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Introduction
“In the four and a half centuries from the European “discovery” of Asia to the present
period of intensified culture contact, Europeans and Asians alike have learned all too
little about each other. False antitheses and monolithic comparisons have persisted from
one generation to the next; knowledge is difficult to attain, understanding is more so, and
resort to cliché generalization proves irresistible. In recent times, some of these clichés
have been dressed up in new jargons so that thousands of unwary readers have been lead
to believe that they were being given new magic keys that would open the door to the
“Oriental mind”, “Oriental logic” or whatnot. But the keys opened doors into dream
worlds inhabited only by clichés and fantasies.”
Some people think of science and the scientific method as the only or the best way to
establish the truth; and as though highly technical or extraordinarily complex. This is due
to their ignorance of the exact meaning of science and the essentials of scientific method.
The essential characteristic of the scientific method is a particular intellectual attitude
towards any problem that may come up for solution, whether it be a problem in
mathematics, physics, economics, aesthetics, education, law, medicine, engineering,
state-craft, handicraft, or psychology. Many people in the world may be applying the
scientific method in their daily round of duty without their being aware of it. Anyone
going through the works of the masterminds among both Eastern and Western scientists
finds that there is a striking resemblance in their intellectual attitude towards problems
that presented themselves before them. It is an attitude characterized by accurate
observation ( n”kZu and Hkw;ksn”kZuk ), precise description, correct classification,
patient experimentation (ijh{kk), rigid reasoning (;qfDr;qDre~), careful verification
(fu.kZ;), institution of crucial tests wherever necessary, and, above all, that supreme
faculty of analytic-synthetic imagination (cqf)) that can see the one connecting law
running through the whole range of a mass of apparently unconnected phenomena. Facts
are sterile until there are minds capable of choosing between them and discerning those,
which conceal something and recognizing that which is concealed; minds, which, under
the bare fact, see the ‘soul’ of the fact. The methods by which thinkers, both in the East
and in the West, have tried to see, ‘under the bare fact, the soul of the fact’ are
fundamentally similar. The difference exists only in name, not in essence. What science
demands from its votaries is a severe discipline in the habitual use of the keen perceptual
processes, the sharpened intellect, the trained mind, and a vivid imagination.
Firstly, the all-observing, keen perceptual processes of the scientist help him/her to
observe minutely and widely and collect as many facts as s/he can gather. This is often a
very laborious process. Secondly, the sharpened intellect, playing upon the facts so
gathered, carefully analyses, catalogues, and categorizes them. These categories, viewed
from a synthetic standpoint, suggest certain generalizations, which include all the facts or
phenomena so far observed. Thirdly, the trained mind brooding upon these
generalizations evolves a hypothesis, or may be, more than one hypothesis, in
explanation of, and based on, these observed facts or phenomena. Every such hypothesis
is merely a claim waiting to be verified experimentally. That hypothesis alone which is
shown by experiments to work best, becomes the accepted theory, which is nothing more
than the best working hypothesis, among perhaps several that may have been advanced.
Moreover, its acceptance is merely tentative or provisional, contingent not only on the
continued occurrence of verified phenomena but also on similar non-occurrence of
contrary ones, for there is really no finality in science. The scientific method, then, is
essentially a hypothetical or experimental method of trial and error. It treats all ‘facts’ as
data to be replicated, all ‘principles’ as working hypotheses to be confirmed, all ‘truths’
as claims to be verified, and all allegations to be tested and evaluated according to the
scientific consequences to which they lead. Finally, in all this, a vivid imagination is a
most precious gift provided it is strictly controlled by rigid logic and crucial
experimentation. At the outset, therefore, scientific method is satisfied with provisional
conclusions that are not greatly trusted; and to the end, it is recognized that the human
mind does not respond to the infinite gradations of logical probability, but becomes
content and certain as soon as the evidence for a belief seems to it adequate. After that,
the question is humanly settled, unless and until something occurs to reopen it. Science,
then, is merely criticized, systematized and generalized knowledge.
Any individual who insists on objectively verifying the facts, attempts to classify facts
systematically into meaningful categories, perceives their mutual relations and
differences, describes their sequences by applying logical reasoning, and draws coherent
conclusions and appropriate implications - is a man of science. The student of science
takes more pains than the average person does to get at the facts. S/he is not content with
sporadic knowledge, but will have as large a body of facts as s/he can get. S/he
systematizes these data, observes certain logical processes and certain orders of inference
from them, and sums up in a generalization or formula.
People seem to forget that about ninety percent of all our knowledge cannot, in the very
nature of things, be applied in a practical way to aid to our material happiness or to lessen
our misery. Only the smallest fraction of our scientific knowledge can have any such
application to our daily lives. This is so because only an infinitely small percentage of our
conscious mind is on a sensuous plane. We have just a little bit of sensuous
consciousness and imagine that to be our entire mind and life; but, as a matter of fact, it is
but a drop in the mighty ocean of subconscious mind. If all there is of us were a bundle of
sense-perceptions, all the knowledge we could gain could be utilized in the gratification
of our sense-pleasures. …
But even taking the Western idea of utility as a criterion by which to judge, psychology,
by such standard even, is the science of sciences. Why? We are all slaves to our senses,
slaves to our own minds, conscious and subconscious.
Deep down in our subconscious mind are stored up all the thoughts and acts of the past,
not only of this life, but of all other lives we have lived. This great boundless ocean of
subjective mind is full of all the thoughts and actions of the past. …
It the science of psychology that teaches us to hold in check the wild gyrations of the
mind, place it under the control of the will, and thus free ourselves from its tyrannous
mandates. Psychology is therefore science of sciences, without which all sciences and
all other knowledge are worthless.
The mind uncontrolled and unguided will drag us down, down, for ever- rend us, kill us;
and the mind controlled and guided will save us, free us. So it must be controlled, and
psychology teaches us how to do it.
To study and analyse any material science, sufficient data are obtained. These facts are
studied and analysed, and knowledge of the science is the result. But in the study and
analysis of the mind, there are no data, no facts acquired from without, such as are
equally at the command of all. The mind is analysed by itself. The greatest science,
therefore, is the science of the mind, the science of psychology. …
If you intend to study the mind, you must have systematic training; you must practice to
bring the mind under your control, to attain to that consciousness from which you will be
able to study the mind and remain unmoved by any of its wild gyrations. Otherwise, the
facts observed will not be reliable; they will not apply to all people and therefore will not
be facts or data at all. …
Western sciences generally admit two chief sources of valid knowledge: perception and
inference. However, the different Indian schools of thought, in addition to izR;{k
(perception or observation) and vuqeku (inductive and deductive inferential
reasoning), mieku(analogy or comparison),also recognize various other sources of
valid knowledge such as “kCnor vkIropue~ (words of scriptures or testimony by
competent authority), vFkkZifRr(implication), vuqiyfC?k (noncognition), and
lEHkkouk (possible entailment). Further, in addition to pure empirical observation,
The Carvaka school regards perception alone, the Buddhists regards perception and
inference, the Samkya and the Yoga schools regard perception, inference and testimony,
eheklka and v}SrosnkUr schools regard perception, inference, comparison,
testimony, presumption, and non-apprehension – as the sources of valid knowledge. Brief
descriptions of the main six methods follow.
Indian psychologists realized that the self is not known objectively – not even as the
object of introspection – but as the consciousness, which immediately manifests itself.
Further, the Yoga system demonstrated that extra-sensory perception and super-conscious
knowledge are possible, which are not accessible to any external sense organ. Hence,
people have everywhere turned to, with a view to add to, or correct the knowledge gained
by direct observation.
Indian scientists have not been mere objective observers and speculative thinkers so far
as psychology is concerned. They have also realized that the various states of mind
cannot be properly understood without bringing in the subjective element; namely,
training of the perceiving mind. They have never been inclined toward Behaviorism of
the Western type. Hence, they explored and experimented with various forms of
subjective knowledge. In subjective perception, the soul has simply to attend to it through
the mind alone, without depending on any sense organs. Here, the mind does the double
duty of an agent of attention as well as that of an internal sense organ.
Hence, in their study and exploration they have evolved methods of developing various
extra-sensory experiences and super-conscious realization. Mind is sometimes considered
to be a whole and called vUr%dj.k or the internal organ (as in lka[; and osnkUr) or
fpRr (as in Yoga), but sometimes distinguished by its four-fold functions, such as
explication, recollection, determination and self-reference into the four aspects, namely,
ekul (mind), fpRr (Sub-conscious), cqf) (intellect), and vgadkj (ego-sense),
respectively. It is generally admitted that if the internal organ in some aspect does not
assume the form of the object and present it to the Self or self-shining consciousness,
there cannot be any knowledge of the object. This clue is utilized by the Yoga when it
teaches that the modification of the Chitta into the form of the object should be stopped,
so that no object may appear before consciousness and tempt it to attachment and
bondage. Hence, Yoga is defined as the arrest of modification of the internal organ.
vuqeku (Inference)
It may be observed that the Greek Syllogism propounded by Aristole and widely used in
Western logic consists of three propositions – the third, fourth, and fifth of the Nyaya
syllogism. Whereas the Aristotelian syllogism is purely deductive, Anumana, as
conceived here, is a formal-material, deductive-inductive process.
In vuqeku, the invariable relation is established by different inductive methods. The
Buddhist logicians adopt the five-step method of observation called iapdj.kh, namely,
(1) cause is not perceived, effect is also not perceived, (2) cause is perceived, (3) effect is
also perceived, (4) cause disappears, (5) effect also disappears. The Buddhist logicians
insist that the iapdj.kh illustrates that the following changes being observed, everything
else remaining constant, the relation of cause and effect is rigorously established. In his
‘Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus’, Sir Brajendranath Seal characterizes the
Buddhist method of establishing induction through causal connection as the double
method of difference and notes its superiority to the ordinary single method of difference
adopted by Western logicians.
In the Western sciences, of all the modes of logical inference, there are no more than
there were in the days of Aristotle, who recognized three: (a) analogical reasoning
(argument from particular to particular), (b) inductive reasoning (argument from
particulars to the universal principles, and (c) deductive reasoning (argument from the
universal/ general to particulars). If we compare the above Western methods of
inferential reasoning with Anumana, we find not only striking similarities, but also notice
that Anumana as a Formal-Material, Deductive-Inductive inference is more
comprehensive and more scientific than Aristotle’s Formal-Deductive process of
reasoning or Mill’s Material-Inductive process of mediate inference, which combines
formal validity with material truth, inductive generalization with deductive
particularization.Therefore, Indian scientists relied on other methods suitable for the
study of diverse phenomena in different sciences.
vFkkZifRr means the presupposition of what is necessary for explaining any fact
either observed (n`’V) or heard about (“kzqr). By this method, we suppose a word in a
sentence where it remains understood, or we suppose the secondary, figurative meaning
of a sentence where the primary meaning does not suit. It resembles the method of
formulating a hypothesis recognized by Western logicians; but the difference is that here
the supposition is not provisional but necessary to reconcile inconsistent facts.
Confronted with the problem of judging and choosing rightly, among a number of
contending alternatives or hypotheses both the Eastern and the Western philosophies
have come to very nearly the same conclusion that there is no finality about either our
premises or our conclusions. All that we can do is to test each hypothesis with the
greatest possible care and accept that which explains and works best or better. The
Western sciences insist that a good hypothesis must allow of the application of deductive
reasoning and the inference of consequences capable of comparison with the results of
observation. Therefore, Indian sciences have laid down stringent tests of a legitimate
hypothesis. A legitimate hypothesis must satisfy the following conditions. (1) The
hypothesis must explain the facts. (2) The hypothesis must not be in conflict with any
observed fact or established generalizations. (3) The hypothesis should not assume any
unobserved fact, event, or agent where it is possible to explain the facts satisfactorily by
observed agencies. (4) When two rival hypotheses are in conflict, a crucial fact or test is
necessary in order to establish either. (5) Of two rival hypotheses, the simpler, i.e., with
minimum assumptions, is to be preferred. (6) Of two rival hypotheses, that which is
immediate or relevant to the context is to be preferred to that which is alien or remote. (7)
A hypothesis that satisfies the above conditions must be capable of verification before it
can be established as a theory. Thus, it is evident that in Indian sciences, the tests of a
valid hypothesis are extremely rigid and stringent.
vuqiyfC/k (Non-apprehension)
dqekfjy HkV~V school of ehekalk and v}Sr school of Vedanta admit appropriate
(;ksX;) non-apprehension as a unique and valid source of knowledge. Non-apprehension
apprehends non-existence of an object, which is not present. Just as positive cognition is
the source of the information positive entities, absence of the knowledge of a thing (under
circumstances in which it should have been known had it existed) yields us the
information about its non-existence. Non-existence in not merely ideal and subjective,
not even a logical category; but it is real and objective, and an ontological category.
Conclusion