Running Head: REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 1
An Argument to Replace Foreign Language Requirements with Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
Instruction in Post-Secondary Institutions Lisa R. Ruschman Delaware State University
REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 2
Introduction
There are 6,909 identified world languages. The United States Census acknowledges over 300. In the 2011 census, 21% of the population, more than 60 million people, over the age of five spoke a language other than English at home (Ryan, 2013). Thirty-eight million speak Spanish or Spanish Creole, but research shows that two or even four semesters of college-level Spanish will not provide students with enough language acquisition to effectively communicate with these American residents (Eaton, 2012; Archibald et al., 2006). Those same college credits do nothing to assist effective communication with the approximately 21 million people living in the United States who speak a foreign language besides Spanish. Yet these people are residing in and interacting with American society every day. In addition to the diversification of America, globalization has become a term of prominence in business and industry over the past decade making the ability to successfully interact with a culturally diverse population necessary. Livermore (2010) reported that 90 percent of leading executives from 68 countries named cross-cultural leadership as the top management challenge for the next century (p. 267), yet many American colleges and universities continue to require the low-level language acquisition typical to a liberal arts education (Panetta, 1999). Graduates are now challenged by the necessity to lead, manage, teach and interact with a population of people who do not necessarily share similar beliefs, values, customs, or even native languages, but is this skill being taught? While general intelligence (IQ) and the highly studied emotional intelligence (EQ) have been shown to enhance effective communication ability, research has shown that these intelligences do not impact success in multi-cultural situations (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Rockstuhl, Seiler, Ang, Van Dyne, & Annen, 2011). With this assertion that the ability to interact in multi-cultural situations is crucial to success in modern REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 3 society, it is time for college administrators to seek relevance in the course requirements and not continue with the status quo (Shaw, 1999). Weingartner (1992) identifies the goal of language courses as not only second language proficiency, but also acquaintance with a foreign culture. Research shows that traditional language instruction is not sufficient for meeting the language proficiency goal and should be replaced with the measurable skill of cultural intelligence (CQ). Foreign Language History in America A nation founded by immigrants, the United States has a unique history pertaining to foreign language education. America existed as a multi-lingual society appreciative of cultural pluralism for its first 100 years of democracy, never assigning an official language for the new country (Panetta, 1999; Datesman, Crandall, & Kearny, 2005). In these early days of American history, native languages were maintained while English was acquired by foreign language speakers. Native English speakers also sought to acquire the modern languages spoken by other immigrants or the classic languages necessary to succeed in the educational arenas (Panetta, 1999). Guided by threats to national security, the political climate of the mid-nineteenth century led to the forbiddance of native language speech, dismissing the lack of an official language in the country and forcing local, native-language schools to teach in English. By the turn of the century, the pendulum swung back as the National Education Association (NEA) set language requirements and advocated for programming extending from elementary into secondary schools. The First World War brought together a unified America but saw the elimination of foreign language representation in community newspapers and public schools. For the first time in American history, immigrants incapable of speaking English were denied citizenship (Panetta, 1999; Dong & Wang, 2010). REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 4 Ultimately, the forbiddance of foreign language education placed American servicemen at a great disadvantage in World War II forcing the Army to develop The Army Language Methodology of adult language instruction, and the federal government to fund its use in American colleges (Panetta, 1999). The launch of Russias Sputnik in 1957 surprised and alarmed American leaders over the superiority of Russian technology and convinced the federal government that the United States needed more civilians who were fluent in Russian to keep us from being surprised again (p. 9). This ultimately resulted in the creation of the National Defense Education Act in 1958 which placed language education at the same level as math and science education (Panetta, 1999; Dong & Wang, 2010). The funding for language classes dried up in the late 1960s as teachers, parents and administrators determined that students had gained nothing from the experience (Panetta, 1999, p.3). Interest in language instruction continued to fluctuate as the decades passed and the world continued its globalization. In 1996, colleges and universities followed the Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century created by the American Foreign Language Education Commission (ACTEL). The standards identified American language learning goals for the 21 st century namely, Communication, Culture, Connections, Comparison and Communities, referred to as 5Cs (Dong & Wang, 2010, p. 170). Dong and Wang (2010) interpreted this development of language standards as evidence of American concern for economic competitiveness and national security in the new global world. Their research presented another federally funded American attempt in 2006 called the National Security Language Action Plan. This plan promoted foreign language education from kindergarten to university primarily in languages like Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Korean, Farsi, Hindi, and Central American languages before expanding to Urdu, Tajik, Punjabi and others in 2007. That REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 5 grant ended in 2011 leaving the language focus directed to elementary and secondary students who need to gain linguistic proficiency in English with only a few states mandating elementary foreign language instruction (Panetta, 1999). Although the United States has a long history of foreign language instruction in all levels of education, an evaluation of language and culture education and its impact resulted in the Presidents Commission acknowledging persistent problems in foreign language instruction, from inadequate training of teachers to insufficient administrative support to a lack of imaginative curricula to poor coordination and a lack of sound criteria for the measurement of progress (Panetta, 1999, p.1). Panetta (1999) expressed distress over the lack of national commitment to foreign language instruction. His concern was valid as by the 2009-2010 instructional year, Lusin (2012) reported that only 50.7% of American colleges and universities required language acquisition for a baccalaureate degree climbing from 24.7% in the 2009-10 year but still low compared to 89% in 1913. Although language instruction is flailing, the number of foreign language speakers in the United States continues to increase making effective cultural instruction an ongoing necessity for competence in the local and global market. Failure to implement effective and efficient language acquisition makes Cultural Intelligence (CQ) the ideal method of instruction to prepare college students for the global marketplace they are about to enter. CQ History
In 2003, Earley and Ang presented pioneering research on a new concept in intelligence (Van Dyne et al., 2012). Cultural intelligence (CQ), more recently defined by Livermore (2010) as the capability to function effectively across national, ethnic, and organizational cultures, (p. 170) is not a personality trait, but a learned quality or individual capability that requires flexibility and REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 6 training. Furthermore, it enables the individuals to represent appropriate behaviors in varied cultures without getting confused or distracted about how the others behave them (Soltani & Keyvanara, 2013, p. 41). Cultural Intelligence (CQ) is divided into four sub-dimensions: meta-cognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioral. Rockstuhl et al. (2011) differentiated between meta-cognitive and cognitive CQ articulating meta-cognitive CQ as the level of awareness an individual brings to cultural interaction, and the cognitive dimension as the knowledge of a cultures beliefs and norms, customs and practices, taboos and conventions. Motivational CQ, the emotional component of this intelligence, is the directed effort a student makes in mastering and applying cultural knowledge while behavioral CQ , which Westby (2012) termed physical intelligence, refers to the application of the cultural knowledge attained. With the exception of motivation, the dimensions can be taught and, when combined, create a higher level of CQ than when assessed individually (Westby, 2012; Rockstuhl et al., 2011). Like a foreign language, CQ is acquired by formal and informal education; unlike EQ, it is not of an intrinsic nature but, much like IQ, is developed through instruction and experience (Soltani & Keyvanara, 2013). In examining the sub-dimensions of cultural intelligence, Van Dyne et al. (2012) reinforced that CQ is an individual form of intelligence that enables people to behave appropriately when in culturally diverse situations. Moreover, CQ is an individuals capability to detect, assimilate, reason, and act on cultural cues appropriately in situations characterized by cultural diversity (p. 297). Westby (2012) adds that attained cognitive information helps to eliminate perceived inappropriate or offensive behaviors or language aiding in successful cultural interactions. REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 7 Soltani and Keyvanara (2013) recognize that potential conflicts exist in the core differences between cultures and sub-cultures; understanding and respecting these differing views while maintaining ones own is one of the benefits of CQ. Cheng (2007) notes that cultural competence comes from the development of cultural humility (p.41) allowing ourselves to be open minded and inquisitive (p.41). The relevance of CQ becomes apparent when confronted with the 2010 U.S Census Bureau and Department of Labor statistics on diversity growth in America. Workforce increases are expected to show a 44 percent increase in Asian-Americans, a 36 percent increase in Hispanic and Latin Americans, and a 21 percent increase in African-Americans (as cited in Groves & Feyerherm, 2011). Furthermore, Ryan (2013) revealed a 158% increase in foreign language speakers from 1980 2010, with a population increase of only 38%. While Spanish has increased the most numerically, South Asian and African languages have both experienced high levels of growth. Moreover, eight other languages more than doubled their American presence including Russian, Persian, Armenian and Vietnamese, the most rapidly growing language by percentage (Ryan, 2013). These statistics suggest that not only language diversity but also cultural diversity is increasing rapidly making CQ a necessary trait in effective, multi-cultural communication. Even second language fluency is unable to provide the breadth of skill and knowledge required to interact with the scope of cultures before us. Time of Acquisition For many academics, the ideal may be that students become linguistically fluent in a second language; however, the time to attain true language acquisition is often greatly underestimated by students and administrators. While multi-linguicism is ideal for global success, it is not realistic for the collegiate masses to achieve. Studies cited by Sudermann and Cisar (1992) reveal that REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 8 even two years of intensive language study result in no greater than the intermediate level of acquisition in most language skills. Advanced levels, required for independent reading and conversation, are generally achieved only by students majoring in the language. Eaton (2012) states, The challenges of learning another language are immenseThose who achieve true fluency do so because they put in dedicated, consistent effort over a long period of time (p.8). Lusin (2012) argues that preparation for a global environment requires language learning but revealed that even universities with foreign language requirements often limit those requirements to four or less semesters. She acknowledges that this limited instruction does not lead to language proficiency. Eaton (2011) agrees, insisting that the complex process of language acquisition involves communication, grammar, structure, comprehension and language production along with reading, writing, speaking and listening (p. 4) which take time. According to Weingartner (1992), second language proficiency cannot be the justification of a college foreign language requirement that is only one or two years in length. He points out another goal for language instruction; acquaintance with a foreign culture. His argument states that English instruction of further cultures is a much more effective way to introduce cultural values and beliefs to college students. Typically foreign language courses only skim the surface of foreign cultures and their histories; eliminating the ineffective language component allows in- depth study of a cultures values and belief systems leading to true understanding of their people. Schaefer (1990) argues that by not requiring a level of proficiency, colleges are not taking language acquisition seriously. As students will not benefit from bilingualism, schools should eliminate their programs altogether. Eaton (2012), also questions the level of acquisition stating, Fluency goes beyond coping and even beyond having conversational ability in a language (p. 5). Demie (2011) reports that it takes three to five years to develop oral proficiency in a REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 9 language, but six to eight years to reach academic fluency; furthermore, this established time span is based on full immersion of elementary students, known to attain language at a much higher rate than adults. Archibald et al. (2006) insists that acquisition expectations must be realistic. The current college method of teaching introductory language courses three hours per week for 16 weeks each semester will not lead to second language fluency. Panetta (1999) stated, The prevalent practice of offering and sometimes requiring one or two years of foreign language study for high school or college graduation is simply inadequate for giving students meaningful competence in foreign languages, (p. 1) and Shaw (1999) found that the lack of proficiency gained in foreign language courses suggests that the study is not essential to the attainment of a liberal arts education. Yet 50% of American colleges and universities continue with the existing course requirement. Without cultural insight and skills, even fluent speakers can seriously misinterpret the messages they hear or read, and the messages they intend to communicate can be misunderstood (Wenli, 2005). Soltani and Keyvanara (2013) report that many highly intelligent people fail in cultural interactions due to their lack of adaptability, not their lack of language skill. Exposure to cultural instruction would alleviate the failures that come with not being culturally intelligent. Practical Application of CQ Why do Americas college graduates need to increase their CQ? How will it impact the United States and the diverse cultures calling this country their home? After researching Seung- Hui Cho, the speech-delayed South Korean immigrant who carried out the Virginia Tech shooting, Cheng (2007) emphasized that speech and language pathologists need to shift our theoretical paradigm from reduction of accent to enhancement of communication (p. 39). REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 10 Chengs research uncovered that some families within the Asian cultures feel great shame in children who have disabilities and choose to avoid these issues as opposed to addressing them. Furthermore, the this avoidance of professional intervention due to the apparent shame felt over their childs speech delay resulted in years of documented peer bullying for Cho. Though Cheng hesitated to claim CQ would have prevented the tragedy, she questioned the impact an educated culture could have had. Cheng asserts that speech-language pathologists require cultural information to make accurate diagnoses and develop intervention strategies. Though longevity in America increases the likelihood that an immigrant will adopt English as their main spoken language (Ryan, 2013), fluency does not equate to shared beliefs, values and taboos as shown in the Virginia Tech case. Ryan further showed that the numbers of foreign language speakers are increasing, intensifying the need for culturally intelligent and educated providers. American educators are another professional population who require the practical application of cultural education and the resulting increased CQ. While teachers in American schools will undoubtedly continue to teach in English, their classrooms will be filled with a culturally diverse population of students demanding culturally intelligent teachers. Furthermore, Tatum (2003) discovered that even though like attracts like in social situations like schools, exposure to and meaningful contact with diverse groups helps to reduce the bias and tensions apparent in multi- cultural circumstances. Moreover, a true understanding of cultural differences eradicates barriers, resulting in inclusive communities and improved relationships among multi-cultural groups (Westby, 2012). To create this sense of cultural inclusion in American schools, Petrovic (2011) recommends an increase of teacher CQ through teacher training curricula which emphasizes intercultural collaboration and cultural diversity. REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 11 Viewing todays college graduates as tomorrows leaders, CQ becomes a necessary intelligence to teach students. Groves and Feyerherm (2011) specifically tested the moderating effects of diversity of leader performance. Their findings indicated that CQ matters in multi- cultural situations, but that its importance is especially relevant in times of employee communication. The research further suggests that leaders must gain awareness of the cultural differences reflected in each subordinate. Having this ability reflects the leaders ability to communicate and guide the team more effectively. In a separate study, Neumann (1995) added that leaders should take, as their point of departure, the thinking and beliefs - the culturally ingrained understandings and values- of those whom they wish to lead (p. 271). Leaders need CQ to identify a diverse demographic and manage diversity effectively by adapting style, all while appreciating and recruiting diversity. Motivation, evaluations and HR strategies vary by cultural group, and effective leaders need to respect and allow individual and cultural identity while maintaining organizational culture. Ultimately, high levels of CQ allow people to surpass pretend respect and gain a genuine deference and value for people from other cultures (Livermore, 2010). Higher education is answering the call for increased demands of CQ by developing global understanding, cross-border, and travel abroad experiences for students and faculty. Haber and Getz (2011) designed a course focused on internationalization, the concept of promoting a community that embraces cultural differences, acknowledges cultural laws and enhances international relationships. As Bennett acknowledged, there is a shifting away from the mere hiring of diverse staff and a focus on the need for staff to be able to interact with people from diverse cultures (as seen in Haber & Getz, 2011). The participants were all master or doctoral level students studying student affairs. Student and instructor observations were collected REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 12 wherein one person began to acknowledge connections where differences had once occurred. Separating similarities from connections is a key element of CQ. In this example, the student acknowledged that the Muslim faith differed extremely from her Catholic beliefs, but she was able to connect her faith in God and her religions desire to help the vulnerable with the Muslims desire to do the same. Another observer reflected on the gender identity she experienced in the Arab culture. While she appreciated the modesty and respect afforded to Arab women, she felt trapped by the norms of marital status and careers for women (Haber & Getz, 2011). Opportunities like this allow college students to attain a respect and understanding of a foreign culture as they contrast foreign beliefs with their own.
Discussion Panetta (1999) recognized that most people fail to find the relevance in foreign language attainment and conceded that without that perception of relevance, language acquisition will continue to cease at required credit fulfillment (Rueda & Chen, 2005; Rafieyan, Abdul Majid, & Siew, 2013). While not the official world language, English has rooted itself internationally, and unless planning international travel, most people dont anticipate a need for fluency (Panetta, 1999). The census demonstrates that all Americans are living in a multi-cultural nation and college graduates, as future professionals, will need to interact in diverse situations. In their research, Rafieyan et al (2013) found that familiarity with and interest in a culture significantly impacts the pragmatic understanding in foreign language contexts. Their ultimate recommendations included advising textbook designers and foreign language instructors to incorporate cultural perspectives into class texts and discussions. While some believe that foreign language requirements bridge the gap between cultures, research shows that language pragmatics make second language acquisition inadequate for successful and meaningful REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 13 intercultural communication (Rafieyan, et al., 2013). Moreover, Petrovics (2011) study found that learning a foreign language did not impact levels of cultural intelligence showing that language does not lead to an understanding of culture. Archibald et al. (2006) argues that second language exposure enhances cultural awareness, thereby revealing variances in cultural practices, teaching respect for diversity, and limiting the judgmental behavior that comes with ignorance. Teaching CQ serves the same purpose with the ability to expose students to numerous cultures in a more effective and efficient way. Conclusion There is no question that bilingualism is a benefit to American students; the question lies in its reality of attainment at the college level. With the exception of students training specifically in a foreign language major, the stated goals for language study are better achieved through direct instruction of English, critical thinking skills, and cultural differences rather than instruction in a foreign language (Baron, 1982; Weingartner, 1992). American students need exposure to the values and beliefs of multiple cultures more than they need mediocrity in low- level language skills. As the federal government seeks security through bilingualism, leaders need to remember what can be said without words and what can be lost in translation. Dong and Wang (2010) insist that national security can only be strengthened by the mutual understanding of the nations (p. 172). While Dong and Wang equate this to second language acquisition in China, CQ similarly accomplishes the exchange of cultures and assists with globalization. Their argument that prejudice needs to be replaced with unity and diversity is best achieved on a global basis with CQ and demonstrated that college graduates need CQ more than they need exposure to a second language. REPLACE FOREIGN LANGUAGE WITH CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE 14
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