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5. COMBUSTION & FUELS

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SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

Table of Contents
1.

Fuel Theory.......................................................................................... 5.1

2.

Solid Fuel.............................................................................................. 5.2

2.1 Coal ............................................................................................. 5.2
2.2 Coke............................................................................................. 5.4

3.

Fuel Oil................................................................................................. 5.4

3.1 Main Characteristics..................................................................... 5.4
3.2 Viscosity ...................................................................................... 5.4

4.

Waste Fuel............................................................................................ 5.5

5.

Natural Gas.......................................................................................... 5.6

6.

Flame Theory ....................................................................................... 5.7

6.1 Definition..................................................................................... 5.7
6.2 Flame Speed................................................................................. 5.7
6.3 Flame Radiation ........................................................................... 5.7
6.4 Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature .................................. 5.7

7.

Burner Pipes ........................................................................................ 5.8

7.1 Number of Air Circuits................................................................. 5.8
7.2 Primary Air .................................................................................. 5.8
7.3 Transport air................................................................................. 5.9
7.4 Specific Impulse........................................................................... 5.9
7.5 Swirl .......................................................................................... 5.10
7.6 Examples of Burner Tip.............................................................. 5.10

8.

Fuel Grinding and Dosing ................................................................. 5.12

8.1 Solid Fuel Grindability ............................................................... 5.12
8.2 Solid Fuel Fineness .................................................................... 5.12
8.3 Dosing........................................................................................ 5.13
8.4 Safety Considerations ................................................................. 5.13
8.5 Fuel Grinders ............................................................................. 5.13

Index - i
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1. Fuel Theory
a) Low Heating Value
LHV is calculated from the Higher Heating Value (obtained by bomb calorimeter)
Considering that :
- Water created by the combustion doesnt condense
- The reaction takes place under constant pressure
LHV = HHV - 567W (at std. Temp = 25oC) in metric units
LHV = HHV 1020W (std. Temp = 60oF) in english units
-

LHV, HHV in kcal/kg (BTU/lb)

W in kg (lb) water vaporized per kg (lb) or fuel
W=
H2O contained in the fuel + H2O created by the combustion
H2O created by the combustion : 2H + O2 -> H2O
W=
% (H2O)+ 9*% (H) where % expressed in weight in the fuel

The difference between the HHV and the LHV will vary with fuel type. The greater the proportion of
hydrogen in a fuel, the lower the resulting LHV:
Fuel
Coal
Coke
Waste Fuel
Fuel oil
Nat. gas

%H
5
4
10
10
25

HHV
(Btu/lb)
12,000
14,000
9,000
19,000
23,000

LHV
(Btu/lb)
11,540
13,630
8,070
18,070
20,680

LHV
(kcal/kg)
6410
7570
4480
10040
11490

LHV as a
% of HHV
96
97
90
95
90

Rule of thumb:
One cubic foot of air (+stochiometric amount of NG or oil) releases 100 Btu of heat (for fuel), 1m3 air
releases about 900 kcal.
b) Volatile Matter
Volatile matter is the loss in weight, corrected for moisture, of a sample heated to 950oC in the absence of
air.
Ignition
Temperature C

300

% VM

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c) Ash
Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after burning coal heated to 750oC in an oxidizing atmosphere until
there is not weight change. It is composed chiefly (95-99%) of oxides of Si, Al, Fe, and Ca; Mg, Ti, S, Na,
K, and trace elements can also be present.
d) Fixed Carbon
Fixed carbon is the residue left after the volatile matter is driven off and is calculated as:
F.C. = 100 (% ash + % moisture + % volatile matter)
e) Flammability
H2

Limit flammability in air

Inf limit (%)
Sup limit (%)
4
75

Temp auto flame

in air (C)
570

CO
CH4

12.5
5

74
15

610
580

C2H6

12.5

490

C3H8

2.2

9.5

480

C4H10

1.7

8.5

420

f) Combustion Reaction Time

Coal
Heavy oil
Light oil
0.1to 1 second
0.1
0.01 to 0.001
In second, at atmospheric pressure

Gas
0.001

2. Solid Fuel
2.1 Coal
a) Main Coal Characteristics
Approximate Analysis and bulk density for Various Coals
Group
Anthracite
Meta anthracite
Anthracite
Semi anthracite
Bituminous
Low-vol
Med volatile
High vol A
High vol B
High vol C
Subbituminous
A
B
C
Lignitic
A
B

Fixed carbon (%)

< than

Volatile matter (%)

than

> than

98
92
86

98
92

2
2
8

86
78
69

14
22
31

Heat value (Btu/lb.)

than

< than

Kg/m3
800-930

8
14
670-910

78
69

22
31
13,000
11,500
10,500
9,500
8,300
640-860
6,300

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SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

b) Combustion Calculation for Coal

Ultimate Analysis (Dry Basis)

Proximate Analysis
Volatile
Free carbon
Moisture
Ash
HHV

22.19
64.29
6.5
12.5
7.259

LHV = HHV 5218 H

LHV = HHV 93.9196*H

% dry
% dry
%
% dry
kcal/kg coal dry
(kcal/kg) @ 25 C,
or
(Btu/lb)

Carbon
Hydrogen
Sulfur
Nitrogen
Chlorine
Oxygen
Ash

% weight
74.87
3.78
2.24
1.93
0.08
3.53
13.57

C:
H2:
S:
N2:
Cl:
O2:

nb moles/kg
62.33
18.75
0.70
0.69
1.10

Where: H is the mass fraction of hydrogen in the fuel.

Combustion Equations
C + O2 CO2 + 7 ,829 kcal / kg C

1
H 2 + O2 H 2 O + 2 ,8641 kcal / kg H
2
- the oxydation of coal is very quick: 0.1 to 0.3 seconds

S + O 2 SO2 + 2 ,213 kcal / kg S

Heat Value Calculation

If (x) is the ponderal % of x, the heat value can be calculated with the following formula:
(O ) 6W , where W is H O content of the fuel
- LHV (kcal/kg) = 80.8(C ) + 22.45(S ) + 287 * (H )
2
8
- HHV = 80.8(C ) + 22.45(S ) + 339.4(H ) 35.9(O )

Neutral Combustion Air for Coal

(C ) + (S ) + (H ) (O )
22.4
*
21
12.01 32.06 4 *1.01 2 *15.99

Input in mass % V=

Rule of thumb
7.6 Nm3/kg of dry coal
Neutral Combustion Products
Nm3/kg
Combustion
CO2
1.306
H2O
0.393
SO2
0.015
N2
5.721
H2O
0.081
Moisture
Total
7.515

Kg/kg
2.564
0.316
0.042
7.152
0.065
10.138

%vol
17.4
5.2
0.2
76.1
1.1

%weight
25.3
3.1
0.4
70.5
0.7

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2.2 Coke

Coke is the solid, cellular, infusible material

remaining after carbonization of coal, pitch,
petroleum residue and other carbonaceous
materials. Thus, its oxydation takes more
time: 1 to 2 seconds.

LHV
MJ/t
%C
%H
C/H Ratio
%S
ASH content (%)
Volatile matter (%)
Granulometry (mm)
Moisture content (%)
Ignition Temperature
Hard Grove (HGI)

Delayed Coke
34,300
88 90
3.9 4.5
21
26
0.5 1.5
10 15
0 50
7 10
220 - 250
90 100

Fluid Coke
31,000
87 88
23
35
58
28
5 10
08
5 10
230 250
10 - 30

3. Fuel Oil
3.1 Main Characteristics
Comp
C
H
O
N
S
Ash
C/H ratio
Specific Gravity

Api Gravity =

N1
86.4
13.6
0.01
0.003
0.09
<0.01
6.35

N2
87.3
12.6
0.04
0.006
0.22
<0.01
6.93
0.849

N4
86.47
11.65
0.27
0.24
1.35
0.02
7.42
0.902

N6 FO
87.26
10.49
0.64
0.28
0.84
0.04
8.31

N6
84.67
11.02
0.38
0.18
3.97
0.02
7.62
0.965

141.5
131.5 ( for SG < 1)
Specific Gravity

3.2 Viscosity
Theory
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is the opposite of fluidity.
- abs visc is absolute viscosity, measured in cp (centipoise);
- kin visc is kinematic viscosity, C measured in cs or cSt (centistokes)
- abs visc in cp = kin visc cs * specific gravity
1 poise = 100 cp = 1 dyne.s/cm2+ = 1 g/s*cm, 1 stoke = 100 cs = 0.000 1 m2/s

Viscosity - temperature information for selected fuel oils

The far right-hand columns list temperatures required to reduce the oil viscosity to levels often required for
easy pumping (440cSt) and for atomization (20.7cSt).

Required:
- Viscosity: 20-25cSt, filtration<125m (abrasion and clogging: 3-stage filtration at 35, 60 and 120#)
- Variation at the pump should not be higher than 5cSt

5.4

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Type of oil

Viscosity () at 38C (cs)

#6 max
#6 min
#5 max
#5 min
#4 max
#4 min
#2 max

2200
220
165
32.1
20.7
6.9
3.5

SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

Oil temperature (in C)

required for
pumping
Atomisation
59
129
28
91
22
83
-7
50
-17
38
-59
-3
-17

Other Viscosities
At C
Water
Air
Natural gas
1.124
0.0180
0.011
(cp)
1.130
14.69
14.92
(cs)
Approximate viscosity of water at 21C is 1 cp and 1 cs

4. Waste Fuel
a) Waste Fuel Specification
Heat Content
<
Ash content

<

Specific gravity
Suspended solids
Water
Total halogens
Sulphur
Nitrogen
Inorganic acids and bases
Barium
Chromium
Lead
Zinc
Vanadium
PCB and PBB
Benzene
Odor

<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<

23 GJ/T (9900 Btu/lb) ASTM D-240-76 range 28-32 GJ/T (12000-13800

Btu/lb)
7%
1.2 kg/L
30% (after being screened through a 30 mesh sieve)
1% (as separated phase)
2%
3%
1%
Extractable pH of 4 of 11
3000 ppm
300 ppm
3000 ppm
3000 ppm
200 ppm
50 ppm
0.5%
Characteristic of solvents as per ASTM 1296-69

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SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

b) Approximate Properties of some By-product and Waste Fuels

Different moisture contents may change these values considerably.
By Product or Waste
Animal fats
Brown paper
Corn cobs
Paint
Rubber waste
Waste, type 0, trash
Waste, type 1, rubbish
Waste, type 2, refuse
Waste, type 3, garbage
Waste, type 4, pathological
Waste, type 6, compact
Wood

% Ash /
Moisture
1.0/5
3/5
20/30
5/10
10/25
5/70
5/70
5/85
3/10

Density
Lb/ft3
Kg/m3
50-60
801-961
7
112
10-15
160-240
62-125
8-10
8-10
15-20
30-35
45-55
35-50
20

993-2000
128-160
128-160
240-320
481-561
721-881
561-801
320

Gross Heat Value

Btu/lb
Kcal/kg
17,000
9,445
7,250
4,028
8,000
4,445
8,000
4,445
10,000
5,556
8,500
4,723
6,500
3,611
4,300
2,389
2,500
1,389
1,000
556
7,500
4,167
9,000
5,000

Tires are usually high volatile content and high S and Fe/Zn content (if steel belts are not removed).
Biomass fuels contain usually high level of moisture and O2 and may have a higher char reactivity than coal.

5. Natural Gas
a) Gas Characteristics
Typical example
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10 (ISO+N)
C5H10 (ISO+N)
S
CO2
N2
H2
He
O2
Total

Content (%)
93.93
2.42
0.26
0.002
0
0
0.34
3.05
0
0
0

LHV (Kcal/Nm3)
8,556
15,223
21,795
28,336
32,123

Sp weight (kg/Nm3)
0.7143
1.3393
1.9643
2.589
3.2143

8462

1.9643
1.2500
0.0893
0.1339
1.4286
0.7533

b) Combustion

Combustion Equations for Natural Gas

CH 4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H 2 O
7
C 2 H 6 + O2 2 CO2 + 3 H 2 O
2
C 3 H 8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H 2 O
13
C 4 H 10 + O 2 4 CO2 + 5 H 2 O
2

C 5 H 12 + 8 O2 5 CO2 + 6 H 2 O
1
H 2 + O2 H 2 O
2
S + O2 SO2

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SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

Neutral Combustion Air for natural gas

If [x] is the volume fraction of x, the neutral combustion air is:
1
7
13
1
* 2 * [CH 4 ] + * [C 2 H 6 ] + 5 * [C 3 H 8 ] + * [C 4 H 10 ] + 8 * [C 5 H 12 ] + * [H 2 ] + 1 * [S ] [O2 ]
0.21
2
2
2

Rule of thumb
9.412 Nm3/Nm3gas (for the example)
Neutral Combustion Products for natural gas
Nm3/Nm3 gas
0.999
0.000
1.962
7.466
10.426

CO2
SO2
H2O
N2
Total:

kg/Nm3 gas
1.962
0.000
1.576
9.332
12.871

% volume
9.58%
0.00%
18.81%
71.60%

% weight
15.25%
0.00%
12.25%
72.51%

Natural Gas Heat Value

kcal / m 3 = 90.3 [CH 4 ] + 159.2 [C 2 H 6 ] + 229 [C 3 H 8 ] .

6. Flame Theory
6.1 Definition

The oxidation reaction is an exothermic reaction, which can be developed either slowly or quickly: The fast
reaction leads to the flame.

6.2 Flame Speed

In stable burner flames, the flame front appears to be stationary because the flame is moving toward the
burner at the same speed that the fuel air mixture is coming out of the burner.
Thus risk of blow off if mixture speed>flame speed.
Natural gas flame speed in air: 0.3m/s and in Oxygen: 4 to 5m/s.

6.3 Flame Radiation

R = T4
= Boltsman constant
T = Flame temperature

: flame intensity:

1 solid fuel
0.8 0.95 heavy oil
0.25 0.70 gas

6.4 Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature

( net heat value of the fuel ) ( effect of disssociation )

( weight of comb product ) * ( specific heat of comb prodct )
An increase of flame temperature can be obtained by:
- Increasing combustion air temperature (ex: air temp: (200, 500, 900F) gives flame temp (3510, 3630,
3800)
- Decreasing inerts:
Avoid high excess air
O2 enrichment (ex: % O2 (21, 25, 29) gives flame temp (3650, 3900, 4150) in case of coal, air
preheated at 510F)
T=

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SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

Temperature Impact

% 02preheat temperature, F

Fuel Requirements
To provide 1 000 000 Btu of available
heat (fuel is CH4 and excess air=2%)
then for instance with air (21% O2) it
requires 4.6/2.3=2 times as much fuel
when preheat temp=500F as when
preheat is 1500F when flue gas
temperature is 3000F

Fuel Requirement, Million Btu hhv

Completeness of combustion (full low heat value to be obtained):

Optimum excess air
High rate of mixing fuel and combustion air
Water vapor in the flame decreases the flame temperature.
Flue Gas.

7. Burner Pipes

The flame should be centered along the kiln axis.

7.1 Number of Air Circuits

For solid fuels, the number of air circuits determines the degree of control on the flame shape.

Single Circuit Burner Pipe

Minimal control.
The solid fuel has to be carried with the air.
High velocities: Higher fan pressure requirement, higher wear in the circuit.
Required burner tip velocity is of the order of 80 m/s.
Two-circuit Burner
Swirl + high velocity transport air.
Additional control due to swirl but the problems of high pressure fan and high wear rate remain.
Three-circuit Burner
(swirl + high velocity axial + low velocity transport air).
The most versatile one. The solid fuel does not have to be brought at a high velocity.
Clearance of top guide vanes is critical since it will control eccentricity of flame.

7.2 Primary Air

Indirect System
The primary air is usually controlled at below 12 % of the total combustion air.
Direct system
No recirculation of mill exit air, the primary air can be as high as 30 to 35 % of total combustion air. All of
the air exiting the mill system enters the pyro-process.

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SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

Semi-direct system
Primary air quantity varies (usually 18 to 25 %), depending upon the incoming fuel moisture.
To keep a constant flow (10 to 15 % of total combustion air), it is possible to send the "overflow" to the kiln
hood (for the direct or semi-direct system).
Primary air impact on heat consumption
Indirect
Semi-direct
Primary air
12%
20-25%
kcal/kg
4-5
20-25

Direct
30-35%
50

Tip velocity:
axial air
80 to 250 m/s

transport air
20 to 40 m/s

swirl air
50 to 250 m/s

gas
200 m/s

Pressure drop within burner pipe:

For a three-circuit burner:
700 to 1000 mm H2O for axial air;
150 to 600 mm H2O for swirl air;

Blower Design Pressure

3000 - 7000

600 to 1000 mm H2O for transport air (up to 1200 mm

H2O for a modified three-circuit burner).

200 - 2000
2000 - 3500

7.3 Transport air

Velocity
The steadiest possible (25-35 m/s).
Sufficient to prevent pulsations: 3-5 kg of coal/Nm3 air, up to 7 kg/m3.
Geometry
Rising parts vertical and not diagonal.
As short as possible.
Liquid fuel injection: use of injectors :
MY type: 40 bars: when operation is stable.
ZV2 (assisted pulverization): between 2 and 20 bars: when wide range of flow variation.

7.4 Specific Impulse

Is = Characterizes approximately the primary/secondary air ratio irrespective of the kiln. Usually two thirds
or more of the primary air (non included transport air).
Momentum impulse:
where:
M *V
Is =
Q
- Q = ki ln ( heat power )inGJ .h 1
-

M = primary airflow ( in the axe ) in kg .s 1

V = Air Speed in m.s 1

Rules of thumb
Specific impulse
Fuel Oil
Coal
Coke

Long Kilns
1,2 N.h.GJ-1
1,5 N.h.GJ-1
1,8 N.h.GJ-1

Short Kilns
1,2 N.h.GJ-1
1,5 N.h.GJ-1
1,8 N.h.GJ-1

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7.5 Swirl

Swirl is the ratio of the tangential component produced by the rotational air to the sum of the axial
components Ix produced by the various primary air and gas circuits.
It improves the stability by forming toroidal recirculation zones that recirculate heat and species (when
Sw>0.3).
where:
Rotational moment / axial moment ratio
- I r = I xr t g
Vry
Rot. circ. velocity: Vr

Vrx

I r r g
SW =
I x . De

rg

where:

I r = Qmr . Vry
Ix =

I
i xi

The equivalent diameter of the flow is given by:

2Qm

De =

I : tangential impulsion

I xr : rotational circuit axial impulsion

: swirl angle (usually between 20 and 35
degree: smaller for long dry kiln)
The gyration radius defines, on the basis of the
respective radius of the rotational circuit at the
burner pipe tip.
- rg = 2/3 (re3 ri3) / (re2 ri2)
- re = external radius
- ri = internal radius
where:
- Qm = The total mass flowrate of the air injected
m = The average specific gravity of the air
- = The total axial impulse

Rules of thumb
swirl
Fuel, coal, coke
Gas

Long Kilns
0,02 to 0.08
0,05

Short Kilns
0,12 to 0.15
0,05

7.6 Examples of Burner Tip

air gun

Pillard Standard
Axial
Transport
Swirl
Gas

axial air holes

Tip velocity 100 m/s

10% of primary air

rotational circuit
2 expansion seals

Lafarge Burner
Axial
Transpor
t
Swirl
Gas

coal conveying
circuit

Axial Tip velocity: 250 m/s

< 12% primary air

central air
(flame catcher)

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Burner Calculation (LAFARGE)

SWIRL AND MOMENTUM DETERMINATION

Original: CLV / S.THIERS
Update: CTS / W.Oliveira

Sep-99

(Inputs are in bold characters)

COMMENTS :

TIP CROSS SECTION AREAS

AXIAL AIR
Holes 1, Vanes 2 : 1
3963
mm
TRANSPORT AIR
9096
SWIRL AIR
2491

218 m/s

Version 2.2

PLANT :
Date : 24/02/2000
Name

Apr-95

Diameters :
(mm)
320.7
291.7

36 m/s

196.7
172.8

71.6%

23 m/s

247.7
223.1

212 m/s

% cross section reduction

2667
2360

31 m/s

mm

56.2%

26 m/s

2500
1437

mm

DETAILS OF THE TIP

Swirl
Axial (if vanes)

Swirler
angle (o)
35
-

Axial (if holes)

GENERAL DATA
Kiln TYPE :

Number
of vanes
20

Number of holes :

slots
width(mm)
12.0

groove width
(mm)
9.800

355.6
9.525

273.1
12.7
219.1
8.179

141.3
6.553

radial gap
vanes(mm)
0.5

radius
raccord.
1

Diameter :

24

AS

14.50

2630.00

PRODUCTION (T CK /d ) :

NP : no preca, AT : air through, AS : air seperat.

70.26
2.03
3.09

SPECIFIC HEAT CONSUMPTION

AT THE BLAST PIPE
COKE/COAL 25/75

3486.00

Specific heat consumpt.kJ/kg CK :

FUEL ANALYSIS , AS FIRED (DRY BASIS)

%C
%S
%H

Dext :
thk :
mmWG
Nm/h
Dext :
thk :
Dext :
thk :
mmWG
Nm/h
Dext :
thk :

Swirl Air: F=Fan; B=Blower

%O
NCA
Nm/kg fuel

Throughput
kg/h
4760

L.H.V.
KJ/kg
28087

Percent of heat at back- end :

5.43

B
65.00

6.96

Total (GJ/h ) :
GAS FLOW MEASUREMENTS
Static pressure in the tip (mm WG)
Temperature in the pipe ( deg C)
Theoretical flow rate ( Nm/h)
Bias coefficient :
Accepted flowrate ( Nm/h)

Axial
2667
100
2360
1.00
2360

Swirl
2500
100
1437
1.00
1437

Axial / Swirl distribution

62%

4.14

Shell internal diameter (m ) :

Total combust. air ( Nm/hr) :

99400.21
Therm.power
GJ/h
133.70
0.00
0.00
0.00
Recalculated SHC :
133.70
Transport
100
-

3486

kJ/kg CK

38%

860

Fuel to air ratio:

4.05 kg coal/m

RESULTS
FLOW VELOCITIES

Axial

Swirl

Swirl

36

Is
N.h/GJ
2.14

Fuel-Oil
Coal
Coke

1.2
1.5
1.8

0.15
0.15
0.15

Transport

subsonic

Nature of flow
Release tip velocity (m/s)
Primary air rate, axial
:
swirl :
transport :
Axial + Transport:
Primary air rate

subsonic

velocity

218

212
Targets:

6.78%
4.13%
2.47%
9.26%
13.39%

THERMAL LOAD (MW/m ) :

0.18

3.16

5.11

CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING

VADE-MECUM

SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

8. Fuel Grinding and Dosing

8.1 Solid Fuel Grindability

The Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) indicates the ease of grinding solid fuel.
A standard coal in the cement industry has a HGI of 65 or 76.
HGImix = x * HGI coal + y * HGI coke.

Bowl Mill (Raymond) Capacity

Fuel Grindability (Hardgrove)

100

80

60

Passing 75um (#200)

40

90% Raymond
85% Raymond
80% Raymond
75% Raymond

20
0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Mill Capacity Factor

0.10 mill capacity factor for 5 HGI

8.2 Solid Fuel Fineness

Fineness
S / A < 1.2
S /A > 1.2
70 Mesh
>99%
>99.9%
98 0.7 * % VM
98 0.6 * % VM
200 Mesh
S/A (molar ratio) =%SO3/80*(1/(%Na2O/62+%K2O/94))
where: % are expressed in weight, VM = Volatile Matter, S = Sulfur, A = Alkali Equivalent (in the mix and
fuel ashes).
When S/A (molar ratio) > 1.2, risk of volatilization: need better combustion.
Rules of thumb
5% more passing at 200# yields to 15-20% less mill capacity.
Addition of HES: 5% production increase at constant fineness.
Relationship: Burning Time & Particle Size
Burning Time (seconds)

10
Combustion Temp.
= 900C

1
Combustion Temp.
= 1500C

.1
.01

.1
Diameter of coal particle (mm)

5.12

CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING

VADE-MECUM

SECTION 5 COMBUSTION & FUELS

8.3 Dosing

Dosing should insure a regular and steady feeding of the burner. The targeted precision should be in the
range of 1% (see Les Cahiers Techniques Combustion). Coal concentration up to 7kg/m3 of air.

8.4 Safety Considerations

Process has to deal with safety.

Recommendations
(to be adjusted plant by plant)
Sensor
Storage temperature, external, unpacted
Raw silo (lower base)
Raw silo (top) CO
Grinding mill outlet temp (coke)
Grinding mill outlet temp (Coal)
Mill inlet temp: (High VM : 40%)
Mill inlet temp: (Low VM : 20%)
Filter outlet O2 (coke)
Filter outlet (coal)
(sources: PyroI, modified 2000, RdeB)

Threshold
50C
50C
1500 ppm
120C
65C
200C
360C
15%
13%

Sensor
Filter outlet temp (coke)
Temp difference (outlet-inlet)
Temp difference variation
Filter outlet CO
Filter hopper temp (coke)
Pulverized hopper CO
Pulverized hopper temp
Fired fuel into the kiln (%H2O)
Transport air (non inert/inert) temp (Coal)

Threshold
105C
10C
10C
2000ppm
85C
1000ppm
85C
0.5-1.5%
65/85C

8.5 Fuel Grinders

Feed size: 0-50mm, moisture content: 10-15%, exhaust gases dust load: 500-600g/m3.
Hot gases temperature 250-400C, dew point: 20-70C, exhaust gases temperature: 80-100C.
Moisture content in the blasted fuel below 1%.
Type of grinder
Hammer mill
Tube mill
Roller mill
Ring ball mill (Babcock)
kWh/t
20-30
25-30
10-13
Lifetime wear part
500-1000h
Liners: 25-40000h 3-5000 h
9-12000h
Drying capacity
0-15% H2O
0-15% H2O
0-20% H2O

Tube mill
Balls
Liners
Diaphragms

Wear rate (g/t)

80-200
8-20
8-20

Life (h)
25-40000
10-20000

Rollermill
Roller liners
Table liners
Casting liners

Wear rate (g/t)

5-20
4-10
3-5

Life (h)
4-9000
4-12000
2-12000

Rules of thumb:
Mill sweep : 1.7 to 2.2 Nm3/kg fuel
Drying efficiency : average 1200kcal/kgH2O for a residual moisture of 0.5 to 1.5%

5.13