FIRST LECTURE The Victorian Age, named after the long reign of Queen Victoria (1 !

"#1$%1& ' i( the age of the )riti(h Em*ire, a (ignificant national age for )ritain, +hich had ,ecome The United -ingdom of .reat )ritain and /orthern Ireland in 1 %10 .eo*oliticall1 (*ea2ing, the )riti(h Em*ire came to ,e in control of 13! of the +orld during the 1$th centur1 ' +ith *o((e((ion( on all the continent( (Au(tralia and /e+ 4ealand, (e5eral I(land( in the 6acific 7e(t Indie(, India, +hich ,egan a( a colon1 of the merchant( from the Ea(t India Com*an1 and turned into a Cro+n *o((e((ion in 1 "", +hen Queen Victoria ,ecame Em*re(( of India8 Canada, fort1 time( the (i9e( of )ritain in /orth America8 in Africa, Eg1*t and /igeria to the /orth and South Africa at the (outhern ti* of the continent, com*letel1 )riti(h and defeated after the )oer 7ar( of the centur1:( la(t decade(0 Four 2e1+ord( can ,e u(ed to ,egin the economic, *olitical and (ociological de(cri*tion of )ritain in the nineteenth centur1; +ealth, ca*itali(m, democrac1 and (ociali(m0 7ealth +a( *roduced than2( to the (cientific and technological ad5ance(, +hich ena,led Victorian man to control nature and increa(e the li5ing (tandard of the rich, in accordance +ith the idea( of the cla((ical economi(t Adam Smith:( The Wealth of Nations. Ca*itali(m, the econom1 ,a(ed on ca*ital, re(ted on the accumulation of +ealth a( a (ure *ath to *rogre((0 It +a( made *o((i,le ,1 the ma((i5e (cientific and technological ad5ance( of the eighteenth and nineteenth centurie( (4irra, 5ol0 I, $,1%& that led to the creation of a huge, all#*o+erful mar2et0 The main i((ue( of nineteenth centur1 *olitic( +ere to (trengthen the free mar2et (and the )riti(h Em*ire *o((e((ion( e((entiall1 contri,uted to thi(& to enfranchi(e the men of *ro*ert1 and turn them into mature, re(*on(i,le citi9en( +ith e<ual right( and *o+er( ' moreo5er, ,1 granting them the *o+er to con(ume an increa(ing 5ariet1 of good(0 Victorian middle#cla(( democrac1, +hich +a( modern ,ecau(e, ,1 com*ari(on to Athenian democrac1, it +a( aimed at creating a *erfect middle#cla(( e(ta,li(hment0 Though modern democrac1 incor*orated (ome of the re5olutionar1 *rinci*le( for +hich *eo*le had died in America and France in 1""" and 1" $, re(*ecti5el1, in )ritain1, it +a( actuall1 carried out in *eaceful confrontation, and in fact in coo*eration, ,1 the t+o *olitical *artie( of the nineteenth centur1; the Con(er5ati5e 6art1 and the Li,eral 6art10 (The follo+ing *aragra*h( reformulate the material a5aila,le in 4irra, 5ol0 1,1%#1=&)et+een the t+o of them, the1 carried out the reform( +hich ,rought a,out the moderni9ation of )ritain; the electoral and free#mar2et reform(, fir(tl1, and then generall1 (ocial, religiou( , ur,an and cultural reform(, for e>am*le the reform( in education0 The fir(t electoral reform, the Reform )ill = of
1

?England: i( an incorrect +a1 of referring to )ritain, in the nineteenth centur1, @u(t a( toda1; the countr1:( name i( the U-, the United -ingdom of .reat )ritain and Ireland, in the nineteenth centur1, and of .reat )ritain and /orthern Ireland in the t+entieth centur10 The citi9en( are formall1 ?the )riti(h:3:the )riti(h *eo*le:, and informall1, the )rit(0 The contra(t ,et+een ?)riti(h: and ?Engli(h: come( from that ,et+een *olitic( and lingui(tic(3literar1 culture, ?)riti(h: ,eing *oliticall1 correct, ,ecau(e it naturall1 include( the inha,itant( of the 2ingdom( of 7ale( and Scotland and Ireland0 6eo*le (tud1 Engli(h in )ritain and a,road, in (high&(chool or +hen the1 are at uni5er(it10 = )ecau(e a la+ i( @u(t a )ill +hile it i( di(cu((ed in the )riti(h *arliament and ,efore it recei5e( the Ro1al a((ent to ,ecome a (tatute, the name ?the Reform )ill: a( retained ,1 hi(tor1 indicate( the (eriou( de,ate( *receding it( ado*tion0 Thi( re5olutionar1 mea(ure turned the democratic ma(<uerade *ractice( and traditional *olitical fa5oriti(m to+ard( the modern, genuine *olitical re*re(entation of +ide ma((e( of middle#cla(( *eo*le0 Thi( meant the a,olition of the (o#called ?rotten ,orough(:, for e>am*le ' fa2e

1 != enfranchi(ed male o+ner( of *ro*ert1 +ho(e annual income +a( at lea(t 1% *ound(, the ne>t one, of 1 A", dou,led the num,er of middle#cla(( 5oter( and the third, in 1 B, (ecured the uni5er(al male enfranchi(ement0 In 1 BA, a la+ that *ut an end to the )riti(h mono*ol1 on the corn mar2et +a( the re*eal of the Corn La+( and ,1 1 A%, a full#fledged free mar2et had ,ecome o*erati5e in )ritain0 Cther reform( that moderni9ed )riti(h (ociet1 and made it re(em,le no+ada1(: (ociet1 +ere the Catholic Emanci*ation (+hich ,ecame effecti5e after 1 !%&, +hich ga5e the Catholic( e<ual o**ortunitie(, ci5il right( and acce(( to the middle#cla(( *rofe((ion( (of la+1er(, doctor(, *rofe((or(&, the 1 "% Education Act, +hich generali9ed literac1 ,1 ma2ing *rimar1 education com*ul(or1 and (etting u* Engli(h State School( all o5er the Em*ire, the 1 "1 Re*eal of the Te(t Act(0 The la(t of the(e reform( ga5e free acce(( to *re(tigiou( uni5er(itie( ( Cam,ridge and C>ford& to non#Anglican( and o*ened their +a1 to elite career( in the e(ta,li(hment0 The cultural cam*aign( conducted in the Victorian age, +hich +e can read a,out at large in the e((a1( and fictional literature *re(er5ed in anthologie(, indicate that culture +a( regarded a( one of the im*ortant le5er( for (ocial emanci*ation and control0 Thi( lead( to the *arado> that the Victorian fir(t ma(( age had a high#culture0 It can ,e (tated +ithout e>aggerating that the Victorian (ociet1 +a( held together ,1 <ualit1 *re(( circulated in ,road(heet(; one maga9ine +hich carried *arliamentar1 re*ort(, e((a1(, *oem( and fiction, for e>am*le, +a( read ,1 one hundred thou(and *eo*le0 A*art from the gentr1, after the Education Act, e5en the (er5ant( in the genteel hou(ehold( had acce(( to the literature read at home0 In the Victorian genteel hou(ehold( literature +a( originall1 read on Sunda1(, after Church, a( another in(trument for the generall1 moral education and entertainment0 In general, it i( fair to (a1 that the )riti(h Li,eral( +ere 2eener on home reform(, a( the1 +ere *arti(an( of the little England *olic10 At their head +a( 7illiam E+art .lad(tone, four time( 6rime Dini(ter (,et+een 1 A #"B, 1 %# E, 1 E#A and 1 $=#!&0 Cne famou( e>am*le of the Li,eral foreign *olic1 +a( the cam*aign for *utting an end to the Union ,et+een Ireland and .reat )ritain through the Iri(h Fome Rule ,ill( un(ucce((full1 *a((ed (de,ated& in 1 A and 1 $!, o+ing to the alliance ,et+een 7illiam E+art .lad(tone, nic2named ?The Cld Dan:, and the Iri(h uncro+ned 2ing, Charle( Stuart 6arnell0 The Con(er5ati5e 6art1 +a( im*eriall1 minded, the *arti(an of the )igger England *olic1, of +ar( and the in5e(tment *olicie( im*licit in them0 The head of the Con(er5ati5e 6art1 +a( 7illiam E+art .lad(tone, in office a( 6rime Dini(ter for one 1ear in 1 A and ,et+een 1 "B#1 %0 Fe +a( al(o Queen Victoria:( friend, an elegant dand1 and a +riter0 In hi( 1 BE no5el Sybil, or the two Nations (a5aila,le on the *ortal of the 6ro@ect .uten,erg on the net, in electronic form for an1one +ho ma1 +i(h to read it&, he introduced the idea that the rich and the *oor +ere t+o (e*arate )riti(h nation(0 Thi( *oint i( *ro5ed ,1 the la(t 2e1+ord announced at the ,eginning of the lecture; (ociali(m0 Throughout the nineteenth centur1, the lo+er cla((e( +ere almo(t com*letel1 neglected ,1 the leader( of the Victorian e(ta,li(hment and the non#inter5entioni(t (tate!0 Among the fe+ reform( +hich regarded the *oor in Earl1 Victoriani(m +a( the1 !B 6oor La+ Amendment, +hich created the +or2hou(e(, +hich re(em,led *ri(on( more than a(1lum( and
con(tituencie( that (ent to *arliament re*re(entati5e( of *lace( on the ma* +ith no real *o*ulation to re*re(ent0 ! The non#inter5entioni(t (tate +a( a (tate committed to the *rinci*le of laissez-faire +hich ,e<ueathed the *olitical *rerogati5e of the (tate to the entre*reneurial cla(( (the ca*itali(t(& and allo+ed the in5i(i,le hand of the mar2et, i0e0, free com*etition, to rule undi(tur,ed0

in +hich +ere gathered (confined& the ,egging, underfed and o5er+or2ed *oor from the (treet(0 The Factor1 Act( *a((ed ,et+een 1 !! and 1 " , though, eliminated child la,our and gro(( o5er+or2ing0 Doreo5er, there +a( no chance for (u,(tantiall1 e>tending an1 moderni9ation reform( to the *eo*le +ho +ere not re*re(ented in *arliament a( *ro5ed ,1 the Charti(t Do5ement0 )et+een 1 !A and 1 B , (e5eral *etition( or Chart( drafted in *erfect ignorance of the legal form( +ith +hich 6arliament o*erated0 Although the1 +ere endor(ed ,1 million( of (ignature( of *eo*le +ho gathered in long (treet#demon(tration( (the 1 B% Chart, for e>am*le +a( (igned ,1 o5er three million three hundred *eo*le&, the1 +ere not ta2en into con(ideration ,1 *arliament ,ecau(e of their formal a(*ect and the ci5il right( claimed in them +ere not granted0 The Charti(t mo5ement +a( a *etition mo5ement, +hich (ent formall1 in5alid *etition( to *arliament 0 The *eo*le:( chart( (*etition(& a(2ed for ; A 5ote for e5er1 man o5er the age of =18 A (ecret ,allot8 /o *ro*ert1 6a1ment for D6( ((o *oor men could (er5e&8 Con(tituencie( of e<ual (i9e8 Annual election( for 6arliament0 The fir(t general (tri2e too2 *lace in )ritain in 1 B= and Trade Unioni(m ,ecame a (tead1 mo5ement ,et+een the 1 A%( and 1 "%(0 /o +onder, then, that the end of the nineteenth centur1 (a+ the ri(e of t+o ,rand( of (ociali(m; radical or uto*ian (ociali(m (+hich en5i(aged the com*lete a,olition of *ro*ert1 a( a (ource of @u(tice for a *erfect modern age and a( the onl1 +a1 for regenerating a (ociet1 that reduced it( *eo*le to mere mechani(m( at the merc1 of entre*reneur(& and Fa,ian (or moderate& (ociali(m0 The ri(e of (ociali(m *ro5ed the limitation( and actual in@u(tice of modern, ca*itali(tic and 5er1 *artial democrac10 It demon(trated that the material criteria for the general, a5erage Ggreate(t ha**ine(( of the greate(t num,er(H (a( ad5ocated ,1 Ierem1 )entham at the end of the eighteenth centur1 needed to ,e com*leted +ith 5irtue( that the mercantile, ca*itali(t +orld# order could not ri(e to0 The failure of communi(m to right the +rong( of ca*itali(m one centur1 after the Victorian age, ho+e5er, demon(trate( the (hortcoming( of an1 modern uto*ia, ,e it ca*itali(t or (ociali(t0 Thi( i( +h1 the (lo+#*ace, rational reformi(m +hich the Fa,ian (ociali(t( ad5ocated and tried to im*lement in )ritain (eem( to ha5e more chance( of (ucce(( in *rinci*le ,ecau(e, though ,eing moderate , *ragmatic and cor*orati(t in (*irit, it doe( not de(tro1 e>i(ting (tructure( of (ocial, economic and *olitical life ,ut trie( to correct e5il( graduall1 +hile retaining the o5erall frame(0

E>am*le( of *olitical reform(; #of the three main electoral reform(, the third one, in 1 enfranchi(ement B ,rought a,out uni5er(al male

#the Li,eral cam*aign( led ,1 7illiam E+art .lad(tone for granting autonom1 to Ireland, in 1 A and 1 $!, +hen the )ill +a( defeated fir(t in the Common(, then in the Fou(e of Lord( ,rought him a ma@orit1 in *arliament E>am*le( of free trade reform(; #1 BA, the Re*eal of the Corn La+( !

E>am*le( of (ocial reform( #ci5ic reform( that remo5ed (ocial di(crimination (di(a,ilitie(& ; 1 !% the Catholic Emanci*ation ((tarted in Ireland, +hich had a ma@orit1 of Catholic *o*ulation and had ,ecome *art of the United -ingdom, in 1 %1&8 1 A% the Ie+( +ere al(o gi5en e<ual right( (a( a re(ult of the fact that the Con(er5ati5e 6rime Dini(ter, )en@amin Ji(raeli him(elf +a( a Ie+& #reform( that im*ro5ed the general li5ing (tandard; 6u,lic Fealth Act(, introduced ,et+een 1 "1 ' 1 "E +hich granted (ome mea(ure of medical a((i(tance to the *oor8 in the 1 E%(, reform( in the field( of *u,lic admini(tration and munici*al management #reform( in education; the 1 "% Education Act o*ened the +a1 to generali(ed literac1 in )ritain ,1 (etting u* (tate (chool( and unif1ing education throughout the )riti(h Em*ire8 1 "1, the a,olition of uni5er(it1 te(t( (the faith te(t, for Anglicani(m& tran(formed the leading uni5er(itie( of C>ford and Cam,ridge into la1, metro*olitan, Huni5er(ali(tH uni5er(itie(0

Hard Times(1854) (chapter 5) It was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it but as matters stood, it was a town of unnatural red and black like the painted face of a sava!e" It was a town of machiner# and tall chimne#s, out of which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever, and never !ot uncoiled" It had a black canal in it, and a river that ran purple with ill$smellin! d#e, and vast piles of buildin! full of windows where there was a rattlin! and a tremblin! all da# lon!, and where the piston of the steam$en!ine worked monotonousl# up and down, like the head of an elephant in a state of melanchol# madness" It contained several lar!e streets all ver# like one another, and man# small streets still more like one another, inhabited b# people e%uall# like one another, who all went in and out at the same hours, with the same sound upon the same pavements, to do the same work, and to whom ever# da# was the same as #esterda# and to$morrow, and ever# #ear the counterpart of the last and the ne&t" These attributes of 'oketown were in the main inseparable from the work b# which it was sustained a!ainst them were to be set off, comforts of life which found their wa# all over the world, and ele!ancies of life which made, we will not ask how much of the fine lad#, who could scarcel# bear to hear the place mentioned" The rest of its features were voluntar#, and the# were these" (ou saw nothin! in 'oketown but what was severel# workful" If the members of a reli!ious persuasion built a chapel there)as the members of ei!hteen reli!ious persuasions had done)the# made it a pious warehouse of red brick, with sometimes (but this is onl# in hi!hl# ornamental e&amples) a bell in a birdca!e on the top of it" The solitar# e&ception was the *ew 'hurch a stuccoed edifice with a s%uare steeple
B

over the door, terminatin! in four short pinnacles like florid wooden le!s" +ll the public inscriptions in the town were painted alike, in severe characters of black and white" The ,ail mi!ht have been the infirmar#, the infirmar# mi!ht have been the ,ail, the town$hall mi!ht have been either, or both, or an#thin! else, for an#thin! that appeared to the contrar# in the !races of their construction" -act, fact, fact, ever#where in the material aspect of the town fact, fact, fact, ever#where in the immaterial" The ./'hoakumchild school was all fact, and the school of desi!n was all fact, and the relations between master and man were all fact, and ever#thin! was fact between the l#in!$in hospital and the cemeter#, and what #ou couldn/t state in fi!ures, or show to be purchaseable in the cheapest market and saleable in the dearest, was not, and never should be, world without end, +men" + town so sacred to fact, and so triumphant in its assertion, of course !ot on well0 1h# no, not %uite well" *o0 2ear me3 *o" 'oketown did not come out of its own furnaces, in all respects like !old that had stood the fire" -irst,