JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J.

IASS
217
A NOVEL FORM FINDING METHOD FOR FABRIC FORMWORK
FOR CONCRETE SHELLS
Tom Van Mele, Philippe Block
Post-doctoral Researcher, ETH Zurich, Inst. of Technology in Architecture, Zurich, Switzerland, van.mele@arch.ethz.ch
Assistant Professor, ETH Zurich, Inst. of Technology in Architecture, Zurich, Switzerland, block@arch.ethz.ch

Editors Note: This paper is the winner of the 2010 Tsuboi Award for the outstanding paper published in the
proceedings of the annual IASS Symposium. It is re-published here with permission of the editors of the proceedings of
the IASS 2010: International Symposium on Shell and Spatial Structures, held in November 2010 in Shanghai, China.

ABSTRACT
This paper introduces a new form finding approach for the design of flexible formwork, consisting of
pre-stressed structural membranes, for the construction of thin, anticlastic, concrete shells. The
approach is based on the Force Density Method and an adaptation of the nonlinear extension of
Thrust Network Analysis (TNA). First, the adaptation of the basic version of TNA to tension-only
structures is discussed, and fundamental assumptions are formulated. Key aspects herein are the use of
reciprocal diagrams and the control of forces in indeterminate networks. Then, the strategy using an
overall optimization process, for finding the closest possible tension-only, equilibrium surface to a
given target surface under the appropriate loading (i.e. weight of the concrete) is presented. Finally,
the strategy is applied to a chosen target surface and loads, and the equilibrium solutions for different
starting points of the optimization process are discussed.

Keywords: Concrete shells, pre-stressed membrane formwork, form finding, Force Density Method, Thrust
Network Approach.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Concrete Shells
Concrete shells are efficient structures for medium
to large-span space enclosures. When appropriately
shaped, these structures carry loads through
membrane action (i.e. axial force-only) rather than
bending, which allow them to be thin, light, and
elegant.
There are two key aspects in the realization of thin
concrete shells: 1) the determination of an
appropriate shape (through a form finding process),
and 2) the actual construction. Regardless of the
form finding method used to determine their shape,
concrete shells typically have been constructed
using rigid formwork, onto which wet concrete is
poured or sprayed. The variety of shell shapes that
can be constructed and especially the curvature that
can be achieved is limited by the shape flexibility of
this formwork.
Felix Candela, for example, limited all his concrete
shell designs to shapes which could be derived from
(a combination of) hyperbolic paraboloids (hypars),
since these can be realized with a formwork
consisting of only straight elements, simplifying the
formwork drastically and allowing reuse for other
applications (Fig. 1) [1].

Figure 1. Chapel Lomas de Cuernavaca [1]. The shape of
the shell is derived from hyperbolic paraboloids, allowing
the formwork to be constructed using straight elements.
Vol. 52 (2011) No. 4 December n. 170
218
In any case, the construction of formwork is costly,
time-consuming, and produces a huge amount of
building waste, which are some of the reasons why
concrete shells are no longer used as structural
systems. Flexible formwork systems, however,
using tensioned membrane structures, seem to
address many of the challenges of typical shell
construction and open new possibilities for shell
design [2]. Furthermore, as it is well known that
very slight improvements to the geometry of a shell
can drastically improve its properties [3,4], the use
of flexible formwork, i.e. formwork allowing
more accurate shape control, could also increase a
shells structural performance.
1.2 Flexible Formwork
Fabric formwork for reinforced concrete
construction is an emerging technology with the
capacity to transform concrete architecture and
reinforced concrete structures [5,6]. Currently, such
formwork systems are used, primarily, to create
beams, trusses, panels, simple, hanging vaults,
slabs, and columns with expressive, natural
curvature [6].

Figure 2. left) Fabric formwork for a beam with
expressive, natural curvature, and right) simple vault cast
on fabric formwork [5].
The work on vaults conducted at CAST, one of the
leading labs in the development of fabric formwork
[5], focuses on pre-cast and cast-in-place vaults that
are formed with full-scale hanging fabric moulds
using powerful industrial fabrics (Fig. 2)
essentially scaling- up Islers model-making
method into full-sized shell moulds.
In this paper, we will discuss a different approach,
using structural pre-stressed formwork for the
construction of thin, anticlastic, concrete shells; and
introduce a new computational form finding
approach for designing such formwork systems.
Given the shape of an anticlastic shell design, the
objective of the presented method is to find the
shape of the pre-stressed membrane surface (or
cable network) that, under the weight of (wet)
concrete, has the exact shape of the final shell. This
allows concrete to be sprayed onto the membrane
surface that then supports the (wet) concrete in the
correct shape until it has hardened, after which the
shell can stand on its own and the membrane
formwork can be removed.
The approach is based on the Force Density Method
[7,8] and an adaptation of the nonlinear extension
of Thrust Network Analysis [9,10].
1.3 Force Density Method
The Force Density Method (FDM) is one of the
main approaches for the form finding of tension
structures, introduced by Linkwitz and Schek [7]
for finding the equilibrium shape of tension
networks. By introducing force densities, which are
defined as the ratio of the axial force of a branch to
its length, the equations expressing the equilibrium
of the networks could be linearised. Due to the
development of sparse matrix techniques, these
linear equations could be solved efficiently.
Initial values for these force densities need to be
chosen for the first-order form finding. To comply
with additional conditions imposed to refine the
design, the final equilibrium values of the force
densities are then found in an iterative optimization
process. The relations between the choice of force
densities and the three-dimensional equilibrium
solution are thus not straightforward. Furthermore,
the method as discussed in [8], does not provide an
optimization strategy for finding the appropriate
distribution of force densities (and consequently of
forces) to obtain a desired, specific three-
dimensional shape.
1.4 Thrust Network Approach
Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) is a new
methodology for generating vaulted compression-
only networks and surfaces, with a similar
framework as the Force Density Method [9,10].
Using reciprocal force diagrams [11], TNA
provides a graphical and intuitive method, adopting
the same advantages as graphic statics but offering
a viable extension to fully three-dimensional
problems. Reciprocal figures are introduced to
JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS
219
relate the geometry of the three-dimensional
equilibrium networks to their internal forces. They
allow the linearization of the equilibrium
constraints and the control of the high level of
indeterminacy of fully three-dimensional funicular
networks.
In [10], a nonlinear extension of the basic TNA
method is discussed that includes the degrees of
indeterminacy of a three-dimensional network with
arbitrary topology in an overall optimization set-up.
Such a set-up opens up possibilities for making
structurally informed design decisions in order to
find the closest funicular network to an arbitrary
input surface.
2. TNA FOR TENSION STRUCTURES
The TNA method is geared towards the design of
funicular, i.e. compression-only, vaults and shells,
but could of course also be used for the dual
problem of tension-only networks
Applying TNA to tension-only membrane
structures, demands a slight re-formulation of its
assumptions:
- the structural action of the membrane is
represented by a discrete network of forces with
the external loads applied at the vertices;
- the force branches meet at nodes, which are in
equilibrium with external forces applied to the
nodes;
- the branches must all have axial tension forces
only;
- all applied loads need to be vertical; and
- the nodes are only allowed to move vertically
during the form-finding process.
The assumption about vertical loads seems strong
and very restricting. It is, however, a reasonable
assumption to make, considering that the membrane
will only be used to support the (wet) concrete in a
specific shape until it has hardened and can stand
on its own, hence carrying only vertical gravity
loads. Note that any tangential loads due to sliding
of the wet concrete are ignored.
This section will explain how the underlying
principles of the TNA framework can be used to
achieve the goals of this project. Key aspects are the
use of reciprocal diagrams and the control of the
indeterminacy of networks with a higher valency
than three, i.e. with more than three branches
coming together at every node of the network.
2.1 Reciprocal Diagrams
The use of discrete force networks in combination
with reciprocal force diagrams allows to determine
and represent possible distributions of internal
forces in a visual and intuitive manner.

Figure 3. a) 3D network G in equilibrium with loads
applied to its nodes; b) the primal grid , which is the
horizontal projection of G; and c) the dual grid *, which
is the reciprocal of and represents the equilibrium of
horizontal force components in the system G.
Reciprocal diagrams are geometrically related such
that corresponding branches are parallel, and
branches which come together in a node in one of
the diagrams form a closed polygon in the other,
and vice versa (Fig. 3b-c). This geometrical
relationship has an important structural
interpretation: the closed polygons of the reciprocal
diagram represent the static equilibrium of the
nodes in the original diagram; and the lengths of the
branches in the reciprocal are proportional to the
axial forces along the corresponding branches in the
original [9].
The grid in Figure 3b depicts the horizontal
projection of a 3D network G at equilibrium with
loads applied to its nodes (Fig. 3a). In TNA, this
projection is called the primal grid, .
The static in-plane equilibrium of is represented
by its closed reciprocal diagram, the dual grid *
Vol. 52 (2011) No. 4 December n. 170
220
(Fig. 3c). Note that all loads applied to G vanish in
, because they are perpendicular to the plane of .
Therefore, * represents and visualizes the
equilibrium of all horizontal force components in
the system G. We know that from such grids a
tension-only solution is obtained if all faces in the
dual grid are convex [12] and constructed by going
around each corresponding node of the primal grid
in a counter-clockwise direction [13], as illustrated
in Figures 3b and 3c.
The solving strategy presented in this paper is
largely based on the direct link between the force
densities of FDM and the reciprocal diagrams of
TNA. The force density of a branch in the network
is defined as the ratio between the (axial) force in
that branch, s, and its length, l. This ratio, and hence
the value of the branchs force density, is also equal
to the ratio between the horizontal component of the
branch force, s
H
, which is the length of the
corresponding branch in the dual grid, l
H
*
, and the
horizontal component of the branch's length, l
H
,
which is the length of the branch in the primal grid.
We thus have that
H
H
H
H
l
l
l
s
l
s
q
*
= = = (1)
As in FDM, TNA uses branch-node matrices to
describe the topology of both grids. For detailed
information on the construction of primal and dual
grids and their respective branch-node matrices, the
reader is referred to [10].
2.2 Indeterminate Networks
For typical network topologies used for the form
finding of tension structures, the network G (and its
planar projection ) have nodes with a valency of
four (or higher), which means that they are
statically indeterminate and have several possible
internal force distributions. This means that
different states of self-stress exist with different
distributions of internal forces of and
corresponding 3D geometry.
Figure 4c shows a different dual grid for the primal
grid of Figure 3, representing a different
distribution of internal forces and therefore a
different 3D solution in equilibrium with the
applied loads (Fig. 4a). In this solution, more force
is attracted by the highlighted sets of branches, each
forming a continuous line through the network.

Figure 4. c) A different dual grid * for the same primal
grid as in Figure 3b, representing a different distribution
of internal forces and therefore a different 3D solution G in
equilibrium with the loads, as shown in (a). Forces have
been attracted along the highlighted cables in (b), as
represented by the longer lengths in (c).
In the 3D network, we can clearly see that this
results in shallower curvature along those lines.
In the TNA framework, the x- and y-coordinates of
the nodes are kept constant during the form finding
process. Because of this constraint, the
manipulations of the dual grid cannot be random;
only variations which respect the reciprocal rules
(see Section 2.1), are allowed. In [10], a rule is
introduced which allows to determine the total
number of degrees of freedom (DOF) k of the dual
*, by inspection of the primal grid alone:
2 2 + = c m f k (2)
with f the number of faces in the primal grid, m the
number of branches, and c the number of closed
loops.
The number of DOFs k (with k < m) equals the
number of independent dual branches, i.e. the
branches whose lengths can be chosen freely. The
other branches are not independent, meaning that
their lengths cannot be chosen. This represents the
reciprocity constraint. Because of the link between
the force densities and the reciprocal diagram (Eq.
1), this understanding of the DOF of the distribution
of the forces on the primal grid, as represented in
the dual grid, can be used to understand the DOF of
the distribution of the force densities of possible
tension networks in equilibrium with the applied
loads.
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For a quadrilateral grid, as used in Figures 3 and 4,
it is clear that k equals the number of continuous
lines of branches in the primal grid. This means that
per continuous set, the force densities of the
branches are dependent. Applying the rule given in
Equation (2), k indeed counts as 2x40-64+0-2 = 14
for the networks of Figures 3 and 4. The
identification of possible sets of branches for which
the force densities can be chosen independently has
been generalized to any topology in [14].
This insight provided by the TNA framework
allows the straightforward description of the
relation between the (k x 1) vector of independent,
or free, force densities, b, and the (m x 1) vector of
individual force densities of all branches, q,
represented by an (m x k) matrix K:
b K q = (3)
3. APPROACHING A TARGET SURFACE
From the previous section, it is clear that the force
distribution in a network can be controlled or
tweaked to find a specific 3D geometry, i.e. the
shape of the concrete shell that has to be built. For
simple projects, it might be possible to do this
manually, but when a solution needs to be found
approximating a target surface in more
sophisticated problems, this quickly becomes too
tedious and an overall optimization process needs to
be employed to find the desired distribution. The
main challenge is to relate a change in the
distribution of internal forces, or force densities, to
the improvement of the approximation of the target
surface. This process will be described next.
3.1 Problem Description
Given a target surface, represented by a 4-valent
discrete network of branches and nodes, and a set of
vertical external loads applied at the nodes, the
tension-only solution needs to be found that is the
best possible approximation of the target.
The target network is projected onto the plane to
find the primal grid , and from a possible dual
* is constructed. Equation (2) gives us k DOFs of
*, the number of independent parameters that
control the equilibrium and geometry of the 3D
solution G. In section 2.2, it was shown that these
are the continuous lines in the primal grid.
Then the values for the independent parameters, the
free force densities b, should be found that
minimize the vertical distance between the nodes of
G and those of the target surface. This can be
formulated as a least squares problem
) ( such that
min
1
2
2
f f z
T
z
z D p D z
z z
=

(4)
The constraints on the vertical position of the nodes
immediately follow from the nodal equilibrium of
the network, with p
z
the applied vertical loads, z
f
the
z-coordinates of the boundary nodes, and D = C
t
QC
and D
f
= C
t
QC
f
, as described in [8]. It is sufficient
to only consider the vertical equilibrium of the
nodes, as their horizontal equilibrium is guaranteed
by the closed reciprocal force diagram [9].
Such a least squares problem can be solved
efficiently using the Levenberg-Marquardt
Algorithm (LMA).
3.2 Solving Procedure
LMA is an iterative, hybrid, descent method that
switches between the Steepest Descent Method
(SDM) and the Gauss-Newton Method (GNM),
based on a so-called gain ratio (see Eq. 9). For
details on the method, the reader is referred to [15-
17]. Here, we will give a brief description. For a
given objective function F(x), with
( ) ( ) ( )

=
=
m
i
i
f
1
2
x x F (5)
and from a starting point x
(0)
, the method produces a
series of vectors x
(1)
, x
(2)
, that converges to x*, a
local minimiser of F.
Essentially, each iteration consists of finding (i) a
descent direction, and (ii) a step length giving a
good decrease in F-value. The step h is found as the
local minimiser of a linear model of the objective
function, L, by solving the following problem:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 with

>
= +

x f x J I x J x J
t t
h
(6)
with f(x) the value of the objective function at the
previous iteration, J(x) the Jacobian matrix of f(x),
I an identity matrix, and a damping factor.
Vol. 52 (2011) No. 4 December n. 170
222
Note that Equation (6) is a damped version of the
GNM approach for finding h. The damping
parameter influences both the direction and the
size of the step in several ways: (i) for all > 0, the
coefficient matrix is positive definite, and this
ensures that h is a descent direction; (ii) for large
values of , we get a short step in the SDM
direction, which is good if the current iterate is far
from the solution; and (iii) if is very small, the
step is approximately the GNM step, which is good
when the current iterate is close to the final
solution. The initial -value is
{ }
) ( ) ( with
max
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 (
) 0 ( ) 0 (
x J x J A
t
ii
i
a
=
=t
(7)
with chosen by the user. During the iteration
process, is updated based on the gain ratio ,
which is defined as the ratio between the actual gain
in F and the gain predicted by the linear model L
[17].
) ( ) 0 (
) ( ) (
h L L
h x F x F

+
= (8)
A large value of indicates that the linear model is
good approximation of the actual cost function, and
we can decrease so that the next LMA step is
closer to the GNM step. If is small, then the linear
model is a poor approximation, and we should
increase with the aim of getting closer to the
SDM direction and reducing the step length. The
iterative procedure is stopped if one of the
following criteria is met [17]:
max
2 2
1
) (
) ( ) (
k k
x
new
t
>
+ s
s

c c
c
x x
x f x J
(9)
with
1
,
2
, and k
max
chosen by the user.
3.3 Jacobian Matrix
The Jacobian matrix can be derived in a similar
fashion as described in Schek [8]. The additional
conditions imposed on the system are function of
the z-coordinates of the nodes, which in turn are
function of the force densities, q, and those are
function of the independent parameters, b.
Therefore, the additional conditions can be re-
formulated as a function of the independent
parameters b.
0 ))) ( ( ( ) (
*
= = =
T
z z b q z f b f (10)
The Jacobian, J(b), relating a change in the
independent parameters b to a change in the value
of the objective function, can then be found through
the chain rule
b
b q
q
q z
z
z f
b
b f
b J
c
c

c
c

c
c
=
c
c
=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
*
(11)
1 ) (
) (
=
c
c
=
c
c
T
z z
z z
z f
(12a)
W C D
q
q z
=
c
c
t 1
) (
(12b)
K b K
b b
b q
=
c
c
=
c
c
) (
) (
(12c)
K W C D
b
b f
b J =
c
c
=
t 1
*
) (
) ( (13)
with W = (Cz + C
f
z
f
), the diagonal matrix of the
vertical coordinate differences.
3.4 Results
The solving procedure discussed above was
implemented in MatLab [18] with = 10
-06
and
1
=

2
= 10
-09
for the user-chosen parameters, and with a
maximum number of iterations, k
max
, of 200. The
anticlastic target surface, T, is derived from a
hyperbolic paraboloid (hypar) that was rotated over
45 and translated over a certain distance in the x, y,
and z directions, so that the high points of the
surface are at (0,0,1.18) and (1,1,0.46), and the low
points at (0,1,0) and (1,0,0).
Figure 5 depicts the target surface T and different
3D tension-only networks at equilibrium with the
loads, for different chosen, initial values for the
force densities.
The loads are distributed equally over the nodes.
The spheres in the middle and left column in Figure
5 represent the vertical difference between each
node of the respective equilibrium networks and the
corresponding nodes of the target surface; blue
spheres depict nodes that lie under the target
surface, and orange spheres nodes above it.
JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS
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Figure 5. (left and middle columns) Target surface,
equilibrium network, and z-differences between
corresponding nodes, (left) after initial linear form finding,
for different chosen values of force densities in the hanging
and arching direction (middle) after the optimization
process. (right) Distribution of force densities (top number)
and resulting branch forces (bottom number) after
optimization process.
Table 1. Overview of the results of the optimization
process for different starting points (cases). The starting
points are the results of linear form finding processes
with different chosen values for the force densities in the
hanging (qH) and arching (qA) directions. k is the
number of iterations.
Before After
q q
Case
q
A
q
H

(z-z
T
)
2

k
q
A
q
H

(z-z
T
)
2

1 1 1 0.3099 49 Figure 6 8.89 x10
-04
2 1 2 0.0287 24 0.989 2.795 8.18 x10
-18
3 1 3 9.02 x10
-4
6 1.085 2.945 2.42 x10
-18
4 1 4 0.0242 22 1.350 3.359 2.08 x10
-16

Each of the equilibrium networks provides a
different starting position for the optimization
process. Based on the sum of squared z-differences,
case 3 provides the best start, with an initial F-value
of 9.02 x 10
-04
as seen in Table 1.
A different solution, with different distributions of
force densities and thus different distributions of
internal forces, is found for each starting position.
This indicates that there are several local minima
for the cost function, and that additional conditions
should be imposed to find a specific local minimum
or even a global minimum; for example, conditions
on the minimum and/or maximum values of the
force densities.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented a strategy, using an overall
optimization process, for finding the closest
possible tension-only, equilibrium surface to a
given target surface under given loading conditions
(i.e. weight of the concrete).
The TNA approach, based on reciprocal diagrams,
clarifies the conditions under which the
optimization process should be conducted. The
LMA approach has been identified as a good
procedure for finding an optimized solution. Further
refinement of the optimization strategy is possible,
as described in [17], for example for more irregular
shapes or loading conditions, where the starting
position is far from the optimal solution. The TNA-
FDM-based form finding procedure furthermore
opens possibilities for integrating the procedure into
the overall TNA methodology, ultimately leading to
the creation of an integrated framework for the
simultaneous design of concrete shells and their
pre-stressed membrane formwork.
Further extensions of the procedure could lead to
form finding approaches for pre-stressed membrane
structures in general, where designers have a more
intuitive control over the 3D equilibrium shape
through the use of reciprocal diagrams.
Future work should be focussed on including
additional constraints in the optimization process,
e.g. conditions that limit the branch forces to the
strength of a specific membrane material, and the
building of prototypes.

Vol. 52 (2011) No. 4 December n. 170
224
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