1 Definition Narration as a communicative act in which a chain of happenings is meaningfully structured and transmitted in a particular medium and from a particular point of view underlies not only narrative fiction proper but also poems and plays in that they, too, represent temporally organized sequences and thus relate stories, albeit with certain genre specific differences, necessarily mediating them in the manner of pres entation! "yric poetry in the strict sense #and not only obviously narra tive poetry li$e ballads or verse romances% typically features strings of primarily mental or psychological happenings perceived through the consciousness of single spea$ers and articulated from their position! Drama enacts strings of happenings with actors in live performance, the presentation of which, though typically devoid of any overt present& ing agency, is mediated e!g! through selection, segmentation and ar& rangement! 'han$s to these features characteristic of narrative, lyric poems as well as plays performed on the stage can be profitably an alyzed with the transgeneric application of narratological categories, though with poetry the applicability of the notion of story and with drama that of mediation seems to be in question! ( )*plication 'ransgeneric narratology proceeds from the assumption that narra& tology+s highly differentiated system of categories can be applied to the analysis of both poems and plays, possibly opening the way to a more precise definition of their respective generic specificity, even though #lyric% poems do not seem to tell stories and stories in dramas do not seem to be mediated #but presented directly%! ,s far as poetry is con& cerned, the following argument concentrates on lyric poetry in the nar& row sense- that narratological categories are generally applicable to narrative verse is obvious! Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama .f narration is defined as the representation of chains of happenings in a medium by a mediating agent, then the three traditional genres, prose fiction, poetry #/ch0nert (112% and drama, can be differentiated semiotically by the e*tent to which they utilize the range of possible modes and levels of mediation # mediacy and narrative mediation%! 3hile novels, short stories, etc! typically ma$e use of all available levels and modes of mediation #superordinate narrator, subordinate character+s utterance 45 character6, various modes of 5 focalization%, lyric and dramatic te*ts can be reconstructed as reduced forms in which the range of instances of mediation varies in each case! /een in this way, lyric te*ts in the narrower sense #i!e! not 7ust verse narratives or ballads% are distinguished by a characteristic variability in the e*tent to which they use the range of levels and modes of mediation! "i$e prose narratives, they can instantiate the two fundamental constituents of the narrative process, temporal sequentiality and mediation, equally well! /imilarly to the enacted utterances of characters in dramatic te*ts, how& ever, they can also seemingly efface the narrator+s level and create the impression of performative immediacy of spea$ing! ,s a result, the spea$er+s voice is felt to emanate from simultaneously occurring e*pe rience and speech! 3hat a narratological approach to poetry is able to provide are a specific method of analyzing the sequential structure as well as a more precise instrument for differentiating the levels and modes of mediation in lyric poems #both of which in conventional manuals of poetry analysis are usually lac$ing%! .n dramatic te*ts in performance, on the other hand, the sequence of happenings is presented directly, corporeally, in the form of live char& acters interacting and communicating on stage, without an overt medi& ator #such as a 5 narrator% and seemingly without any mediation what& soever! Nevertheless, selection, segmentation, combination and focus of the scenes presented imply the e*istence of a superordinate mediat& ing instance #8ahn (1119 3eidle (11:% or, in other terms, of the ab& stract author # implied author%! .n addition, narrative elements and structures do normally occur at the intradiegetic level of the characters+ utterances, but can also be introduced at the e*tradiegetic level, such as prologues and epilogues and comments by stage managers or overt nar& rators! , narratological approach to drama can systematically account for the use of such narrative devices and offer new perspectives on the relationship between dialogue and stage directions and the status of the secondary te*t #;luderni$ (11<9 N=nning > /ommer (11<%! , transgeneric narratology is, however, by no means restricted to applying narrative theories and terminologies to other genres for anal ytical purposes! 'his approach may have repercussions on classical ((: Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama narratology itself in that it highlights the need to reconsider current the& ories of narrative with their traditional focus on narrative fiction by emphasizing the performative aspects of storytelling, the realization or transmission of narrative content in different media # narration in various media%, and the cognitive activities involved in narrative com& prehension! ? @istory of the Aoncept and its /tudy ?!1 Dimensions of the 'ransgeneric ,pproach to Poetry 'he following survey focuses specifically on lyric rather than on nar& rative poetry such as ballads, verse narratives or verse romances! 'he latter lend themselves readily to the concepts generally employed for prose fiction, albeit with certain differences li$e the added structuring device of versification #Binney 1::(9 Cc@ale (11D%! , transgeneric application of narratology to lyric poetry is of relatively recent vintage, the earliest e*amples dating bac$ only to the 1:<1s! ;or the following discussion, such approaches will be ordered according to the dimen& sion#s% of the poem qua narrative te*t to which narratological catego ries are applied! 'hese basic dimensions are the levels of the happen& ings and of their mediation in the form of the poetic te*t, in particular the modality of its mediation and the organization of its sequential structure, as well as the act and process of articulation! ,ccording to a traditional view, which remains widespread even today, the generic specificity of lyric poetry as distinct from the epic and dramatic genres is grounded in its particular form of representation or mediation- its supposedly unmediated qualityEdirect, unfiltered communication of e*perience by an author identified with a spea$er as the sub7ect of this e*perience! .t is this traditional notion of poetic im& mediate sub7ectivity that several early narratological approaches to lyr& ic poetry address and try to remedy! Fernhart #1::?- ?GGHG<% draws on /tanzel+s distinction between dramatized and withdrawn narrators #i!e! between overt and covert narration% to describe two degrees of the per& ceptibility of mediation in poetry, the effect of which is either to fore& ground mediation or to bac$ground the mediator and produce the illu& sion of immediacy! 'he merit of Fernhart+s argument is its insistence on the ineluctably mediate quality of poetry and on the e*istence, as in fiction, of an organizing and shaping consciousness, whether visible or invisible! Iwing to his adoption of /tanzel+s onedimensional model& ing of mediacy, however, Fernhart refers merely to the variable per& ceptibility of the narrator, neglecting other modes of mediating such as (?1 Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama the various facets of focalization #e!g! perceptual, psychological or ide ological%! /eemann #1:<2- D?DH?<%, li$ewise re7ecting the notion of po& etic immediacy, derives a much more differentiated hierarchy of levels of mediation from narrative and drama theory! @e distinguishes five levels of communication- #a% characters9 #b% narratorJspea$er9 #c% im& plied author9 #d% author as the creator of the wor$ in question9 #e% au& thor as a biographical person! @e points out that the lowest level, the utterances of characters, is often unrealized in poetry and that the highest level, the real author # author%, is usually irrelevant for un& derstanding a wor$! If particular interest is his distinction between spea$er and implied author, based on te*tual signals in the composition of the wor$, opening the way to clearer differentiations in the analysis of 5 perspective, not only in satiric verse and dramatic monologues, but more generally, even in cases where these levels appear to collapse into one another! .n a similar manner, Braan #1::1% distinguishes em& pirical author, implied author and what he calls lyric sub7ect #with a certain affinity to the Kerman concept of lyrisches Ich J lyrical .%, stressing the historical variability in the distinctness of these three me& diators, e!g! their implicit identity in Lomanticism or clear differentia tion in modernism #(((H(?%! /ubsequent and more comprehensive proposals add further specifi cations to such approaches to modeling mediation in lyric poetry by drawing more e*tensively on the particularly elaborate inventory of terms offered by narrative theory! Dismissing conventional views of the allembracing emotionality and selfcontained artificiality of poetry that preclude rational analysis, C=llerMettelmann #(11(- 1?1H?1% pro& grammatically advocates a systematic transfer of the results of narra& tology to raise the theoretical level both of reflection on poetry and of poetry criticism #1?:N2<%! ,s for the dimension of mediation, she con& centrates on one singular aspect of lyric poetry- its generic sub7ectivity #12(H22%, which she identifies as part of the larger phenomenon of aesthetic illusion # illusion% and analyzes #drawing on 3olf 1::<% as the intended effect of various techniques simulating the general po sitionboundedness of human e*perience as manifest in the spatial, temporal, cognitive, emotional and ideological restriction of perception and consciousness! 'his effect of aesthetic illusion, she argues, is fur& ther heightened by selfreferential artificiality in poems where the spea$er presents himself as a creative poet! .n Kenette+s terms, this phenomenon could be classified as the coincidence of spea$er+s voice with internal focalization and simultaneous narration! Despite her ini& tial comprehensive claim, C=llerMettelmann refrains from e*ploring the wide range of poetic mediation with the various possible constella& (?1 Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama tions of voice, focalization and time of narration, singling out one spe& cial albeit significant case- generic sub7ectivity! , systematic allencompassing application of narratology, differen& tiating two basic aspects of mediation, agents or instances and levels of mediation and types of perspective, is outlined by @=hn > /ch0nert #(11(- (:DN:<% and @=hn #(112- 12OND1%! ;irstly, the four agents lo cated on four hierarchical levels largely coincide with those named by /eemann and Braan- biographical author9 abstract #or implied% author9 spea$erJnarrator9 protagonist or character in the happenings! /econdly, the two types or modes of perspective are voice #a narrator+s or a char& acter+s verbal utterance, their language% and focalization #the position that determines perception and cognition, the deictic center of the per& ceptual, cognitive, psychological and ideological focus on the happen& ings%! ;or the notoriously tric$y problem of distinguishing spea$er and abstract author and of relating focalization to agent #e!g! whether to spea$er or character%, they introduce the operation of attribution per& formed by the reader in accordance with his particular understanding of the te*t! 'hese two sets of differential categories, in con7unction with the operation of attribution, allow for a more precise analysis of lyric poems in their individual, historical and cultural variations than do tra& ditional methods! @ence the seemingly unmediated selfe*pression of the poet in a simultaneously ongoing e*perience characteristic of many Lomantic poems, for e*ample, can be redescribed as the manipulated collapse of the agentsJinstances and levels of protagonist, spea$er and author as well as the contrived congruence of voice and focalization, thus creating the effect of unmediated sub7ectivity! 'he other dimension of the poetic te*t, sequentiality, has hitherto been widely neglected in traditional approaches to poetry analysis, even though it constitutes a central part of a poem+s meaning! ;or the transgeneric approach to poetry, investigation of this dimension in its temporal organization is essential, since it forms the basis for the ap& plication of narratology in the first place! Aontrary to mediation with the highly differentiated system of relevant categories already devel oped by narratology, the dimension of sequentiality lac$s a broadly ac& cepted narratological terminology! Fecause of this, critics are left to develop categories of their own or to draw on a variety of sources from elsewhere! /tillinger #1:<D- :<H:% s$etches five concrete types of plot in Lo& mantic poetry- conflict between binary forces #mostly of a mental $ind% and its resolution9 7ourneys or quests9 confrontation between imagina& tion and reality with resultant disillusionment9 violation and its con& sequences9 competition between spatial divisions! ;rom these he ab& (?( Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama stracts two general patterns- #a% progress from a state of equilibrium to disturbance to a final resolution9 #b% encounter of a protagonist+s desire or goal with resistance and its resolution! 'his is an early and rudi& mentary attempt, loosely inspired by action models applied to prose fiction #Propp, Fremond%, in need of further refinement and adaptation! 3eststei7n #1:<:%, in another early proposal, advocates application of the concept of plot to lyric poems and provides a demonstration, high& lighting two features specific to poetry- the preference for mental ac& tions and the omission #deliberate or not% of the social, spatial and tem& poral particulars of situation, character and action! C=llerMettelmann #(11(- 1??H?D%, in a programmatic plea for the general transfer of nar& ratological categories to poetry analysis, also mentions these two fea& tures, but without further specification, merely referring to the appli cability of frame #or schema% theory #12:HD1%! 'his same concept was earlier proposed by /emino #1::D% as a practical instrument for the de& tailed analysis of poetry, without, however, lin$ing it to narrative! /chema theory, derived from cognitive psychology, e*plains the read er+s comprehension of te*ts as an operation of activating and applying relevant prior $nowledge! ,ccording to this theory, $nowledge is shown to be organized into patterns called schemata- fle*ible and dy& namic structures which te*ts may confirm or modify in the course of schema reinforcement and schema refreshment respectively #<DH O%! 'he concept of schema facilitates precise description of the sequen& tial dimension of poetic te*ts! , systematic approach to modeling sequentiality combining schema theory with "otman+s concept of sujet #in the sense of transgression of a boundary or deviation from a norm% is put forward by @=hn > /ch0nert #(11(%, @=hn #(112, (11D% and @=hn > Biefer #(11D%! 'he notion of cognitive schemata, especially in the further distinction between frames #stereotypical $nowledge about settings, situations and themes% and scripts #$nowledge about stereotyped series of actions and processes%, allows for differentiated analysis of the sequential structure of poems and their thematic significance with direct reference to the cultural, social and historical conte*t, since such 5 schemata are al& ways formed by and dependent on e*perience within a particular socie ty and culture! Fecause of the poetic convention of brevity, abstract& ness and situational and personal indeterminacy, poems are usually less circumstantial than prose fiction in presenting te*tual triggers for acti vating frames and scripts, thus requiring greater effort on the reader+s part to infer the relevant schemata! Aombining schema theory with "ot& man+s model provides a means for identifying the turning point in a poem, a decisive or merely inferable change from one state #attitude, (?? Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama view, emotion, etc!% to another signaled by deviation from the conven& tional and predictable pattern of one or more schemata which consti& tutes the point of the te*t, its raison dtre #5 tellability%! )vents are ascribed to a figure, an agent who undergoes a decisive change! ,c& cording to the level of the poetic te*t at which the figure is located and at which the decisive turn ta$es place, three basic event types or planes of eventfulness can be distinguished #@=hn > Biefer (11D- O, (2GHD1%- #a% events in the happenings, ascribed to storyworld incidents with the protagonist or persona as agent9 #b% presentation events, located at the discourse level with the spea$erJnarrator as agent enacting a story of narration9 in addition, mediation events can be mar$ed off as e*ceptional variants of the presentation event in cases where the de& cisive change is brought about by a shift in the manner of mediation, e!g! by modification or replacement of schemata, attributable not to the spea$er but to the abstract author #as when the spea$er+s lament about his artistic sterility is mediated in the form of a perfect poem%9 #c% re& ception events, which ta$e place during the reading process with the reader as agent in cases when neither the protagonist nor the spea$er is willing or able to undergo a #necessary or desirable% change, an event the reader is meant to perform vicariously, as in dramatic monologues #5 event and eventfulness%! ,nalysis of poetry in )nglish #@=hn (11D- 1GOHG<9 @=hn > Biefer (11D- (??H?D% and in Kerman #/ch0nert et al! (11O- ?11H1?% bears out a number of characteristic tendencies in which narration in lyric poems seems to differ from that in novels and stories! 'o name 7ust one such tendency, there is a preference #in certain periods% for stories in which simultaneous narration aspires to merge with the presentation event- the spea$er+s process of reflection and articulation is performed in the present, while moving toward a decisive turn in his attitude or insight! 'his presentation event is achieved at the very end of the poem or, more characteristically, the poem brea$s off before it is achieved, the change being too difficult to bring about or shied away from because of the ris$s involved! 'o negotiate this problematic transition, the spea$er often narrates the further movement prospectively! .n conclusion, the claim formulated in some programmatic state& ments that the transfer of narratological concepts to poetry will contrib& ute to a differentiated theory of poetry #C=llerMettelmann (111- 29 @=hn > /ch0nert (11(- (<OH<<% has yet to bear its full fruit! )ven so, this transgeneric thrust is already enriching the analysis of poetry and facilitating investigation of the specific relations between poems and their cultural and historical conte*ts! (?2 Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama ?!( Dimensions of the 'ransgeneric ,pproach to Drama Cost categories commonly used for the analysis of narrative fiction can equally be applied to drama, as Lichardson #(11O- 12(HD1% argues convincingly! 'his is valid for representations of character, plot, begin& nings and endings, time and space as well as for fictional causality #defined by Lichardson as the canon of probability 41D16 to which plays and novels adhere%, narrative framing and narration! 3hereas plot, beginnings and endings and character also belong to the tradition& al categories of drama criticism, the relevance of concepts of narrative mediation and their applicability in a transgeneric conte*t is currently under debate! Narratological approaches to drama routinely focus on choric speeches, prologues and messengers, onstage audiences and commen tators, instances of character narration and of epic narrators such as the stage manager in 3ilder+s Our Ton, on frame narratives and embed& ded narratives, monologues, soliloquies, asides, audience address, self reflective or metadramatic comments, instances of 5 metalepsis as well as on selfreferential techniques such as the playwithintheplay! Lecent research also suggests a distinction between mimetic and die& getic 5 narrativity #N=nning > /ommer (11<- ??OH?:% and combines the analysis of narration in drama with performative approaches to the study of discourse in narrative fiction #;luderni$ (11<- ?GOHG:%! @istorically, there has been a tendency in drama criticism to regard epic elements and violation of the ,ristotelian unities which frequently went along with them as undramatic and to consider them merely as a way to overcome the technical limitations of stage design #Delius 1<OO%! 'his view was challenged radically by (1 th century playwrights such as Fec$ett and, of course, Frecht+s programmatic use of alienating techniquesPfrequently narrative or metadramatic in naturePwhich defined his internationally acclaimed notion of an epic theater! 'hroughout the (1 th century, narrative e*periments in drama have con& tributed to the emergence of a canon of plays #including Frecht+s !aucasian !hal" !ircle, 3illiams+s The #lass $ena%erie and /haf& fer+s &madeus% routinely quoted in narratological accounts of drama! 'he development of drama and theater in the second half of the (1 th century, however, should not be reduced to an increased awareness of its narrativity or to selfreflective games with narrative and dramatic conventions- there is a broad variety of new developments including improvised forms of performance, the fusion of theater with other genres, media and technologies, and the emergence of a postdramat (?D Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama ic theater which abandons conventional storybased and characterori& ented dramaturgy #"ehmann 1:::%! 'he frequent occurrence of narrative or epic elements in performed or presented narratives #theater or film% led Ahatman #1::1% to question the strict separation of mimesis and diegesis favored by Kenette! .n& stead of identifying the former with showing and preserving the latter for the ver'al mediation of narrative content, Ahatman points to the fact that both modes #showing and telling% can be used to transmit a story! 'hus, a narrator might present a story through a teller or a shower or some combination of both #11?%! .n order to avoid termino& logical confusion, Ahatman suggests the new umbrella term pre senter to designate his broader conception of narrator which subsumes both the narrator in Kenette+s narrower sense of verbal narration by an& thropomorphic narrating instances #a notion compatible with /tanzel+s definition of mediacy as the sine qua non of fictional narration%, on the one hand, and a $ind of narration that is not performed by a recogniz& ably human agency #11D%, on the other! 'he latter type of narrator may be said to tell #or show or present% the ma7ority of enacted sto ries on stage and screen! Ahatman+s main argument in favor of his ap& proach #besides terminological clarity% is theoretical consistency- Ince we define narrative as the composite of story and discourse #on the basis of its unique double chronology%, then lo%ically, at least, nar& ratives can be said to be actualizable on the stage or in other iconic me& dia #112%! 'his idea is further developed by 8ahn #(111%, who emphasizes the diegetic nature of stage directions and compares the multiple levels of communication within dramatic te*ts with narrative embedding in the novel! @e also modifies Ahatman+s ta*onomy of te*t types #1::1- 11D% by introducing a playscript mode #to which he assigns all utterances belonging to the secondary te*t% and by replacing Ahatman+s subdi& vision of diegetic and mimetic with the distinction between writ& tenJprinted and performed narratives! Core recently, N=nning > /ommer #(11<% have argued that plays ma$e acts of #intradiegetic% storytelling theatrical by representing acts of character narration, lead& ing them to propose a distinction between different degrees of diegetic narrativity in narratives that e*tend across the traditional generic boundaries #thus a memory play may have a high degree of diegetic narrativity, while modernist novels preoccupied with the representation of consciousness and processes of perception may be said to have a low degree of either mimetic or diegetic narrativity%! ,nother direction is ta$en by ;luderni$ #(11<%, whose notion of e*perientiality paves the way for a cognitive narratological approach to drama! /he revises the (?G Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama standard narratological model of communication in fictional narrative #based on the distinction between story level and discourse level% by adding a third level, corresponding to performance or enactment in or& der to highlight the specific circumstances in which storytelling occurs- .n drama, there is a real performance involving actors9 in a perform& ance of narrative, the performer and audience Qta$e over+ the roles of narrator and narratee! 3hat the model allows one to argue is that in drama, the narratorial level is optional and the performative level is constitutive, whereas in epic narrative, it is the performance level that is optional #?GD%! 3hereas narratologists from Ahatman and Lichardson to 8ahn and ;luderni$ have repeatedly emphasized the narrativity of drama from a variety of perspectives, there are also critical voices re7ecting the idea of a narratology of drama #or at least parts of it%! Leferring to /tanzel+s notion of mediacy, La7ews$y #(11O- D<% insists on the distinction between narrative communication in the novel and nonmediated com& munication in drama, thus e*cluding the possibility of heterodiegetic narration on the stage #where, she argues, discourse is always produced by participants of the storyworld%! 'his view is supported by /chen$ @aupt #(11O- ?1%, who maintains that e*tradiegetic narration is im& possible in dramatic writing! Proponents of a narratology of drama, however, generally agree that both Kenette+s notion of diegetic narration as a verbal transmission of narrative content and /tanzel+s insistence on mediacy as a prerequisite of narrative are too restrictive, proceeding, as they do, from the norma tive assumption #based on normative genre theory% that there is no nar& rative discourse in drama! 'here are several more recent #and more convincing% alternatives to Kenette+s and /tanzel+s definitions of nar& rative available, including Ahatman+s revision of Kenette+s concept and 8ahn+s subsequent modification of Ahatman, Lyan+s transgeneric and transmedial definitions of narrative as a cognitive template #Lyan (11D9 N=nning > /ommer (11<- ???%, or ;luderni$+s natural narra& tology, based on her definitions of narrativity and e*perientiality! 'herefore, attempts to prove transgeneric narratology wrong by point& ing out its incompatibility with Kenette #/chen$@aupt (11O- ?1H(% or /tanzel #La7ews$y (11O- D<% can hardly be convincing! /chen$ @aupt+s conclusion that there is no direct e*tradiegetic communica& tion in dramatic writingPauthorial characters, embedded stories, epic devices, and the quir$y e*pansion of stage directions merely create the aesthetic illusion of an e*tradiegetic agent spea$ing #(11O- ?O% is val& id for all narratological concepts- they all refer to effects produced by verbal, visual or auditive signs! (?O Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama La7ews$y #(11O% further suggests that a transgeneric and transmedi& al narratology should not try to level the differences between the vari& ous media in which stories can be transmitted! ;or this reason, she re& 7ects 8ahn+s argument that unperformable, unrealizable stage directions can be regarded as evidence of a heterodiegetic narrating instance- since they cannot be performed, they highlight generic conventions and emphasize the distinctions between narrative fiction and narrative drama which transgeneric narratology see$s to overcome #G1%! /chen$ @aupt #(11O% offers a similar argument- .f we accepted that !!! the secondary te*t too$ over a narrative, mediating function, this would eventually lead to a confusion of generic boundaries #?G%! 'he dis& agreement seems to be partly due to the fact that the discussion of the relationship between primary and secondary te*t is merged with the te*t vs! performance debate andJor with generic issues! Rltimately, the e*istence #or absence% of a narrating instance in drama is a matter of perspective- it depends both on the critic+s chosen theoretical framewor$ #KenetteJ/tanzel vs! AhatmanJ8ahnJLyanJ;lu derni$% and on his or her main research interests #narrative vs! gen resJmedia%! ,dmittedly, narratology sometimes tends to produce coun terintuitive concepts, and a play+s superordinate narrative agent #8ahn (111- GO(% or superordinate narrative system #3eidle (11:% may easily fall into that category for critics more concerned with per& formance and performativity! 'ransgeneric narratology is still in its in& fancy, however, and if the current cognitive approaches are pursued further, a truly transmedial and interdisciplinary theory of storytelling and narrative comprehension might be developed which would not only help to solve some of the problems in classical genre theory, but also allow for a better understanding of the anthropological function of nar& rative in literary and in nonliterary discourses! 2 'opics for ;urther .nvestigation 2!1 'opics for ;urther .nvestigation- Poetry 'he relation of the various event types with different historical epochs and with different cultures and cultural traditions9 comparison between poetry and prose fiction in their various genres with respect to the schemata used, event types and the degree of realization of events! (?< Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama 2!( 'opics for ;urther .nvestigation- Drama 'he compatibility or mutual dependency of transgeneric and transmedi& al theories of narrative9 a comparative discussion of diegetic narrativity in dramas, play te*ts and performances9 a revision of structuralist nar& ratological approaches to drama from a cognitive and pragmaticJse& mantic perspective! D Fibliography D!1 3or$s Aited- Poetry Fernhart, 3olfgang #1::?%! Sberlegungen zur "yri$theorie aus erzThltheoretischer /icht! @! ;oltine$ et al! #eds%! Tales and (their tellin% di))erence* +estschri)t )r +ran, -. Stan,el. @eidelberg- 3inter, ?D:HOD! @=hn, Peter #(112%! 'ransgeneric Narratology- ,pplications to "yric Poetry! 8! Pier #ed%! The /ynamics o) 0arrative +orm. Ferlin- de Kruyter, 1?:HD<! H #(11D%! Plotting the "yric- ;orms of Narration in Poetry! )! C=llerMettelmann > C! Lubi$ #eds%! Theory into Poetry. ,msterdam- Lodopi, 12OHO(! H > 8ens Biefer #(11D%! The 0arratolo%ical &nalysis o) 1yric Poetry* Studies in 2n%3 lish Poetry )rom the 45 th to the 67 th !entury. Ferlin- de Kruyter! H > 80rg /ch0nert #(11(%! Mur narratologischen ,nalyse von "yri$! Poetica ?2, (<OH?1D! Binney, Alare L! #1::(%! Strate%ies o) Poetic 0arrative* !haucer8 S9enser8 $ilton8 2liot. Aambridge- Aambridge RP! Braan, Cenno #1::1%! 'owards a Codel of "yric Aommunication- /ome @istorical and 'heoretical Lemar$s! Russian 1iterature ?1, 1::H(?1! Cc@ale, Frian #(11D%! Narrative in Poetry! D! @erman et al! #eds%! Routled%e 2ncy: clo9edia o) 0arrative Theory. "ondon- Loutledge, ?DGND<! C=llerMettelmann, )va #(111%! 1yri" und $etalyri"* Theorie einer #attun% und ihrer Sel'st'es9ie%elun% anhand von ;eis9ielen aus der en%lisch: und deutschs9rachi3 %en /icht"unst. @eidelberg- 3inter! H #(11(%! "yri$ und Narratologie! ,! N=nning > U! N=nning #eds%! 2r,<hltheorie trans%enerisch8 intermedial8 interdis,i9lin<r. 'rier- 3U', 1(:HD?! /ch0nert, 80rg #(112%! Normative Uorgaben als Q'heorie der "yri$+V UorschlTge zu einer te*ttheoretischen Levision! K! ;ran$ > 3! "u$as #eds%! 0orm=#ren: ,e=&'eichun%! -ultursemiotische Studien ,u 1iteratur8 $edien und >irtscha)t. $ichael Tit,mann ,um 57. #e'urtsta%. Passau- /tutz, ?1?H1<! H et al! #(11O%! 1yri" und 0arratolo%ie* Te?t:&nalysen ,u deutschs9rachi%en #edich: ten vom 45. 'is ,um 67. @ahrhundert. Ferlin- de Kruyter! /eemann, Blaus Dieter #1:<2%! Die Bommuni$ationsstru$tur im lyrischen Kedicht! 3! /chmid > L! D0ring/mirnov #eds%! Te?t8 Sym'ol8 >eltmodell* @ohannes Holthusen ,um 57. #e'urtsta%. C=nchen- /ager, D??HD2! /emino, )lena #1::D%! /chema theory and the analysis of te*t worlds in poetry! 1an3 %ua%e and 1iterature 2, O:H11<! (?: Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama /tillinger, 8ac$ #1:<D%! 'he Plots of Lomantic Poetry! !olle%e 1iterature 1(, :DH11(! 3eststei7n, 3illem K! #1:<:%! Plot /tructure in "yric Poetry- ,n ,nalysis of 'hree )*ile Poems by ,le$sandr PuW$in! Russian 1iterature (G, D1:H((! 3olf, 3erner #1::<%! ,esthetic .llusion in "yric PoetryV Poetica ?1, 1<NDG! D!( ;urther Leading- Poetry ,dam, 8eanCichel #(11(%! Aonditions et degrXs de narrativation du poYme! /e%rAs* Revue de SynthBse C Orientation SAmiolo%ique 111, a 1Ha (G! Bafalenos, )mma #(11G%! 0arrative !ausalities! Aolumbus- Ihio /tate RP, 1DONO<! Cc@ale, Frian #(11:%! Feginning to 'hin$ about Narrative in Poetry! 0arrative 1O, 11H(O! /ch0nert, 80rg #(11<%! ,uteur empirique, auteur implicite et moi lyrique! 8! Pier #ed%! ThAorie du rAcit. 1a99ort de la recherche allemande. Uilleneuve d+,sqc- Presses Rniversitaires du /eptentrion, <2H:G! /emino, )lena #1::O%! 1an%ua%e and >orld !reation in Poems and Other Te?ts. "on& don- "ongman! /imon, Lalf #(112%! @andlungstheorie des "yrischen- mit ,nalysen zu @0lderlins Heidel'er%, C0ri$es /ie schDne ;uche und Keorges >ir erden heute nicht ,um %arten %ehen. Rhetori"* 2in internationales @ahr'uch (?, D1N<1! D!? 3or$s Aited- Drama Ahatman, /eymour #1::1%! !omin% to Terms* The Rhetoric o) 0arrative +iction and +ilm! .thaca- Aornell RP! Delius, Ni$olaus #1<OO%! Die epischen )lemente in /ha$espeare+s Dramen! Sha"es9eare:@ahr'uch 1(, 1H(<! ;luderni$, Coni$a #(11<%! Narrative and Drama! 8! Pier > 8! Z! Karc[a "anda #eds%! Theori,in% 0arrativity. Ferlin- de Kruyter, ?D?H<1! 8ahn, Canfred #(111%! Narrative Uoice and ,gency in Drama- ,spects of a Narrato& logy of Drama! 0e 1iterary History ?(, GD:HO:! "ehmann, @ans'hies #41:::6 (111%! Postdramatisches Theater. ;ran$furt a!C!- Uer& lag der ,utoren! N=nning, ,nsgar > Loy /ommer #(11<%! Diegetic and Cimetic Narrativity- /ome ;urther /teps towards a Narratology of Drama! 8! Pier > 8! Z! Karc[a "anda #eds%! Theori,in% 0arrativity. Ferlin- de Kruyter, ?(:HD(! La7ews$y, .rina I! #(11O%! Uon )rzThlern, die #nichts% vermitteln- Sberlegungen zu grundlegenden ,nnahmen der Dramentheorie im Bonte*t einer transmedialen Nar& ratologie! Eeitschri)t )r )ran,Dsische S9rache und 1iteratur 11O, (DHG<! Lichardson, Frian #(11O%! Drama and Narrative! D! @erman #ed%! The !am'rid%e !om9anion to 0arrative. Aambridge- Aambridge RP, 12(HDD! Lyan, Carie"aure #(11D%! In the 'heoretical ;oundations of 'ransmedial Narrato& logy! 8! Ah! Ceister #ed%! 0arratolo%y 'eyond 1iterary !riticism* $ediality8 /is3 ci9linarity! Ferlin- de Kruyter, 1H(?! /chen$@aupt, /tefan #(11O%! Narrativity in Dramatic 3riting- 'owards a Keneral 'heory of Kenres! &n%listi" 1<!(, (DH2(! (21 Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM Narration in Poetry and Drama 3eidle, Loland #(11:%! Irganizing the Perspectives- ;ocalization and the /uperordin& ate Narrative /ystem in Drama! P! @=hn et al! #eds%! Point o) Fie8 Pers9ective8 and +ocali,ation. $odelin% $ediation in 0arrative. Ferlin- de Kruyter, ((1H2(! D!2 ;urther Leading- Drama de 8ong, .rene 8! ;! #1::1%! 0arrative in /rama* The &rt o) the 2uri9idean $essen%er S9eech. "eiden- Frill! )lam, Beir #1:<1%! The Semiotics o) Theatre and /rama. "ondon- Cethuen! Karner, /tanton F. #1:<:%! The &'sent Foice* 0arrative !om9rehension in the Thea: ter. Rrbana- R of .llinois P! @authal, 8anine #(11<%! $etadrama und GTe?t:HTheatralit<t* GSel'st:HRe)le?ionen einer intermedialen literarischen #attun% am ;eis9iel en%lischer und nordameri"ani: scher $eta: und Postdramati". 'rier- 3U'! Borthals, @olger #(11?%! Eischen /rama und 2r,<hlun%* 2in ;eitra% ,ur Theorie %eschehensdarstellender 1iteratur. Ferlin- /chmidt! Corrison, Bristin #1:<?%! !anters and !hronicles* The Ise o) 0arrative in the Plays o) Samuel ;ec"ett and Harold Pinter. Ahicago- R of Ahicago P! Pavel, 'homas K! #1:<D%! The Poetics o) Plot* The !ase o) 2n%lish Renaissance /rama. Canchester- Canchester RP! Pfister, Canfred #41:OO6 1:<<%! The Theory and &nalysis o) /rama! Aambridge- Aam& bridge RP! Lyan, Carie"aure, ed! #(112%! 0arrative across $edia* The 1an%ua%es o) Story: tellin%. "incoln- R of Nebras$a P! /ommer, Loy #(11D%! Drama and Narrative! D! @erman et al! #eds%! Routled%e 2n3 cyclo9edia o) 0arrative Theory. "ondon- Loutledge, 11:H(2! (21 Brought to you by | Freie Universitaet Berlin Authenticated | 172.16.1.226 Download Date | 8/3/12 7:02 PM