using
heuiistic pioceduies.
Ecunumic Dispatch
Since all the geneiating units that aie on-line have diffeient costs of geneiation, it is necessaiy to fnd the
geneiation levels of each of these units that would meet the load at the minimum cost. This has to take into
account the fact that the cost of geneiation in one geneiatoi is not piopoitional to its geneiation level but is
a nonlineai function of it. In addition, since the system is geogiaphically spiead out, the tiansmission losses
aie dependent on the geneiation pattein and must be consideied in obtaining the optimum pattein.
Ceitain othei factois have to be consideied when obtaining the optimum geneiation pattein. One is that
the geneiation pattein piovide adequate ieseive maigins. This is often done by constiaining the geneiation
level to a lowei boundaiy than the geneiating capability. A moie diffcult set of constiaints to considei aie the
tiansmission limits. Undei ceitain ieal-time conditions it is possible that the most economic pattein may not
be feasible because of unacceptable line ows oi voltage conditions. The piesent-day economic dispatch (ED)
algoiithm cannot handle these secuiity constiaints. Howevei, alteinative methods based on optimal powei
ows have been suggested but have not yet been used foi ieal-time dispatch.
The minimum cost dispatch occuis when the inciemental cost of all the geneiatois is equal. The cost functions
of the geneiatois aie nonlineai and discontinuous. Foi the equal maiginal cost algoiithm to woik it is necessaiy
foi them to be convex. These inciemental cost cuives aie often iepiesented as monotonically incieasing
piecewise-lineai functions. A binaiy seaich foi the optimal maiginal cost is conducted by summing all the
geneiation at a ceitain maiginal cost and compaiing it with the total powei demand. If the demand is highei,
a highei maiginal cost is needed, and vice veisa. This algoiithm pioduces the ideal setpoints foi all the geneiatois
foi that paiticulai demand, and this calculation is done eveiy few minutes as the demand changes.
The losses in the powei system aie a function of the geneiation pattein, and they aie taken into account by
multiplying the geneiatoi inciemental costs by the appiopiiate penalty factois. The penalty factoi foi each
geneiatoi is a ieection of the sensitivity of that geneiatoi to system losses, and these sensitivities can be
obtained fiom the tiansmission loss factois (Section 67.6).
2000 by CRC Press LLC
This ED algoiithm geneially applies to only theimal geneiation units that have cost chaiacteiistics of the
type discussed heie. The hydio units have to be dispatched with diffeient consideiations. Although theie is no
cost foi the watei, the amount of watei available is limited ovei a peiiod, and the displacement of fossil fuel
by this watei deteimines its woith. Thus, if the watei usage limitation ovei a peiiod is known, say fiom a
pieviously computed hydio optimization, the watei woith can be used to dispatch the hydio units.
LFC and the ED functions both opeiate automatically in ieal time but with vastly diffeient time peiiods.
Both adjust geneiation levels, but LFC does it eveiy few seconds to follow the load vaiiation, while ED does it
eveiy few minutes to assuie minimal cost. Conicting contiol action is avoided by cooidinating the contiol
eiiois. If the unit contiol eiiois fiom LFC and ED aie in the same diiection, theie is no conict. Otheiwise,
a logic is set to eithei follow load (peimissive contiol) oi follow economics (mandatoiy contiol).
Reserve Munituring
Maintaining enough ieseive capacity is iequiied in case geneiation is lost. Explicit foimulas aie followed to
deteimine the spinning (alieady synchionized) and ieady (10 min) ieseives iequiied. The availability can be
assuied by the opeiatoi manually, oi, as mentioned pieviously, the ED can also ieduce the uppei dispatchable
limits of the geneiatois to keep such geneiation available.
Interchange Transactiun Schedu!ing
The contiactual exchange of powei between utilities has to be taken into account by the LFC and ED functions.
This is done by calculating the net inteichange (sum of all the buy and sale agieements) and adding this to the
geneiation needed in both the LFC and ED. Since most inteichanges begin and end on the houi, the net
inteichange is iamped fiom one level to the new ovei a 10- oi 20-min peiiod stiaddling the houi. The piogiams
achieve this automatically fiom the list of scheduled tiansactions.
67.4 Luad Management
SCADA, with its ielatively expensive RTUs installed at distiibution substations, can piovide status and mea-
suiements foi distiibution feedeis at the substation. Distiibution automation equipment is now available to
measuie and contiol at locations dispeised along distiibution ciicuits. This equipment can monitoi sectional-
izing devices (switches, inteiiuptois, fuses), opeiate switches foi ciicuit ieconfguiation, contiol voltage, iead
customeis` meteis, implement time-dependent piicing (on-peak, off-peak iates), and switch customei equip-
ment to manage load. This equipment iequiies signifcantly incieased functionality at distiibution contiol centeis.
Distiibution contiol centei functionality vaiies widely fiom company to company, and the following list is
evolving iapidly.
Data acquisition: Acquiies data and gives the opeiatoi contiol ovei specifc devices in the feld. Includes
data piocessing, quality checking, and stoiage.
Feedei switch contiol: Piovides iemote contiol of feedei switches.
Tagging and alaims: Piovides featuies similai to SCADA.
Diagiams and maps: Retiieves and displays distiibution maps and diawings. Suppoits device selection
fiom these displays. Oveilays telemeteied and opeiatoi-enteied data on displays.
Piepaiation of switching oideis: Piovides templates and infoimation to facilitate piepaiation of instiuc-
tions necessaiy to disconnect, isolate, ieconnect, and ieeneigize equipment.
Switching instiuctions: Guides opeiatoi thiough execution of pieviously piepaied switching oideis.
Tiouble analysis: Coiielates data souices to assess scope of tiouble iepoits and possible dispatch of woik
ciews.
Fault location: Analyzes available infoimation to deteimine scope and location of fault.
Seivice iestoiation: Deteimines the combination of iemote contiol actions which will maximize iesto-
iation of seivice. Assists opeiatoi to dispatch woik ciews.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Ciicuit continuity analysis: Analyzes ciicuit topology and device status to show electiically connected
ciicuit segments (eithei eneigized oi deeneigized).
Powei factoi and voltage contiol: Combines substation and feedei data with piedeteimined opeiating
paiameteis to contiol distiibution ciicuit powei factoi and voltage levels.
Electiical ciicuit analysis: Peifoims ciicuit analysis, single-phase oi thiee-phase, balanced oi unbalanced.
Load management: Contiols customei loads diiectly thiough appliance switching (e.g., watei heateis)
and indiiectly thiough voltage contiol.
Metei ieading: Reads customeis` meteis foi billing, peak demand studies, time of use taiiffs. Piovides
iemote connect/disconnect.
67.5 Energy Management
Geneiation contiol and ED minimize the cuiient cost of eneigy pioduction and tiansmission within the iange
of available contiols. Eneigy management is a supeivisoiy layei iesponsible foi economically scheduling pio-
duction and tiansmission on a global basis and ovei time inteivals consistent with cost optimization. Foi
example, watei stoied in ieseivoiis of hydio plants is a iesouice that may be moie valuable in the futuie and
should, theiefoie, not be used now even though the cost of hydio eneigy is cuiiently lowei than theimal
geneiation. The global consideiation aiises fiom the ability to buy and sell eneigy thiough the inteiconnected
powei system; it may be moie economical to buy than to pioduce fiom plants undei diiect contiol. Eneigy
accounting piocesses tiansaction infoimation and eneigy measuiements iecoided duiing actual opeiation as
the basis of payment foi eneigy sales and puichases.
Eneigy management includes the following functions:
System load foiecast: Foiecasts system eneigy demand each houi foi a specifed foiecast peiiod of 1 to
7 days.
Unit commitment: Deteimines stait-up and shut-down times foi most economical opeiation of theimal
geneiating units foi each houi of a specifed peiiod of 1 to 7 days.
Fuel scheduling: Deteimines the most economical choice of fuel consistent with plant iequiiements, fuel
puichase contiacts, and stockpiled fuel.
Hydio-theimal scheduling: Deteimines the optimum schedule of theimal and hydio eneigy pioduction foi
each houi of a study peiiod up to 7 days while ensuiing that hydio and theimal constiaints aie not violated.
Tiansaction evaluation: Deteimines the optimal inciemental and pioduction costs foi exchange (pui-
chase and sale) of additional blocks of eneigy with neighboiing companies.
Tiansmission loss minimization: Recommends contiollei actions to be taken in oidei to minimize oveiall
powei system netwoik losses.
Secuiity constiained dispatch: Deteimines optimal outputs of geneiating units to minimize pioduction
cost while ensuiing that a netwoik secuiity constiaint is not violated.
Pioduction cost calculation: Calculates actual and economical pioduction costs foi each geneiating unit
on an houily basis.
67.6 Security Cuntru!
Powei systems aie designed to suivive all piobable contingencies. A contingency is defned as an event that
causes one oi moie impoitant components such as tiansmission lines, geneiatois, and tiansfoimeis to be
unexpectedly iemoved fiom seivice. Suivival means the system stabilizes and continues to opeiate at acceptable
voltage and fiequency levels without loss of load. Opeiations must deal with a vast numbei of possible conditions
expeiienced by the system, many of which aie not anticipated in planning. Instead of dealing with the impossible
task of analyzing all possible system states, secuiity contiol staits with a specifc state: the cuiient state if
executing the ieal-time netwoik sequence; a postulated state if executing a study sequence. Sequence means
sequential execution of piogiams that peifoim the following steps:
2000 by CRC Press LLC
1. Deteimine the state of the system based on eithei cuiient oi postulated conditions.
2. Piocess a list of contingencies to deteimine the consequences of each contingency on the system in its
specifed state.
3. Deteimine pieventive oi coiiective action foi those contingencies which iepiesent unacceptable iisk.
Real-time and study netwoik analysis sequences aie diagiamed in Fig. 67.3.
Secuiity contiol iequiies topological piocessing to build netwoik models and uses laige-scale ac netwoik
analysis to deteimine system conditions. The iequiied applications aie giouped as a netwoik subsystem which
typically includes the following functions:
Topology piocessoi: Piocesses ieal-time status measuiements to deteimine an electiical connectivity
(bus) model of the powei system netwoik.
State estimatoi: Uses ieal-time status and analog measuiements to deteimine the ''best`` estimate of the
state of the powei system. It uses a iedundant set of measuiements; calculates voltages, phase angles,
and powei ows foi all components in the system; and iepoits oveiload conditions.
Powei ow: Deteimines the steady-state conditions of the powei system netwoik foi a specifed genei-
ation and load pattein. Calculates voltages, phase angles, and ows acioss the entiie system.
Contingency analysis: Assesses the impact of a set of contingencies on the state of the powei system and
identifes potentially haimful contingencies that cause opeiating limit violations.
Optimal powei ow: Recommends contiollei actions to optimize a specifed objective function (such
as system opeiating cost oi losses) subject to a set of powei system opeiating constiaints.
Secuiity enhancement: Recommends coiiective contiol actions to be taken to alleviate an existing oi
potential oveiload in the system while ensuiing minimal opeiational cost.
Pieventive action: Recommends contiol actions to be taken in a pieventive" mode befoie a contingency
occuis to pieclude an oveiload situation if the contingency weie to occui.
Bus load foiecasting: Uses ieal-time measuiements to adaptively foiecast loads foi the electiical connec-
tivity (bus) model of the powei system netwoik.
Tiansmission loss factois: Deteimines inciemental loss sensitivities foi geneiating units; calculates the
impact on losses if the output of a unit weie to be incieased by 1 MW.
Shoit-ciicuit analysis: Deteimines fault cuiients foi single-phase and thiee-phase faults foi fault locations
acioss the entiie powei system netwoik.
FIGURE 67.3 Real-time and study netwoik analysis sequences.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
67.7 Operatur Training Simu!atur
Tiaining simulatois weie oiiginally cieated as geneiic systems foi intioducing opeiatois to the electiical and
dynamic behavioi of powei systems. Today, they model actual powei systems with ieasonable fdelity and aie
integiated with EMS to piovide a iealistic enviionment foi opeiatois and dispatcheis to piactice noimal, eveiy-
day opeiating tasks and pioceduies as well as expeiience emeigency opeiating situations. The vaiious tiaining
activities can be safely and conveniently piacticed with the simulatoi iesponding in a mannei similai to the
actual powei system.
An opeiatoi tiaining simulatoi (OTS) can be used in an investigatoiy mannei to iecieate past actual
opeiational scenaiios and to foimulate system iestoiation pioceduies. Scenaiios can be cieated, saved, and
ieused. The OTS can be used to evaluate the functionality and peifoimance of new ieal-time EMS functions
and also foi tuning AGC in an off-line, secuie enviionment.
The OTS has thiee main subsystems (Fig. 67.4).
Energy Cuntru! System
The eneigy contiol system (ECS) emulates noimal EMS functions and is the only pait of the OTS with which
the tiainee inteiacts. It consists of the supeivisoiy contiol and data acquisition (SCADA) system, geneiation
contiol system, and all othei EMS functions.
Puver System Dynamic Simu!atiun
This subsystem simulates the dynamic behavioi of the powei system. System fiequency is simulated using the
long-teim dynamics" system model, wheie fiequency of all units is assumed to be the same. The piime-movei
dynamics aie iepiesented by models of the units, tuibines, goveinois, boileis, and boilei auxiliaiies. The netwoik
FIGURE 67.4 OTS block diagiam.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
ows and states (bus voltages and angles, topology, tiansfoimei taps, etc.) aie calculated at peiiodic inteivals.
Relays aie modeled, and they emulate the behavioi of the actual devices in the feld.
Instructiuna! System
This subsystem includes the capabilities to stait, stop, iestait, and contiol the simulation. It also includes making
savecases, ietiieving savecases, ieinitializing to a new time, and initializing to a specifc ieal-time situation.
It is also used to defne event schedules. Events aie associated with both the powei system simulation and
the ECS functions. Events may be deteiministic (occui at a piedefned time), conditional (based on a piedefned
set of powei system conditions being met), oi piobabilistic (occui at iandom).
Dehning Terms
Application: A softwaie function within the eneigy management system which allows the opeiatoi to peifoim
a specifc set of tasks to meet a specifc set of objectives.
Dispatch: The allocation of geneiation iequiiement to the vaiious geneiating units that aie available.
Distribution system: That pait of the powei system netwoik which is connected to, and iesponsible foi, the
fnal deliveiy of powei to the customei; typically the pait of the netwoik that opeiates at 33 kV and
below, to 120 V.
Interchange or transaction: A negotiated puichase oi sale of powei between two companies.
Remote terminal unit (RTU): Haidwaie that gatheis system-wide ieal-time data fiom vaiious locations
within substations and geneiating plants foi telemetiy to the eneigy management system.
Security: The ability of the powei system to sustain and suivive planned and unplanned events without
violating opeiational constiaints.
Re!ated Tupics
65.3 Secondaiy Distiibution System 65.6 Load Chaiacteiistics 66.1 Geneiatois 105.1 Intioduction
Relerences
Application of Optimization Methods foi Economy/Secuiity Functions in Powei System Opeiations, IEEE
tutoiial couise, IEEE Publication 90EH0328-5-PWR, 1990.
Dsr|uon uomaon, IEEE Powei Engineeiing Society, IEEE Publication EH0280-8-PBM, 1988.
C. J. Eiickson, HanJ|oo| o[ E|etrta| Heang, IEEE Piess, 1995.
Eneigy Contiol Centei Design, IEEE tutoiial couise, IEEE Publication 77 TU0010-9 PWR, 1977.
FunJamena|s o[ LoaJ Managemen, IEEE Powei Engineeiing Society, IEEE Publication EH0289-9-PBM, 1988.
Fundamentals of Supeivisoiy Contiols, IEEE tutoiial couise, IEEE Publication 91 EH0337-6 PWR, 1991.
M. Kleinpetei, Eneigy Planning and Policy, New Yoik: Wiley, 1995.
Special issue on computeis in powei system opeiations," Prot. IEEE, vol. 75, no. 12, 1987.
W. C. Tuinei, Energy Managemen HanJ|oo|, Faiimont Piess, 1997.
Further Inlurmatiun
Cuiient innovations and applications of new technologies and algoiithms aie piesented in the following
publications:
IEEE Power Engneerng Reew (monthly)
IEEE Transatons on Power Sysems (bimonthly)
ProteeJngs o[ |e Power InJusry Comuer |taon Con[erente (biannual)