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Within Luke-Acts the city of Jerusalem plays a key role in achieving Luke’s purpose of
assuring Theophilus of what he has been taught about God’s work through Jesus. The
driven forward by Jesus journey’s to the city and ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ progression out
from it to the ends of the earth. Jerusalem also functions symbolically as it typifies the
expectations and the rejection of Jesus and his witnesses. Finally, Jerusalem functions
theologically as Luke demonstrates that the city is replaced by Jesus as the source and
This becomes even clearer when compared to the other two synoptic gospels.2 The
city of Jerusalem is a central figure in both Luke’s Gospel and also in the Acts of the
elucidate Luke’s purpose of assuring Theophilus of what he has been taught about the
Lord Jesus. As Hastings notes, ‘Once we have grasped the fact of Luke’s preoccupation
with Jesus’ going up to Jerusalem we have to ask the reason for it, the significance of it,
and hence too the significance of Jerusalem.’3 The function of Jerusalem in achieving
Purpose
The purpose of Luke-Acts as a whole can only be spoken of if the deliberate unity and
Parsons and Pervo, the scholarly consensus has continued to assert the conclusion
that Luke-Acts is a two-part work.5 It seems clear from the texts, particularly the
prologues, that as Luke composed his Gospel and Acts they were to be two distinct but
1
W. D. Davies, The Gospel and the Land: Early Christianity and Jewish Territorial Doctrine (Los
Angeles: University of California Press, 1974). 253.
2
Of the two words for Jerusalem ( Ἰερουσαλήμ and Ἱεροσόλυμα ) they occur fifty-four times in the
synoptic gospels and thirty-one of those are in Luke’s Gospel.
3
Adrian Hastings, Prophet and Witness in Jerusalem (Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1958), 103.
4
R. Maddox, The Purpose of Luke-Acts (Edinburgh: Clark, 1982), 4.
5
Mikeal C. Parson and Richard I. Pervo, Rethinking the Unity of Luke and Acts (Minneapolis: Fortress,
1993); Luke Timothy Johnson, ‘Luke-Acts, Book of’ Pages 403-20 in vol. 4 of The Anchor Bible
Dictionary (eds. David Noel Freedman; 6 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992), 404.
two-part work with the Gospel ‘written with at least one eye already on the sequel.’7
Any consideration of the purpose of Luke-Acts must begin with the prologue in Luke
1:1-4 and take into account the obvious pastoral motivation of assurance. Luke was
writing so that Theophilus will realise τὴν ἀσφάλειαν (‘stability of an idea, certainty,
truth’) of what he has been taught.8 Bock believes the certainty that Luke is assuring
Theophilus of is, ‘how God worked to legitimise Jesus and how Jesus proclaimed
hope.’9 And by this ‘Luke also wishes to defend God’s faithfulness to Israel and his
promises, despite the rejection of the promise by many in the nation.’10 Jerusalem will
play a vital role, structurally, symbolically, and theologically, for Luke to achieve his
setting out his fundamental conception’.11 Jerusalem forms a key structural element to
Jerusalem, with the city acting as the pivot around which the narrative turns.’12 It is
clear that within the Gospel the narrative is driven forward by the expectations
6
I. H. Marshall, ‘Acts and the “Former Treatise”’, in B. W. Winter and A. D. Clarke (eds.), The book of
Acts in Its First-Century Setting, Vol. 1: Ancient Literary Setting (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 163-
82; David G. Peterson, The Acts of the Apostles (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009), 6-8.
7
Ben Witherington III, The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1998), 8.
8
BDAG, 147.
9
Darrell L. Bock, Luke 1:1-9:50 (2 vols. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994), 15.
10
Bock, Luke 1:1-9:50, 15.
11
Hans Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke (trans. Geoffrey Buswell, New York: Harper and Row
Publishers, 1961), 27.
12
Walker, Jesus and the Holy City: New Testament Perspectives on Jerusalem. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1996), 58.
functions as ‘home-base’ for the witnesses as the news about Jesus spreads to the ends
of the earth. Despite this it could be argued that Jerusalem’s place within the narrative
structure is more about the drive away from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth.
‘Unlike the compositions of the other evangelists, the Lucan Gospel begins and ends
in Jerusalem’.13 Almost from the outset of his Gospel, Luke sets up expectations
surrounding Jerusalem and the role that it will play in the fulfilment of God’s plans.
The narrative opens within Jerusalem as Zechariah is told about the birth of John
while ministering in the temple (1:5-25). Expectations are heightened further when
Jesus is presented at the temple as a baby. Simeon prophesies that Jesus will ‘cause the
falling and rising of many in Israel’ (2:34) and at the same moment the prophetess
Anna speaks about Jesus as the child who is expected to bring the ‘redemption of
Jerusalem’ (2:38). Luke is unique among the gospel writers as he uses these
trustworthy characters to set up the expectation that the future of Jerusalem, Israel
and the young Jesus are inextricably linked.14 However, Tannehill notes that ‘Anna’s
expectation is expressed in a way that will make its later negation sharp and clear.’15
The anticipation of how this boy might redeem Jerusalem urges the narrative forward.
13
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Luke (The Anchor Bible; New York: Doubleday, 1981), 165. The beginning and
end location of the Gospel is nuanced by some authors who place them specifically within the temple
itself.
14
Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 150; Walker, Jesus and
the Holy City, 58.
15
Robert C. Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts, A Literary Interpretation, Vol. 1: The Gospel
According to Luke. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 35. Tannehill see this negated by the perceived
failure of Jesus to bring about the redemption of Jerusalem in line with the expectations expressed by
Anna.
the key turning point in 9:51 as Jesus ‘set his face to go to Jerusalem.’16 This travel
narrative occupies the central chapters of the Gospel (9:51-19:44) as Jesus journeys to
his climactic moment in the Holy City. Robert and Feuillet note that Luke ‘de-
emphasizes all topographical data except those relating to Jerusalem, and the result is
striking.’17 Luke builds the tension and anticipation through the narrative with
goal (9:53; 13:22, 33; 17:11; 18:31; 19:11, 28), and repeated references to the rejection,
death, and resurrection that will happen there (12:49-50; 13:34-33; 16:31; 17:25; 18:31-
33; 19:14).’18 According to Tannehill this gives ‘a sense of narrative movement and
tension to a long section of Luke’s Gospel that otherwise would become a static
collection of teachings.’19
Jerusalem also serves as the climactic setting of the Gospel as Jesus’ arrival in the city
is the ‘bringing together (of) the two participants in the drama of the passion, Jesus
and Jerusalem’.20 This has been expected throughout the travel narrative (9:51-19:44)
and the sense of anticipation is heightened as Jesus approaches the city. Once the
reader arrives in Jerusalem with Jesus, this becomes the setting for the rest of the
Gospel. With the exception of Jesus arrest at the Mount of Olives (22:39-53) and his
resurrection appearance on the road to Emmaus (24:13-35) the final scene of the
16
There are brief mentions of Jerusalem between Luke 3:1-9:51. Jesus’ temptation by Satan (4:9-12); the
visitors from Jerusalem making up part of the crowds coming to see or hear Jesus (5:17; 6:17); and in
the conversation between Moses, Elijah and Jesus about what is to be fulfilled in Jerusalem (9:31).
17
A. Robert and A. Feuillet, Introduction to the New Testament, trans. P. W. Skehan et. al. (New York:
Desclée, 1965), 230.
18
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Luke, 229.
19
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Luke, 229.
20
Hastings, Prophet and Witness in Jerusalem, 120.
to the disciples in Galilee but near Jerusalem and under Jesus instructions the disciples
remain in there as they anticipate the coming of the Holy Spirit (24:49). ‘The sense of
closure is supported by reminders of the birth stories with which the gospel began, for
a return to initial themes is a way of rounding off a story. Jesus’ disciples ‘returned to
Jerusalem with great joy, and were continually in the temple blessing God’ (24:52-
53).21
Acts picks up where the Gospel left off ‘as focus on Jerusalem and the Temple
Jerusalem, in Acts the narrative thrust will be the spread of ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ from
Jerusalem. Acts 1:8 outlines the programme for this spread that structures the book as
ὁ λόγος spreads from Jerusalem, to all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the
earth. ‘Here the mission to all nations is developed as a geographical sequence which
As Acts develops the followers of Jesus remain in Jerusalem as his witnesses until the
Judea and Samaria (8:1). This begins the journey of ὁ λόγος out from Jerusalem,
although Jerusalem is never abandoned of all the witnesses and the narrative
frequently returns to the city.24 Chance rejects the notion that Luke is ‘portraying
Christianity as a religion straining to sever its ties with Jerusalem’ by asserting that
21
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Luke, 300-01.
22
Walker, Jesus and the Holy City, 58.
23
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Luke, 296-97.
24
Acts 8:25; 9:26; 11:2, 22, 30; 15:2; 18:22; 19:21; 21:17.
qualify this view, ‘While there is no doubt that the Gentile mission moves
centrifugally from Jerusalem, it is doubtful that Luke saw the church as severing its
ties with this hub.’26 As the message goes out, although Jerusalem is the origin, it is no
longer the goal and is not the place to which narrative is driving.
The function of Jerusalem within the narrative structure aids Luke in achieving the
Luke-Acts together shows how God has acted in history to fulfil his promises
to Israel and to create a world-wide body of believers drawn from both Jews
and Gentiles. The focus on Jerusalem in both Luke and Acts conveys this
movement. As Luke emphasizes (more than any other gospel) the movement
toward Jerusalem (e.g. 9:51; 13:33; 17:11), the book of Acts describes a
Walker also agrees, ‘The structure of Luke’s two volume work shows how salvation-
history has moved towards and then from Jerusalem.’28 This movement assures the
reader of the legitimate Jewish roots of the hope in Jesus as well as it now being made
25
J. Bradley Chance, Jerusalem, the Temple and the New Age in Luke-Acts (Macon, Georgia: Mercer
University Press, 1988), 101.
26
Chance, Jerusalem, the Temple and the New Age, 101.
27
D. A. Carson & Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament (2nd ed. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 2005), 202.
28
Walker, Jesus and the Holy City, 57.
symbolically. Jerusalem begins as a symbol for the hopes and expectations that God
will redeem his people. As the opposition increases, Jerusalem increasingly becomes a
symbol of opposition to God and his Messiah. It is the place where Jesus must go to
die. It begins to represent the rejection of Israel as Jerusalem rejects God’s Messiah
and then his witnesses. This continues through and increases throughout Acts as
Luke-Acts begins with high expectations for Jerusalem with its anticipation and
Anna who ‘are modelled after great figures of old Testament piety.’29 The birth and
infancy narratives (Luke 1-2) exhibit a city and its people who are willing to embrace
Jesus as the redeemer of Jerusalem and of Israel from the subjugation of Rome. As
Hastings remarks, ‘We find Jerusalem and the temple faithfully accepting its new-
born Lord. […] In the temple Simeon takes Jesus in his arms, Anna gives thanks, the
learned doctors listen with amazement to the answers of Jesus. […] This is how
Indications of the coming conflict with Jerusalem are anticipated as those from
Jerusalem appear within the crowds that oppose Jesus (5:17).31 Block argues that the
first explicit mention of the hostility that awaits Jesus in Jerusalem occurs in his
lament for the children of the city in Luke 13:32-35. Jesus identifies with God’s desire
to care for and protect the city and it’s people but the city was not willing to accept
him.33 As a result, Jerusalem will live up to its reputation as the city that kills the
From this point Jerusalem takes the lead in the opposition and rejection of Jesus as he
travels towards his inevitable death. Upon approaching Jerusalem, Jesus shares the
Parable of the Ten Minas anticipating his rejection (19:11-27). The poignant
condemnation comes as Jesus concludes in the words of the King, ‘But those enemies
of mine who did not want me to be king over them—bring them here and kill them in
front of me’ (19:27). Now is the time when Jesus will come as King. God will see what
his servants have done with what he has given them as in the parable. Immediately
disciples” who rejoice at Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem and say, “Blessed is the
one who comes in the name of the Lord.” […] Jerusalem does not join in this
and so does not “see” Jesus in the crucial sense. The disciples also proclaim
32
Darrell L. Bock, Luke 9:51-24:53 (2 vols. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1996), 968.
33
David W. Pao and Eckhard J. Schnabel, ‘Luke’, Pages 251-414 in Commentary on the New Testament
Use of the Old Testament. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson eds. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007, p.
336.
34
Bock, Luke 9:51-24:53, 1249.
proclamation.35
Jerusalem has not recognised Jesus’ coming to them as king. ‘In 1:78-79 Zechariah
prophesied that “a dawning from on high will visit (ἐπισκέψεται) us […] to guide our
feet into a way of peace.” But now Jerusalem fails to recognise the crucial time of
“visitation” or the things that lead to “peace”.’36 Jerusalem’s failure to recognise Jesus
turns into overt rejection. This leads to clearer announcements of judgement and
condemnation upon Jerusalem (Luke 21:20-24; 23:27-31) as it grows into its role as a
symbol of Jewish rejection of God’s Messiah. ‘Jerusalem turns Jezabel [sic] and the
central theme of the third gospel is the clash of Jesus and Jerusalem.’37 As Brawley
concludes,
failure to recognize the things that make for peace. The crowds on the
35
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Luke, 158-59.
36
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Luke, 159.
37
Hastings, Prophet and Witness in Jerusalem, 98.
According to Tannehill, ‘the ending of Luke left another unresolved issue: the
rejection of Jesus by the people of Jerusalem and their leaders.’39 Despite the call to
repent throughout the speeches in Jerusalem (Acts 2:31-40; 3:19-23; 4:10-12; 5:30-32;
Luke portrays Jerusalem’s hostility to the message and witnesses of Jesus (Acts 6:9;
From the time of Stephen, Jerusalem becomes a perilous place for Jesus'
followers […]. When Paul is arrested in Acts 21 it is clear that, despite the
further to do with this new ‘way’: ‘all the city’ was ‘aroused . . . and dragged
him out of the Temple’; ‘all Jerusalem was in an uproar’ (21:30-31; cf. Luke
23:1, 18, 25). Effectively Jesus had been rejected once again by Jerusalem.40
The on going rejection of Jerusalem is well illustrated by the way that Paul’s journey to
Jerusalem (Acts 19:21-21-16) echoes Jesus journey in the Gospel (Luke 9:51-19:44).41
Paul must endure the rejection of Jerusalem as the city becomes a symbol of the
38
Robert L. Brawley, ‘The God of Promises and the Jews in Luke-Acts’, pages 279-296 in Literary
Studies in Luke-Acts: Essays in Honour of Joseph B. Tyson. (eds. Richard P. Thompson and Thomas E.
Phillips. Marcon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1998), 285.
39
Robert C. Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts, A Literary Interpretation: Vol. 2: The Acts of
the Apostles (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1994), 6.
40
Walker, Jesus and the Holy City, 90.
41
David G. Peterson, The Acts of the Apostles (The Pillar New Testament Commentary, Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2009), 543.
purpose. It validates the witnesses as true followers of Jesus as they experience the
same rejection as Jesus. It also vindicates God’s judgement on Israel and his
faithfulness to his promises as it is Jerusalem who have rejected Jesus and his
function of Jerusalem is clearly the most controversial amongst scholars and typically
reveals their prior theological convictions about how God has been, or will be, faithful
to his promises to the nation of Israel and the city of Jerusalem. Although the future of
Jerusalem as a city seems clear in the destruction prophesied by Jesus, Luke alludes to
the hopes of Jerusalem being fulfilled in Jesus himself. As Wright suggests, ‘when
Jesus came to Jerusalem he came embodying a counter-system. He and the city were
both making claims to be the place where the living God, Israel’s God, was at work to
As has been demonstrated, Luke’s Gospel begins with great hopes that through Jesus
God will bring about the fulfilment of his promises and save his people Israel and
restore Jerusalem (Luke 1:32-33, 46-55, 67-79; 2:11, 28-33, 38, 52). This optimism
anticipates that Jesus’ ministry will be the city’s finest hour and will result in blessing
42
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Acts, 240.
43
Tom Wright, ‘Jerusalem in the New Testament’, Pages 53-77 in Jerusalem: Past and Present in the
Purposes of God (P. W. L. Walker eds. Cambridge: Tyndale House, 1992), 59.
Messiah and therefore rejected God (Luke 13:34-35; 19:44). As a consequence, God
has passed judgement on the city (Luke 21:20-24; 23:27-31) and the only hope of
restoration will be spiritual through repentance and trust in Jesus (Acts 2:38-39; 3:19-
21; 4:12; 5:30-32; 7:51-53; 22:14-16). This is articulated most clearly in Stephen’s
speech as he clarifies the place of the temple in the purposes and presence of God.45
This speech begins a discernible shift in Acts away from the temple and Jerusalem
with it no longer featuring significantly in the narrative until Paul arrives in Acts
21:26.46
Jerusalem is no longer the gathering point for those who want to be in the presence of
God or experience his salvation. The preaching of the disciples throughout Acts calls
people to come to Jesus, not to Jerusalem (Acts 2:38-39; 3:19-21; 4:12; 5:30-32; 7:51-
53; 22:14-16). As Wright acknowledges, ‘His death would therefore be the means of
drawing to its climax the wrath of God against the nation, forging a way through that
wrath and out the other side; as a result, all who wanted to do so could follow his way,
be joined to his people, and find rescue from the great imminent disaster’.47
44
Walker, Jesus and the Holy City, 77; Ron C. Fay. ‘The Narrative Function of the Temple in Luke-
Acts’. Trinity Journal. 27.2, (2006) 255-270. 261.
45
Peterson, Acts, 262.
46
Although Jerusalem and the Temple are not synonymous in Luke-Acts it can be argued that there is
a particularly tight connection between them in the opening sections Acts. See Fay. ‘Narrative Function
of the Temple’, 268.
47
Wright, ‘Jerusalem in the New Testament’, 63.
replaced by Jesus himself. Hastings remarks that the concept of Jerusalem as a place
where humans can meet God is now ‘realized not in a place but in a person, the Lord
Jesus […]. There is a new Jerusalem not made by hands, and within it Jesus is the
temple.’48 Jesus is now the place where salvation is found. Jesus’ own body was the
place where judgement was exercised and God’s wrath poured out. Through
repentance and trust in Jesus all people, Jews and Gentiles can experience the
Not all observers share this optimistic theological assessment of Jesus fulfilling the
‘That the close of Acts is not a triumphant but tragic and anguished in tone
becomes clear when we compare this scene with the purposes of God
shares in the failure. He was sent to both the Jews and Gentiles “to open their
eyes” so that they might share in the “light” that the Messiah brings (Acts
26:17-18, 23). Now he must confirm that the people have closed their eyes.
To this extent his mission is a failure. […] the chief emphasis of the end of
48
Hastings, Prophet and Witness in Jerusalem, 179.
49
Tannehill, Narrative Unity: Acts, 348-49.
Despite the ongoing rejection and opposition to Jesus and his followers symbolised by
Jerusalem, the concluding note of Acts is positive. Jesus has achieved his purpose of
sending his witnesses to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8). Now away from Jerusalem
Paul was able to preach ‘the kingdom of God and taught about the Lord Jesus Christ—
with all boldness and without hindrance’ (Acts 28:31). Jesus has fulfilled the hopes
and expectations established at the beginning of the gospel. Luke communicates this
theological by establishing that Jesus has replaced Jerusalem as the source of God’s
‘Luke’s plot centres on Jerusalem not Galilee, and far from giving a still picture it
narrative device to structure his presentation of Jesus’ fulfilment of the hopes of the
city. Jerusalem also functions as a symbol of the hope but also rejection of Jesus and
his messengers. Finally, the city functions theologically as Luke demonstrates that
Jesus fulfils the hope and expectations of Jerusalem and replaces it as the source of
salvation and blessing. These three functions of Jerusalem all serve Luke’s purpose of
assuring his reader of the certainty of what had been taught about how God brought
50
Hastings, Prophet and Witness in Jerusalem, 98.
Bauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature, (BDAG). Third Edition. Edited and revised by Frederick
William Danker. Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Bock, Darrell L. Luke 1:1-9:50. 2 vols. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994.
_____. Luke 9:51-24:53. 2 vols. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1996.
Chance, J. Bradley. Jerusalem, the Temple and the New Age in Luke-Acts. Macon,
Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1988.
Conzelmann, Hans. The Theology of St. Luke. Translated by Geoffrey Buswell. New
York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1961.
Davies, W. D. The Gospel and the Land: Early Christianity and Jewish Territorial
Doctrine. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974.
Fay, Ron C. ‘The Narrative Function of the Temple in Luke-Acts’. Trinity Journal.
27.2, (2006) 255-270.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. Luke. The Anchor Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1981.
Green, Joel B. The Gospel of Luke. NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.
Hastings, Adrian. Prophet and Witness in Jerusalem. Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1958.
Johnson, Luke Timothy. ‘Luke-Acts, Book of’. Pages 403-20 in Vol. 4 of The Anchor
Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman. 6 vols. New York:
Doubleday, 1992.
Pao, David W. and Eckhard J. Schnabel. ‘Luke’, Pages 251-414 in Commentary on the
New Testament Use of the Old Testament. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson eds.
Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007,
Parson, Mikeal C., and Richard I. Pervo. Rethinking the Unity of Luke and Acts.
Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993.
Peterson, David G. The Acts of the Apostles. The Pillar New Testament Commentary.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009.
_____. The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts, A Literary Interpretation: Vol. 2: The Acts of
the Apostles. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1994.
Walker, P. W. L. Jesus and the Holy City: New Testament Perspectives on Jerusalem.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.