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Question

Why Tourism?

Why tourism simply imply why do people go on tour simply implies what motivates tourist to go on and to be able
to explain that, one has to understand some major key words and facts such as tourism, tourists.
Tourism is a collection of activities, services, and industries that deliver a travel experience including transportation,
accommodation, eating and drinking, establishments, retail shops, entertainment businesses, activities, and other
hospitality services provided to individuals travelling away from home.
Tourists are people who travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for more than twenty-four hours
and not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other activities remunerated from within the place
visited.
In other words people who travel for a holiday are usually called tourists while the business of travel is known
as tourism. People travel to other countries for many different reasons. It may be for a holiday to the snow or a
tropical island, to experience an exciting part of the world, to participate in a sporting event, or to visit relatives
overseas and leisure travel. Many people also travel to other countries for business reasons, medical reasons, and
educational reasons for creativity reasons and so on.
To understand tourism motivations and their quest for experience it is worthwhile to outline the following;

Motivation
While motivation is only one of many variables in explaining tourist behaviour, it is nonetheless a very critical one,
as it constitutes the driving force behind all behaviour. Motivation sets the stage for forming people's goals and is
reflected in both travel choice and behaviour; as such it influences people's expectations, which in turn determine the
perception of experiences. Motivation is therefore a factor in satisfaction formation.

Basic motivation theory suggests a dynamic process of internal psychological factors (needs, wants and goals),
causing an uncomfortable level of tension within individuals minds and bodies, resulting in actions aimed at
releasing that tension and satisfying these needs. Motives, implying such an action, require the awareness of needs,
as well as objectives, promising to satisfy these now conscious needs in order to create wants and move people to
buy. Objectives or goals are presented in the form of products and services, it is therefore the role of marketing to
create awareness of needs and suggest appropriate objectives, promising the satisfaction of these.




Several authors suggest that in the Western World free time and holidays are connected to the concept of self-
actualisation or self-realisation. The latter defined by Grunow-Lutter (1983. p. 76) as "a person's dynamic
relationship between the real and the ideal self, constituting a process of decreasing the distance between these two
cognitive systems, themselves subject to continuous change." It is the individual's aim to achieve a state of stability,
or homeostasis, which is disrupted when the person becomes aware of the gap between real and ideal self, or as
Goosens calls it a need deficiency. The resulting need to self-actualise represents the motive, which under the
constraints of the situation sets the stage for the process of motivation.

But to what extent does tourism satisfy the intrinsic need for self-actualisation? Tinsley and Eldredge (1995)
summarise 15 years of research into psychological needs, satisfied by leisure activities, and proposed leisure
activities clusters such as novelty, sensual enjoyment, cognitive stimulation, self-expression, creativity, vicarious
competition, relaxation, agency, belongingness and service. It is questioned however; whether these superficial
needs are intrinsically motivated, suggesting that these motivations are merely culturally learned stereotypes or
explanations for leisure behaviour. As a writer states, a widely accepted integrated theory for needs and goals behind
motivation is lacking. The question is of course why this is the case.

Research into motivation can be distinguished into two categories, the behaviourist and the cognivist approach. The
discussion has therefore traditionally revolved around either push or pulls factors influencing tourist behaviour. Push
factors represent lasting dispositions, as they are internally generated drives. The individual, energised by such
drives, will then search objects for the promise of drive reduction and develop a motive. The behaviourist view thus
emphasises the emotional parameter of decision-making, while the cognivist approach focuses on situational
parameters in which motives are expressed, consequently encompassing a certain knowledge which the tourist holds
about goal attributes as well as a rational weighing up of situational constraints. This cognitive process results in
motivations, which are more object specific than motives, as these only imply a class of objects and may result in a
range of different behaviours, depending on the situation.
This one-dimensional approach has been criticised however, as push and pull factors influence the consumer
simultaneously, integrated by the concept of involvement, an unobservable state of motivation, arousal, or interest,
which is evoked by stimulus or situations. This is the case, since pull factors such as marketing stimuli as well as the
destination's and service's attributes respond to and reinforce push factors. Consequently research increasingly seeks
to integrate emotions and cognition in the individual's decision-making process, indicating a more holistic approach.






As a result it became evident that people's intrinsic needs are influenced by external factors. Rojek (1990) asserts
that in post-modern society the superstructure of advertising, television, fashion, lifestyle magazines and designer
values increasingly take the role of forming knowledge and beliefs. People's needs are neutral, as motives however,
they require an object towards which the need is directed, and when linked to actual situations, cultural and social
impacts are also applied. Situations raise motives to the level of values, as such they are evaluations based on
learned behaviour and perception. If a drive is reduced satisfactorily the individual is likely to remember the
behaviour and employ the same behaviour again, thus acquiring habits. Tourism experiences may therefore become
learned behaviour and acquire the role of habit enforcers. Cognivists argue that knowledge and beliefs in future
rewards, anticipatory in nature, are equally a product of formerly encountered situations, and external formation.

It may be concluded that motives merely represent learned behaviour, which are influenced by offered objects or
tourism activities, while motivations represent knowledge and beliefs formed by society and culture or tourism
marketers. The psychogenic need for self-actualisation, abstract in nature, is therefore operationalized in a learned
and practical manner and expressed in values, which are learned strategies to either adapt one's environment to one's
needs or adapt one's self to a given environment. Such values equally include effects of enculturation and
socialisation. Furthermore the perceived gap between real and ideal self, may indicate both externally and internally
controlled evaluations.

We therefore inquire on what researchers can expect to know about individuals' drives, by asking them about their
motivations and needs as these may not be available to individuals as part of their consciousness. Iso-Ahola (1982)
states that "people do not walk around with numerous leisure needs in their minds and do not rationalise specific
causes of participation if their involvement is intrinsically motivated" (cited in Goosens 2000, p. 303). Hence it may
be assumed that needs are suggested by immediate social peers, and the wider context of particular social realities as
well as the influence of the media. Yet intrinsic leisure motivation, which is a global disposition describes a
tendency to seek intrinsic rewards, is characterised by self-determination, an awareness of internal needs and a
strong desire to make free choices based on these needs.

While self-actualisation may be accepted as a need intrinsic to all individuals, society exercises a great deal of
influence on the formation of the ideal self and thus perceived needs. However the notion of authentic or true self,
determined by way of experience, offers a solution to the predicament. Individualism symbolises four psychological
qualities, the first one is a sense of individual identity, based on the knowledge of who one is and what one's goals
and values are, as such it is related to the philosophical concept of true self, which indicates what an individual
reckons personally expressive and what it is to be actualised. The second is Maslow's self-actualisation, which is the
driving to be one's true self. The third quality is internal locus of control, which reflects a willingness to accept
personal responsibility for ones life, and finally principled (post conventional), moral reasoning, which involves
consistency with general abstract principles.

Consequently, only if tourists become more autonomous and thus aware of intrinsic needs and motives are they able
to self-actualise. Order is becoming less important in Western society and a desire for disorder in the tourism
experience is becoming more important. Note that opportunities for unplanned action and freedom from
institutionalised regulations are distinctive of Western tourists. This indicates that tourists exhibit a certain desire to
liberate their identities. In order for tourists to cease being just users of holidays, they must come to know
themselves, their motives and other cultures. It may therefore be assumed that self-actualisation is an intrinsic need,
characteristic of any tourist, but must be understood in terms of true self as opposed to ideal self and as such is
independent of societal pressures and involves the transcendence of habitual behaviours and mind states. This
proposition requires further elaboration and must be viewed in the context of modernity, which hinders this process
but at the same time brought about its awareness.

Implications
As study results suggest, people, who may be considered expressive individualists will also search for opportunities
to fulfilling intrinsic needs, while travelling. But perhaps more importantly, those individuals, whose aims are more
associated with utilitarian individualism as they may not consciously seek self-actualization on holiday and instead
focus on short-term satisfaction and material goals, appear to display the same desire for a more authentic way of
living, as their motives suggest. An Interviewee stated: "we are all looking for something that is just at ease in
being." In other words motivating factors, such as needs, motives and motivations may not be ends in themselves.
Hierarchically lower needs might be more immediate and address a short-term disequilibrium, but overcoming long-
term dissatisfactions will be the tourist's ultimate aim. It can be argued that there are no types of tourists, since they
may switch roles from one day to the next, all the time longing for a synergetic effect. Consequently it is this
synergy that the tourism industry must aim to satisfy. It may be argued that self-discovery through the act of self-
expression in tourism is indeed the synergetic effect tourists seek.

Escape from social obligations and the mundane tiring routine, is therefore the attempt to express one's true nature
and free oneself from limiting mindsets. The tourist may not merely wish to "get away from it all" but seek to return
to one's true self. However since tourism, as a form of self-discovery, has become a commodity and has proven to be
very profitable, it has also become subject to manipulation. Tourism is therefore often an inauthentic, frivolous
activity, characteristic of the kind of pseudo-experiences offered by modern capitalist society. Consequently tourists
are again faced with the same social conditions, which they hoped to escape from in the first place. However as
people balance the opportunities offered by leisure with their inner, spiritual needs they will come to face
themselves as a whole person and thus become more tolerant and considerate of others.






Tourism must therefore provide the conditions, in which tourists may express and identify with their most intimate
inclinations. But arguably tourism does indeed have the potential to do so, as it offers closeness to nature, the
appreciation of beauty and encounter with the diversity of human achievement. The opportunity for quiet
contemplation and reflection, as well as the contact with other cultures and ideas in new and unfamiliar surroundings
may raise the travellers awareness of his/her reality. As tourists embark on a journey in the hope of fulfilling their
innermost wishes, they may also gain a greater sense of knowledge about what truly satisfies them. Moreover the
tourists inner and outer boundaries will be expanded, as the distance and difference from the usual environment
may result in a renegotiation of the self, since identity is constructed in relation to differences and the self is used to
make sense of the other. However if tourists encounter commoditized inauthentic culture, this will only reinforce
Gestalten formed in people's minds by familiar cultural trajectories. In order for tourists to find authenticity inside
they must be able to find the authentic other.

Recommendations
In response to modern society, which has resulted in personal alienation and loss of identity, but also created
material well-being and physical security, individuals may search for inner rewards and aim to overcome rigid and
inauthentic ways of living, by way of escape. This global disposition, describing a tendency to seek inner rewards, is
the drive to self-actualize, which may be more or less conscious in people's minds and will influence the way people
behave during their tourism experience. As greater awareness of intrinsic motivating factors will shape the nature of
tourism and tourists alike, spirituality may become a vital component of tourism in general.

While it is hoped that these speculations are based on findings, which are supported by valid research efforts that
entailed the use of secondary, qualitative and quantitative data, it must be noted that the discussion of tourist
motivation has primarily revolved around the concept of self-actualization and was therefore subject to bias and
personal interpretation. The general motivational framework, proposed in this paper, thus demands further empirical
support, while speculations made, require further discussion. Other aspects, such as the perceived nature of obstacles
to self-actualization at home, but also the general readiness of consumers to use spiritual techniques as means to
future betterment, and the success of these when employed, would benefit greatly from further research.

Self-Discovery
Traditionally individuals were largely part of a collectivist social order, in which God's will and traditions
determined life. From the time of the Renaissance, however, the degree of external control diminished in favour of
more individualistic ways of living. Utilitarian individualism thus became characteristic of capitalistic enterprise
culture and encouraged people to satisfy their personal wants and maximise self-interest. Expressive individualism
extended this concept by shifting emphasis from satisfying wants, triggered by wealth and consumption, to focusing
on more intrinsic needs.

Another perspective is a subjective turn of modern culture, facilitated by scientific advances in the field of
psychology, causing people to become increasingly interested in the self, its capacity, value and problems. However
this process of detraditionalization of self, which has led to individualism, confronted individuals with a number of
problems. Heelas(1996) states that institutions such as work, education, consumer culture and social structures no
longer provide meaning or fulfilment for the individual. This phenomenon described as social saturation stems from
a social necessity to play out multiple roles, thus losing perspective of the real person within. Furthermore consumer
culture constantly raises expectations, creating a perceived gap between real and ideal self, resulting in a constant
mode of discontent as endless aspirations are bestowed upon the individual. Furthermore scientific, technological
and economic progress has created various problems, such as personal alienation, ecological disasters and new
diseases. Modernity can also be defined as an Iron Cage, dominating individuals with rules, regulations and
imperatives, in particular the imperative to consume.

These conditions may foster the urge to escape and seek alternatives, which may enable individuals to liberate their
identities and take control of their lives. Based on Maslow's (1970) notion of hierarchy of needs, Inglehard (1977)
identified a paradigm shift in post-modern society, away from material wellbeing and physical security to an
emphasis on quality in life. Advancing by means of externals is therefore discarded in favour of exploring inner
riches, with the aim of overcoming the contaminations of society, which render the individual rigid and inauthentic.
This aim was manifested in its most distinct form in the establishment of the New Age Movement.

Self-renewal
The term New Age Movement refers to the assumption that humanity is moving into a new era of spiritual
awakening. The initial impression of the New Age is one of an eclectic mixture of beliefs, drawing on ideas and
teachings from various Western and Eastern traditions and religions. While authors such as Lemesurier (1990) and
Streiker (1990) see no obvious connection between often contradictory ideas, Heelas (1996) and York (1995) arrive
at a deterministic characterisation, based on the constancy of lingua franca, which lies beneath its heterogeneity,
which may be termed self-spirituality. This concept is described by York (1995) as a common commitment to self-
directed personal growth and is based on the monistic assumption that the self is sacred and lies hidden underneath a
"contaminated mode of being" (Heelas 1996, p. 18), which has been created by socialisation. The New Age is
therefore occupied with discovering people's authentic nature, by encouraging an individualised quest within. This
quest is facilitated by raising awareness of the shortfalls of life, as conventionally experienced, and providing an
account of what it is to find perfection as well as offering the means for obtaining perfection (Heelas 1996).




In various New Age activities, such as workshops, retreats, seminars, lectures, rituals or healing sessions
participants will learn to appreciate that mechanised modes of living prevent actual experience. Behaviour externally
controlled by society and culture result in role-playing, unnatural, deterministic and misguided routines, disrupting
people's authentic nature. Inculcated by parents, the educational system and other institutions, these routines may
cause individuals to be enslaved by unfulfillable desires, deep-seated insecurities and anxiety-generating
imperatives. Self-limiting images and beliefs, the sense that one is a victim of circumstances but also guilt, fear and
recrimination, generated by past events, are all seen to dominate people's thinking.

In order to reach authentic vitality, creativity, love, tranquillity, wisdom, power, authority and other qualities
constituting a perfect life, the individual must overcome the socialised self, widely known as the ego, but also the
intellect or mind and experience the inner realm, also referred to as the Higher or authentic self. It is therefore the
transcendence of the ego, which is the internalised mode of tradition, whose authority must be lost, that constitutes
the objective of New Age disciplines. As such the New Age Movement is a highly optimistic, celebratory, utopian
and spiritual form of humanism. While it may be established that the New Age Movement offers individuals the
satisfaction of the need to self-actualise, by way of experiential self-discovery, it is necessary to view this in the
context of tourism.




Pilgrim

It is foremost the New Age seeker's connection to ancient and foreign traditions and associated sites, which may
provide the impetus to travel for reasons connected to the New Age. It was particularly during the 1960s, that
thousands of spiritual seekers followed the Hippy Trail motivated by a search for meaning and new values from
their Eastern Gurus. It can be argued that this can be seen as a new form of pilgrimage, since people embarked on a
journey of sacred wish fulfilment. While spiritually motivated travel, as old as spiritual believes themselves, may be
regarded as the oldest form of tourism, it was not until the Renaissance, that a distinction arose between the
believing pilgrim and the knowledge-seeking tourist, as travel for the sake of knowledge became politically feasible
and socially sanctioned. This distinction was described as a continuum with secular tourism as one extreme and
sacred pilgrimage as the other. But it was the phenomenon of mass tourism, largely a result of the Industrial
Revolution that made secular tourism the most prominent form of tourism.



This development in a temporal context, in conjunction with social beliefs and knowledge held at the time, she
suggested that reasons for travel are largely tied to cultural values. A supporting notion states that tourism and
pilgrimage may be seen as alternative categories of quest, rather than alternative institutions, as they share the
common goal of future betterment and the hope of experiencing a change. Yet this distinction also fades, when
considering the argument of anthropologists, who see tourism as a collective ritual and modern equivalent and
substitute for religion, celebrating that which is important to a society. Similar to participants of rituals, tourists will
experience non-ordinary states of mind and feel increased social solidarity with people of different classes as they
are released from a routinized social structure and enter ant structures or communities. Tourism is also characterised
by a temporal nature, and its structure corresponds to that of sacrifice in traditional societies.

The only distinction between tourist and pilgrim may therefore lie in exhibited behaviours, as only the existential
tourist truly accepts and immerses himself in a culture outside his own. The tourists snobbish and arrogant
behaviour, which often results in the imposition of familiar values on host communities, on the other hand, clearly
distinguishes the tourist from the pilgrim. A further difference may also lie in the culturally supplied language of
symbols: faith and devotion for the pilgrim and hope and nature appreciation for the tourist. But both tourist and
pilgrim are essentially questing for the same; fulfilment of their innermost wishes; sustained by religious belief on
the one hand and knowledge on the other, each will nevertheless carry a degree of reason as well as faith that these
wishes will be fulfilled.

Conclusion
Based on secondary research data it might be suggested, that New Age pilgrims and secular tourists, may not be
motivated to travel for different reasons, but that differing behaviour is the result of cultural constructs. Furthermore
individuals search for intrinsic rewards, which occurs as utilitarian individualism gives way to expressive
individualism, may explain why motivation theorists increasingly seek to identify this global disposition, termed
intrinsic motivations. This desire is met, however, with the difficulties that arise in identifying the real reasons
behind motivation, because these may remain shrouded by certain external and internal influences. The media,
societal pressures, institutions and cultural trajectories, but also habitual zed behaviour and unconscious internal
drives may distort the perception of intrinsic needs and goals.


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