CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY




3.1 Introduction


In this chapter, the steps for studying for the guyed bridge can be summarized
into few major steps such as evaluating on analysis software, development of
member properties and loadings, modelling and analysis of bridge model, discussion
and conclusion.




3.2 Studying on Analysis Software


Structure analysis with computer software is used for the study. Therefore,
the understanding of the software itself is very important. The software used in the
project is STAAD Pro 2003. The ability and the features of STAAD Pro 2003 are
studied before the real modelling process began.




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3.2.1 General Description of STAAD Pro 2003


STAAD Pro software is the structural analysis and design software. It is a
general purpose programme for performing the analysis and design of a wide variety
of types of structures. The basic three activities, which are to be carried out to
achieve that goals are model generation, the calculations to obtain the analytical
results, result verification. The STAAD Pro software is user-friendly software that all
facilitated by tools contained in the programs graphical environment.


Furthermore, STAAD Pro features a state of the art user interface,
visualization tools, powerful analysis and design engines with advanced finite
element and dynamic analysis capabilities. From model generation, analysis and
design to visualization and result verification, STAAD Pro 2003 is capable for
variety of construction materials, such as steel, concrete, timber, aluminium and
cold-formed steel structures. The standard for analysis and design of the structures
can be choose according to building codes for most countries including US, Britain,
Canada, Australia, France, Germany, Spain, Norway, Finland, Sweden, India, China,
Euro Zone, Japan, Denmark, and Holland.



3.3 Studying on Guyed Monorail Steel Bridge Structure


Before modelling the guyed monorail steel bridge, the geometry, the material
behaviour and the cross section of the guyed bridge structure are studied through the
structural plans. The material properties, member specifications and the loadings that
applied to the bridge structure are studied in detail because it will influence the
results of the analysis.





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3.3.1 General Description of Guyed Monorail Steel Bridge


In the study, the guyed monorail steel bridge is crossing the lake in Putrajaya,
Selangor. The basic principle of the guyed monorail steel bridge consists of three
essential parts, which are the pylons, the bridge decks and the cables. The bridge
deck is hung from the suspension cables. It consists of a central main span and is
flanked on each side by a side span that is separated from the main span by pylons.
The ends of the suspension cables are secured at the anchorages, which are built of
concrete. For the pylons, there are supported at the bottom of the pylons with
concrete foundations. There are two types of materials that used in the guyed
monorail steel bridge. The pylons are made of reinforced concrete and the bridge
decks are made of steel. Besides, the suspension cables of the bridge are also made in
steel wires. In the study, the actual dimensions of the guyed monorail steel bridge are
shown in Table 3.1. The Figure 3.1 and 3.2 show the guyed bridge structure.

Table 3.1: Actual dimension of the guyed bridge.
Main span 240 m
Width 10 m
Pylon height 72 m


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240.000 METRES
Figure 3.1: Front view of the guyed monorail steel bridge structure.


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90.000 METER 90.000 METERS 240.O00 METER
Figure 3.2: Plan view of the guyed monorail steel bridge.


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3.3.2 Material properties


Member properties for the guyed monorail steel bridge are studied because
the material characteristics for element used in modelling will highly influence the
results of the analysis. There are three types of materials in the construction of
monorail suspension bridge, which are steel, cables and reinforced concrete. The
bridge decks and the cables are made of steel with deflect strength and the pylons of
the suspension bridge are made of reinforced concrete. The properties of the material
are shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: The properties of the materials.
Material Elasticity,
kN/m
2

Poissons
ratio
Density, kg/m
3

Steel 205 10
6
300 10
-3
7833.409
Concrete 21.72 10
6
170 10
-3
2402.615
Cable 205 10
6
300 10
-3
7833.409




3.3.3 Member specification


The suspension cable and tendons in the guyed bridge structure are the
special members that influence the behaviour of guyed bridge structure. Table 3.3
shows the members specification for the guyed bridge.








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Table 3.3: Member specification for the guyed bridge.
Member Specification
Backstay cable Cable with initial tension 3500 kN
Suspension cable Cable with initial tension 14000 kN
Hangers Member in tension
Tendons in the bridge deck Cable with initial tension 1000 kN




3.3.4 Boundary conditions


It is important interaction between substructure and superstructure design. In
some cases, the location of favorable foundation conditions may dictate the form and
location of a bridge. The pylons are supported by the foundation and the anchorages
at the end of the cables support the suspension cables.


The towers enable the main cables to be draped over long distances. Most of
the weight of the bridge is carried by the cables to the anchorages, which is
imbedded in either solid rock or massive concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the
cables are spread over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the
cables from breaking free. Therefore, the suspension bridge structures are held rigid
on the cable anchorages and the foundations in the study.











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3.3.5 Loadings


The loads that applied to the suspension bridge are according to the BS 5400:
Part 2: Specification for Loads: 1978. The code divides the nominal loads into two
groups, which are permanent and transient.


Permanent loads are defined as dead loads, superimposed dead loads, loads
due to filling materials, differential settlement and loads derived from the nature of
the structural material. All loads other than the permanent loads referred to above are
transient loads: these consist of wind loads, temperature loads, exceptional loads,
erection loads, the primary and secondary highway loadings, footway and cycle track
loadings, and the primary and secondary railway loadings.


Primary highway and railway loadings are vertical live loads, whereas the
secondary loadings are the live loads due to changes in speed or direction. Hence, the
secondary highway loadings include centrifugal, braking, skiddings and collision
loads; and the secondary railway loadings include lurching, nosing, centrifugal,
traction and braking loads. In the study, there are three types of loading, which are
dead load, live load and wind load considered in the analysis of bridge structure.




3.3.5.1 Dead Load


The nominal dead loads will generally be calculated from the usual assumed
values for the specific weights of the materials, like 24 kN/m
2
for concrete. When
such assumed values are used it is necessary, at the ultimate limit state, to adopt
fL

values of 1.1 for steel and 1.2 for concrete rather than the values of 1.02 and 1.15
respectively given in Table 3.4.


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Table 3.4: Factor,
fL
, applied to all parts of the dead load.
Material For the ultimate limit state For the serviceability limit state
Steel 1.05 1.0
Concrete 1.15 1.0


The latter values are only used when the nominal dead loads have been
accurately assessed from the final structure. Such an assessment would require the
material densities to be confirmed and the weight of, for example, reinforcement to
be ascertained. It is thus envisaged that in general the larger
fL
values will be
adopted for design purposes. The
fL
value is necessary to consider the fact that a
more severe effect, due to dead load at a particular point of a structure, could result
from applying a
fL
value of 1.0 to entire dead load rather than a value of, for
concrete 1.2.




3.3.5.2 Live Load


The live load is the load of the monorails that move back and forth on the
reinforced concrete track. In each case, all loads are made static. Generally, the
standard railway loading consists of two types, RU and RL. RU loading allows for
all combinations of vehicles currently running or projected to run on railways in the
Continent of Europe, and is to be adopted for the design of bridges carrying main
line railways of 1.4 m and above. RL loading is a reduced loading for use only on
passenger rapid transit railway systems on lines, where main line locomotives and
rolling stock do not operate.


According to BS 5400, the type of railway bridge live load that applied to the
monorail suspension bridge is RL loading. Nominal type RL loading consists of a


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single 200 kN concentrated load coupled with a uniformly distributed load of 50
kN/m for the first 100 m and shall be reduced to 25 kN/m for lengths in excess of
100 m, as shown in Figure 3.3. In this study, the length of the monorail live load is
applied through whole length of the railway track with the center of the load located
at the mid span, which is the most critical length.










Figure 3.3: Nominal type RL loading.




3.3.5.3 Wind Load


The wind pressure on the bridge depends on the geographical location, the
local topography, the height of the bridge above ground, and the horizontal
dimensions and cross section of the bridge or element under consideration. The
maximum pressures are due to gusts that cause local and transient fluctuations about
the mean wind pressure. In this study, the nominal transverse wind load, nominal
longitudinal wind load and nominal vertical wind load are applied to the suspension
bridge structure. The mean speed of the wind, which applied to the suspension
bridge, is 120 km/hour for the serviceability limit state, and 160 km/hr for the
ultimate limit state.


200 kN
50 kN/m
25 kN/m
25 kN/m
No limitation No limitation 100 m


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3.3.5.4 Load combinations


There are three principal (combinations 1 to 3) and two secondary
(combinations 4 and 5) combinations of load.


1) Combination 1

The loads to be considered are the permanent loads plus the appropriate
primary live loads for highway and footway or cycle track bridges; or the permanent
loads plus the appropriate primary and secondary live loads for railway bridges.


2) Combination 2

The loads to be considered are those of combination 1 plus wind loading
erection loads when appropriate.


3) Combination 3

The loads to be considered are those of combination 1 plus those arising from
restraint of movements, due to temperature range and differential temperature
distribution, plus erection loads when appropriate.


4) Combination 4

This combination only applies to highway and footway or cycle track bridges.
The loads to be considered for highway bridges are the permanent loads plus a
secondary live load with its associated primary live load. The loads to be considered
for footway or cycle track bridges are the permanent loads plus the secondary live
load of a vehicle colliding with a support.


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5) Combination 5

The loads to be considered are the permanent loads plus the loads due to
friction at the bearings.


For the study, the load combination 1, 2 and 3 are considered in ultimate limit
state, which are:

1) 1.05 Dead Load + 1.4 Live Load
2) 1.05 Dead Load + 1.2 Live Load + Wind Load (160 km/hr)
3) 1.05 Dead Load + Wind Load (160 km/hr)


For the serviceability limit state, there are 3 load combinations, which are:

1) 1.0 Dead Load + 1.1 Live Load
2) 1.0 Dead Load + 1.0 Live Load + Wind Load (120 km/hr)
3) 1.0 Dead Load + Wind Load (120 km/hr)




3.4 Analysis of Guyed Bridge


The experimental analysis was not carried out for the bridge analysis.
Therefore, a computational model of guyed monorail steel bridge has been generated
in this study to analyse the guyed bridge structure. The results and analysis are
presented in Chapter V.






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3.5 Discussion and Conclusion


Discussions of analysis results for the guyed monorail steel bridge and the
main conclusion from the study are carried out in Chapter VI.