Cost Comparison of Excavation Methods

Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
Construction Technology and Management Page 1

1. LITERATURE SURVEY
1.1 Overview
Construction projects have to be accomplished within a defined scope, limited resources and
defined time. Projects are implemented phase-by-phase starting from conception to closeout
phase. It is necessary how the basic elements i.e. resources and time are managed systematically
towards solving identified problems so that the final objective is achieved as per the project
requirements towards its successful completion.
The scope of this review is to discuss the concept of sanitary and storm sewer construction,
excavation design guideline brief, cost estimation and breakdown for storm and sewage drainage
and other new method of construction toward sustainable underground water related
infrastructure construction that would help to identify problems and challenges in construction of
underground infrastructure process.
1.2 Sanitary and Storm Sewer Construction Concept
During rainfall, a part of the rainfall water percolates in to the ground and a part evaporates in
to the atmosphere while the bulk volume flows over the ground surface and is termed as surface
runoff or storm water. A storm drains is defined as that portion of the storm drainage system that
receives runoff from inlets and conveys the runoff to some point where it is then discharged into
a channel, water body, or piped system. This storm water has to be disposed off through open
surface drains or through underground sewers. This is done in two ways. One is where two
separate sets of sewers are laid one for the sanitary sewage and other for the storm water. In the
other case combined system of sewerage is adopted where by the storm water and sanitary
sewage are conveyed by a single large sized sewer. . The terminology of storm sewer which
has been in general use for many years is gradually being replaced with the term storm drains
to differentiate between sanitary sewer and storm drains.
The natural condition of the land before development is in relative balance with the natural
capacity of the receiving streams. Undeveloped conditions provide natural absorption of water
into the ground and longer periods of concentrations. Modification of the ground surface from its
natural vegetated state to solid paved surfaces and buildings causes water to runoff site at faster
rates. The solid surfaces dont allow absorption and filtering of the storm water and all the
benefits that vegetated ground cover provides. The management of storm water will reduce the
possibility of damage to public and private property will reduce the possibility of damage to
public and private property will reduce the reduce the erosion on land and creek channels


To improve living conditions and minimize environmental impacts and to prevent inundation
of streets, walkways, yards and flooding of basement, traffic disruption and damage of property,
it would be prudent to use the underground space for infrastructure, leaving the surface for more
noble needs. Underground solutions can solve many urban problems in different areas, such as
transportation (mass transit, urban motorways, railways links), public utilities (water supply,
sewage, and cables), city center revitalization, and storage ( car parking, flood control and good
storage). Hydraulic sewers are designed as open channels, flowing partially full or, at most, just
filled. Such drainages lines are made usually from Concrete or masonry pipe or conduits for
large ones Factor that determines the capacity of storm water drains are
Intensity and duration of local rain storm water;
Size and runoff characteristics of turbidity and
Economy of design for quick discharge.
In most cases, the collected water is disposed in to lakes or rivers taking care of the possible
hazard that may be caused due to the disposal of hazardous wastes and materials. In such
situations the necessary treatment of the wastewater or controlling the flow of hazardous wastes is
done.
1.2.1 Trench Excavation
The meaning of word to excavate is to dislodge the rock massif from its original place (in-
situ).this involves two operations: digging the ground and its disposal. This can be carried out to
any formation that exists within the earth crust. This operation can create openings or excavations
of different sizes, shapes and configurations at the desired locations. 80% of the Sewer line
construction is the excavation work and it covers about 41% of the total cost.
The work of excavation is usually carried out in open cutting. The width of trench at or below
the top of the sewer should be minimum necessary for its proper installation, with due
consideration to is bedding. The width of the trench from the top of the sewer to ground surface is
primarily related to its effect upon the adjoining service and nearby surfaces. Wherever surface is
available, especially in undeveloped areas or open country, excavation is made with side slopes so
that the slopes are stable. In many circumstances, however, it may be essential to restrict the top
width of the trench, and hence the excavation has to be made with sides vertical.



1.2.2 Minimum and Maximum Slope
In order for a sewer line to work it needs to have the minimum slope. Minimum sanitary sewer
slopes are established to provide a minimum cleansing velocity (usually 2 or 3 feet per second) at
full flow or half-full flow. (The physics of hydraulic flow are such that a sloped pipe will carry
flow by gravity half full at the same velocity as full.) The minimum slope for sewer line can vary
depending upon the size of the piping.
The minimum slopes for small pipes sewers in a sanitary sewer system should be satisfactory
to give minimum Velocities, when flowing full, of not less than 0.6m/s. The following are the
minimum slopes for gravity flow sanitary sewers, which should be provided (Table 4-3):
Minimum Slopes Size (mm)
Slope (m/m) n=0.013 n=0.015 200 0.0033 0.0044 250 0.0025 0.0033 300 0.0019 0.0026 400
0.0011 0.0015

1.2.3 Sewer Pipe Materials and Sizes
Among the principal sewer pipe materials ultra-Polyvinyl chloride (UPVC Sewer) for gravity
lines and ductile iron for force main and for road crossings are selected. From the available
and relatively cheap pipe materials UPVC sewer pipe is selected for gravity lines up to a pipe
size of 400mm due to the following reasons:
Cheap (low initial cost)
Corrosion resistant
Light in weight, flexible, and can easily make joints
The friction loss is lower than for most materials.
It is less subject to incrustation
It accommodates greater ground movements and easier, and light to lay

Size
(mm)
Slope( m/m)
n=0.013 0.015
200 0.0033 0.0044
250 0.0025 0.0033
300 0.0019 0.0026
450 0.0011 0.0015


1.2.4 Minimum Pipe Diameter
The minimum pipe diameter for the trunk sewer is 300mm; The minimum pipe diameter for
the secondary sewer is 200mm; The minimum pipe diameter for house connection sewer is
150mm;
1.2.5 Pipe material
Diameter < 400mm: PVC
Diameter 400mm < 700mm: Concrete
Diameter > 700mm: Reinforced Concrete
Minimum and Maximum Slope
1.3 Excavation Design Guidelines
According to our research we couldnt find any excavation design guidelines that are applicable
for the excavation works.
1.4 System Installation methods
Pipework must be capable of carrying the required flows with a minimum of blockages, be
leak- tight, durable, accessible for maintenance and capable of being tested. The system should
be properly ventilated: it should be designed to avoid the escape of foul air near buildings
except through appropriately sited vents, normally provided by the open tops of drainage
stacks. It is perhaps hardly necessary to mention that drainage of this kind is almost invariably
by gravity; sewage pumping or vacuum systems may be used mainly for specialized
applications
General Requirements
Leak tightness: - is important to contain the discharge and avoid polluting the surroundings, and
to exclude groundwater since the latter may carry earth into the drains; leaks may also encourage
the penetration of roots into drains
Durability: involves resistance to breakage and crushing of pipes due to ground or moisture
movement or possibly thermal effects, and also to erosion and chemical attack from inside (or
outside). Joints are critical as regards these two general requirements, and some flexibility in
joints is an important asset
Accessibility: is necessary for inspection, testing and breaking up and clearing blockages. It
should, in general, be possible to perform these functions without entering a building commonly


used equipment for these purposes includes pipe fittings and chambers for access. The terms in
common use are
Rodding eye:- a pipe fitting, accessible from ground level, having a sealed removable cover,
to permit rodding along a drain in one direction, normally downstream; usually constructed
from the same piping system as the drain access fitting as above but with rodding possible in
more than one direction; may be incorporated as a sealed fitting within a chamber.
Manhole:- a chamber with a removable manhole, with removable cover, cover and large
enough for a person to get into and be able to work reasonably freely, with breathing apparatus
if necessary
I nspection chamber:- shallower than a manhole, with removable cover, to enable a person on
the surface to inspect, test, clear blockages and remove debris.
Sewer Pipe Installation:
1. A sewer pipe needs to be installed carefully with the adequate slope. No matter if the pipe is
going to be installed inside of a structure or outside, the installation method will be the same.
Depending on the sewer pipe material, things could be easier or more complicated, because
the pipe will be harder to handle and the installation process of the sewer pipe will require
additional labor and equipment.
2. To start, you must determine how far the pipe needs to go, and determine the elevation at
which the pipe will be connected to the specific fixture or if it will be connected to another
pipe. Another important information is to determine what will be the final installation height.
Both, initial and final elevation must be measured at the interior point of the connecting pipe,
just in the middle portion of the pipe.
3. Now that you have both elevations and the pipe length, we need to calculate the pitch or fall
of the sewer pipe run. Subtract both elevation and divide the horizontal or pipe length into
the difference in elevation, and that will be the drop per linear foot or meters of pipe. Be
careful, a drop greater than per foot is not adequate as water will flow faster than solids,
while a slope to small, less than 0.003, will be sufficient to carry solids away. The
recommended pitch for 4" pipe is 1/8" to 1/4" per foot.
4. Start by opening the trench. Be careful once the trench is open and provide all safety
measures to protect workers inside and outside the trench. Remove all loose dirt at the trench
bottom and grade the trench bottom so the pipe could be installed over a smooth surface.
Sometime you will need to place a bedding material to provide additional support to the
sewer pipe, to reduce the possibility of sag after the trench has been backfilled. The best
material to use as bedding material is sand, but if unavailable then you can choose to place
gravel bedding.
5. Once the select portion of trench has been prepared, lay the sewer pipe in the trench. It is
recommended to start at the lower end of the pipe run, up to the higher elevation. If the
sewer pipes, has bell end; the bell end must be placed on the uphill side of the pipe run,


reducing the possibility of leakage. Remember that before applying glue to the sewer PVC
pipes, you must apply purple PVC primer. Purple PVC primer chemically cleans the PVC
surface, so the glue acts properly. Insert the male end of the pipe into the female end and
twist a little bit. To be sure that the pitch is being followed correctly, install a string along
the pipe run. The string must be installed with the same slope as the pipe will be, but just one
feet over the finished level. The measure from the string to the bottom of the trench will be
the same along the entire run.
6. It is probable that the last portion of the run will need just a fraction of a pipe. Be aware that
you will also need additional fittings to complete the installation. Once the pipe has been
installed completely, check for any pipe that could be disconnected, broken or not installed
properly. Now place the sand and/or gravel over the pipe, enough to cover at least 10 over
the sewer pipe. Start compacting the material with a rammer or any other compaction
equipment suitable for the type of pipe being installed. On long pipe runs, this process could
be started once the pipe has been installed and while working on the next pipe segment. It is
important to install a warning tape over the first layer of compacted soil, so others will be
aware when excavating that a pipe is located under the detectable warning tape.
During excavation protection methods should provide for the safety of workers in a trench. By
keeping this in mind, when the depth of trench exceeds 1.5 to 2 m, and when excavation is made
with side vertical, it becomes necessary to support the side by sheeting and bracing. This
operation is known as timbering of trench, which may be done with the help of the following
methods:
Stay bracing
Box sheeting
Vertical sheeting
Rennet sheeting
Sheet piling
There are some other protection methods when the excavation works are executed. Among
those shoring is the most important. In this case, shoring should not be confused with shielding.
Shoring is designed to prevent collapse where shielding is only designed to protect workers when
collapses occur. Shoring is a general term used in construction to describe the process of
supporting a structure in order to prevent collapse so that construction can proceed.



1.5 Guides to Trench Excavation
1.5.1 Design Considerations
1.5.1.1 Loading
When carrying out the design, consideration should be given to loading imposed on the
open trench. The route of the trench should ideally be kept away from any traffic. However,
if this cannot be avoided, traffic load should be taken into account in the design of temporary
support. The trench support should also be properly designed to take the additional load
from any excavated spoil or other construction materials placed along the trench sides.
A trench located at the toe of a slope can greatly reduce the stability of the slope to the
extent that it may fail catastrophically, and should be avoided wherever possible. If
unavoidable, it is important that the trench support is designed to resist the force to ensure
that the stability of the slope will not be adversely affected by the trench work. Stability
analysis of the affected slope may also be required.
In the above cases, the employment of a professionally qualified engineer to carry out the
design of the temporary support system should be considered even if the trenches are less
than 4.5 m deep.

1.5.1.2 Drainage
Drainage measures to prevent ingress of surface runoff must be provided regardless of the
excavation depth. These measures are particularly important to ensure the stability of any
man-made or natural slope located below and in the vicinity of the trench excavation works
and when the trench is open during any part of the wet season. The possible flooding
condition in the area, especially at depression points of roads, should be estimated and
considered in the drainage design. The drainage measures are intended to minimize water
runoff from the surface into the open trench, and to control infiltration of collected rainwater
and runoff from the open trench into the slope; both scenarios are likely to have some
adverse effects on the stability of the slope.

To deal with surface runoff, up stands placed along either side of the trench are effective.
The up stands are normally made of mass concrete blocks, or in the form of sandbags or
compacted earth fill bunds cemented together. The designer/contractor should determine the
required height of the up stand depending on site conditions, but in no circumstances should
the height be less than 100 mm.

1.5.1.3 Groundwater Control
Where a high ground water table is encountered, the water may be controlled by
dewatering. Dewatering may cause the lowering of groundwater in the area around the
excavation, which will result in an increase in effective stress of soil and hence settlement of
the ground. In cases where there is a concern on the adverse effects of ground settlement
near the excavation adjoining sensitive structures, like old buildings on shallow foundations,


gas and water mains, busy roads, etc. an assessment of the possible adverse effects of the
dewatering is required. The assessment should be carried out by a professionally qualified
engineer, and appropriate precautionary measures and monitoring should be designed by him
to ensure the safety of the adjoining sensitive structures. Existing guidelines on groundwater
drawdown are given in GCO (1990).

1.5.1.4 Existing Man-Made Slope Features
Where existing man-made slope features, such as cut slopes, fill slopes or masonry
retaining walls, etc. are situated at the proximity of the planned trench, the stability condition
of the slope features should be examined and taken into consideration in the design. If any
slope feature is suspected to be marginally stable and particularly vulnerable to ground
movement, precautionary measures should be provided to support the slope feature.

1.5.2. Construction Stage

1.5.2.1 Installation of Support
Support of trench excavation should be constructed strictly in accordance with the design
and contract specifications. In no circumstances should workers be permitted to work in an
unsupported trench which is deeper than 1.2 m. Some general guidelines on the
requirements of the support installation are given below.
In ground composed of moderately firm to firm soil, vertical trench sides may stand
unsupported for a considerable period of time, and hence half-timber board support or half
sheet pile support may be adequate provided that the groundwater level is below the bottom
of the trench. When the ground condition is poor and has little or no free-standing time,
full timber board support or full sheet pile support should be installed in such a way that the
sides of the trench are supported at all times. That is, installation of sheeting, excavation and
insertion of walings and struts proceed by stages until the full excavation depth is achieved.
Installation of support ahead of the excavation to the full depth is of advantage where the
soil and sheeting sections allow this. Use of sheet piles rather than timber boards makes it
possible to drive to full depth ahead of excavation in most ground and to greater depths. This
is considered advantageous where the trench is to be constructed in poor ground and where
there are few crossing services. Where existing services crossing a trench line are
encountered, timber board support should be provided as far as possible to the exposed
excavation face surrounding the services. If decking for traffic or pedestrians is not
required, support frames should ideally protrude above ground level.

1.5.2.2 Special Drainage Provisions in the Wet Season
If trench excavation during the wet season and located on or above man-made or natural
slopes cannot be avoided, adequate drainage provisions must be provided to ensure that the
stability of the slopes will not be adversely affected by any water ingress from the trench.


Preferably rigid trench covers such as fiber-glass or steel covers while work is not
proceeding. For wider trenches, the use of tarpaulin sheeting properly secured against strong
wind may be more practical. Any voids between the excavated face and the support should
be filled with cement mortar to ensure water cannot get in.
Pumping from small sumps should always be provided for all trenches located at slope
crest, on slopes, or in flooding black spots, and opened up in the wet season. The sumps
should preferably be lined with concrete. It is important that the pumps provided are of
sufficient capacity. All pumping machinery can fail, therefore sufficient standby pumps
should be provided. A workman should be employed to supervise the maintenance and
functioning of pumps. He should carry out spot-checks on the trench, in particular when
works are not proceeding and during inclement weather, to ensure the trench is not flooded
and the pumps are functioning.

1.5.2.3 Backfilling of Trench and Reinstatement
Upon completion of the trench work, the excavated trench must be backfilled with fine fill
material in accordance with the specification and standard of Section 6 of the General
Specification (GS) for Civil Engineering Works (CED, 1992 or as amended or updated).
Loosely compacted trenches will permit lateral flow of water along the trench through the
backfilled material. They will also lead to excessive settlement of roads which will damage
the road structure and will cause damage to the underlying utilities. Infiltration through
cracked pavement into the loose soil can lead to the failure of the adjacent downslopes. To
control the compaction, it is good practice to carry out field density tests, using e.g. the sand
replacement method.

1.5.2.4 Precaution in Use of Machinery
Slopes with loose boulders, rock slopes with loose blocks or sub-vertical masonry or brick
facing may be vulnerable to vibration induced by heavy machinery operating in close
proximity, such as pneumatic hammers used for trench excavation. It is suggested that
heavy machinery should be used with caution, and attention should be paid to any signs of
instability or movement, such as loose soil or small pieces of rock falling from slopes, or
loose masonry facing blocks. Operation should be stopped immediately when any signs of
distress or movement are observed. The operation should not be resumed until the necessary
precautionary measures have been implemented, such as provision of wire mesh to the areas
with loose rock or raking

1.5.3 Other Considerations
If the site conditions permit, construction vehicles and stockpiled materials should be kept
at least 1.5 m away from the edge of the trench. However, if this minimum distance cannot
be maintained due to space restriction on site, the stability of the trench should be checked in
order to ensure no adverse effects would be resulted from the loading imposed due to the


close proximity of the construction vehicles and stockpiled materials. Otherwise, the
support system should be properly designed to allow for the additional loading. Particular
attention should be given to ensuring the safety of construction vehicles working close to the
trench edge, especially after heavy rain which may have caused loosening or weakening of
the soil behind the trench wall.
The spoil should be placed and covered so as not to be washed into the trench during
rainstorms or allowed to enter the surface drainage systems. An open trench should be
securely fenced off to prevent accidental fall into the trench.
Ground movement due to trench excavation should be minimized as it can damage existing
services running parallel to or across the trench. In addition, when existing services cross a
trench line may be undermined by the excavation, they should be supported either by
propping from underneath or by hangers suspended from ground surface.
As this Guide concentrates only on aspects relating to shoring support and drainage
measures, users of this Guide should refer to the relevant documents on other aspects related
to the construction safety of trench excavation
1.6 Methodologies
Excavation is divided into classes A,B,C. Class A consists of solid rock in the original bed or
in well-defined ledges and removable only by blasting and of all boulders over 8 cu ft. in
volume. Another definition of rock is that it shall mean any material geologically in place
cemented in to a mass by natural causes and having hardness when first exposed of 3 or more in
the mineral scale of hardness. Frozen material is not classified as rock. Class B excavation
comprises disintegrated limestone, shale, soapstone ,slate, hardpan, fire-clay, cemented gravel
macadam pavement and boulders less than 8 and more than 1 cu ft. in volume this material can
be removed with picks and shovels but with some difficulty. Class C includes all other materials.
Where quick sand is known to occur it should also be included as a definite item in the contract.
Hand excavation:-excavation with pick and shovel is used on the smaller jobs for class B
and C excavation. It may first be necessary to break a hard top crust. Paving is broken with a bar,
or air hammer. If the trench is narrow plowing may disturb the nearby surface and increase
danger of caving. Top material should be saved to be replaced at the surface after backfilling.
Frozen earth is not economically broken by picks but must first be thawed by building fires on
the ground at night to prepare for work the next day. If steam is available, boxes are placed open
side down over the ground, and the steam is discharged through a hose under the box. The
process is speeded if the steam hose has a pointed pipe on the end with side perforations so that a
work man may push it in to the frozen crust through a hole in the top of a box.
Machine excavation: - hand excavation is so expensive that machine excavation of trenches
for sewer and water pipes is frequently justified. In addition to economy it has the advantage of
reducing the time that trench must remain open. It has the drawback, however, of possible
damage to water and gas service pipes, requiring the attendance of water works man and a gas
man to make repairs. When large mains are in the way the attendant warns the machine operator
and a portion of the trench is left for hand excavation.


Machines used for trenching are the wheel type and ladder type. They will dig trenches rapidly
with close control of depths and widths so that little hand trimming is necessary, and wheel
operate in any soil except rock.
1.7 Safety requirements
Excavation and trenching are among the most hazardous construction operations. OSHA(
Occupation Safety and Health Administration) defines an excavation as any man-made cut,
cavity, trench, or depression in the earths surface formed by earth removal. A trench is defined
as a narrow underground excavation that is deeper than it is wide, and is no wider than 15 feet
(4.5 meters).

1.7.1 Dangers of Trenching and Excavation
Cave-ins pose the greatest risk and are much more likely than other excavation related
accidents to result in worker fatalities. Other potential hazards include falls, falling loads,
hazardous atmospheres, and incidents involving mobile equipment. Trench collapses cause
dozens of fatalities and hundreds of injuries each year.

1.7.2 Protect Yourself
Do not enter an unprotected trench! Trenches 5 feet (1.5 meters) deep or greater require a
protective system unless the excavation is made entirely in stable rock. Trenches 20 feet (6.1
meters) deep or greater require that the protective system be de-signed by a registered
professional engineer or be based on tabulated data prepared and/ or approved by a registered
professional engineer.

1.7.3 Protective Systems
There are different types of protective systems. Sloping involves cutting back the trench wall at
an angle inclined away from the excavation. Shoring requires installing aluminum hydraulic or
other types of supports to prevent soil movement and. Shielding protects workers by using trench
boxes or other types of supports to prevent soil cave-ins. Designing a protective system can be
complex because you must consider many factors: soil classification, depth of cut, water content
of soil, changes due to weather or climate, surcharge loads (eg., spoil, other materials to be used
in the trench) and other operations in the vicinity.

1.7.4 Competent Person

OSHA( Occupation safety and Health Administration) standards require that trenches be
inspected daily and as conditions change by a competent person prior to worker entry to ensure
elimination of excavation hazards. A competent person is an individual who is capable of
identifying existing and predictable hazards or working conditions that are hazardous,
unsanitary, or dangerous to employees and who is authorized to take prompt corrective measures
to eliminate or control these hazards and conditions.

1.7.5 Access and Egress
OSHA requires safe access and egress to all excavations, including ladders, steps, ramps, or
other safe means of exit for employees working in trench excavations 4 feet (1.22 meters) or
deeper. These devices must be located within 25 feet (7.6 meters) of all workers.


1.7.6 General Trenching and Excavation Rules
Keep heavy equipment away from trench edges.
Keep surcharge loads at least 2 feet (0.6 meters) from trench edges.
Know where underground utilities are located.
Test for low oxygen, hazardous fumes and toxic gases.
Inspect trenches at the start of each shift.
Inspect trenches following a rainstorm.
Do not work under raised loads.
1.8 Cost involved for labor based excavation and machine based excavation
The costs fall broadly into the costs paid by the utility, as direct and indirect construction costs.
The Direct and In-Direct costs are those most often associated as the Project Costs or
Construction Costs, which are usually relatively straight forward to estimate using standard
estimating methods, and are greatly represented proportionally by the construction cost fees
tendered by contractors.
The machine rate is usually, but not always, divided into fixed costs, operating costs, and labor
costs.
1.8.1 Fixed Costs
Fixed costs are those which can be predetermined as accumulating with the passage of time,
rather than with the rate of work. They do not stop when the work stops and must be spread over
the hours of work during the year. Commonly included in fixed costs are equipment depreciation,
interest on investment, taxes, and storage, and insurance.
Depreciation
The objective of the depreciation charge is to recognize the decline of value of the machine as it
is working at a specific task.
Interest
Interest is the cost of using funds over a period of time. Investment funds may be borrowed or
taken from savings or equity. If borrowed, the interest rate is established by the lender and varies
by locality and lending institution. If the money comes from savings, then opportunity cost or the
rate this money would earn if invested elsewhere is used as the interest rate. The accounting
practice of private firms may ignore interest on equipment on the ground that interest is a part of
profits and, therefore, not a proper charge against operating equipment. Although this is sound
from the point of view of the business as a whole, the exclusion of such charges may lead to the
development of unrealistic comparative rates between machines of low and high initial cost. This
may lead to erroneous decisions in the selection of equipment.


Taxes
Many equipment owners must pay property taxes or some type of usage tax on equipment.
Taxes, like interest, can be calculated by either using the estimated tax rate multiplied by the
actual value of the equipment or by multiplying the tax rate by the average annual investment.
Insurance
Most private equipment owners will have one or more insurance policies against damage, fire,
and other destructive events. It could be argued that the cost of insurance is a real cost that
reflects the risk to all owners and some allowance for destructive events should be allowed. Not
anticipating the risk of destructive events is similar to not recognizing the risk of fire or insect
damage in planning the returns from managing a forest. Insurance calculations are handled in the
same way as interest and taxes.
Storage and Protection
Costs for equipment storage and off-duty protection are fixed costs, largely independent of the
hours of use. Costs of storage and protection must be spread over the total hours of equipment
use.
1.8.2 Operating Costs
Operating costs, unlike fixed costs, change in proportion to hours of operation or use. They
depend upon a variety of factors, many of which are, to some extent, under the control of the
operator or equipment owner. Operating costs vary directly with the rate of work. These costs
include the costs of fuel, lubricants, tires, equipment maintenance and repairs.
Maintenance and Repair
This category includes everything from simple maintenance to the periodic overhaul of engine,
transmission, clutch, brakes and other major equipment components, for which wear primarily
occurs on a basis proportional to use. Operator use or abuse of equipment, the severity of the
working conditions, maintenance and repair policies, and the basic equipment design and quality
all affect maintenance and repair costs.
Fuel
The fuel consumption rate for a piece of equipment depends on the engine size, load factor, the
condition of the equipment, operator's habit, environmental conditions, and the basic design of
equipment. To determine the hourly fuel cost, the total fuel cost is divided by the productive time
of the equipment.
Lubricants


These include engine oil, transmission oil, final drive oil, grease and filters. The consumption
rate varies with the type of equipment, environmental working condition (temperature), the
design of the equipment and the level of maintenance
Tires
Due to their shorter life, tires are considered an operating cost. Tire cost is affected by the
operator's habits, vehicle speed, surface conditions, wheel position, loadings, relative amount of
time spent on curves, and grades.
1.8.3 Labor Costs
Labor costs are those costs associated with employing labor including direct wages, food
contributions, transport, and social costs, including payments for health and retirement. The cost
of supervision may also be spread over the labor costs.
Labor costs include direct and indirect payments such as taxes, insurance payments, food,
housing subsidy, etc. Labor costs need to be carefully considered when calculating machine rates
since the hours the labor works often differs from the hours the associated equipment works.
The machine rate is the sum of the fixed plus operating plus labor costs. The division of costs in
these classifications is arbitrary although accounting rules suggest a rigid classification. The key
point is to separate the costs in such a way as to make the most sense in explaining the cost of
operating the men and equipment
The cost estimate includes:
Costs for local material / equipment delivery to and service provider transportation to
and from the job site.
Costs to prepare the worksite for Trenching, including costs to protect existing
structure(s), finishes, materials and components.
Costs for job cleanup and debris removal at project completion.
Labor setup time, mobilization time and minimum hourly charges that are commonly
included for small Trenching jobs.
The cost estimate does not include:
General contractor fees for organizing and supervising the Trenching. Add 12.1% to
19.3% to the total cost above if a general contractor will supervise this project.
Sales tax on materials and supplies.


Permit or inspection fees (or portion therof) required by your local building department
for your overall project
1.9 New method of construction: trench less excavation methods
Under the traditional method of sewer relief, a replacement or additional parallel sewer line is
constructed by digging along the entire length of the existing pipeline. While these traditional
methods of sewer rehabilitation require unearthing and replacing the deficient pipe (the dig-and-
replace method), trenchless methods of rehabilitation use the existing pipe as a host for a new
pipe or liner. Trenchless sewer rehabilitation techniques offer a method of correcting pipe
deficiencies that requires less restoration and causes less disturbance and environmental
degradation than the traditional dig- and-replace method. Trenchless sewer rehabilitation
methods include:
Pipe Bursting, or In-Line Expansion
Slip lining;
Cured-In-Place Pipe; and
Modified Cross Section Liner.
1.9.1 Pipe Bursting or In-Line Expansion
Pipe bursting, or in-line expansion, is a method by which the existing pipe is forced outward
and opened by a bursting tool. During in-line expansion, the existing pipe is used as a guide for
inserting the expansion head (part of the bursting tool). The expansion head, typically pulled by a
cable rod and winch, increases the area available for the new pipe by pushing the existing pipe
radially outward until it cracks. The bursting device pulls the new pipeline behind itself.
Various types of expansion heads, categorized as static or dynamic, can be used on the bursting
tool to expand the existing pipeline.
Static heads, which have no moving internal parts, expand the existing pipe only through the
pulling action of the bursting tool. Unlike static heads, dynamic heads provide additional
pneumatic or hydraulic forces at the point of impact. Pneumatic heads pulsate internal air
pressure within the bursting tool, while hydraulic heads expand and collapse the head. While the
dynamic head pulsates or expands and contracts, the bursting device is pulled through the
existing pipeline and breaks up the existing pipe, replacing it with the new pipe directly behind
it.
Dynamic heads are often required to penetrate difficult pipe materials and soils. However,
because dynamic heads can cause movement of the surrounding soils-resulting in additional
pressure and ground settlement-static heads are preferred where pipe and soil conditions permit
During the pipe bursting process, the rehabilitated pipe segment must be taken out of service by
re-routing flows around it. After the pipe bursting is completed, laterals are re-connected,
typically with robotic cutting devices.


1.9.2 Sliplining
Sliplining is a well-established method of trenchless rehabilitation. During the sliplining
process, a new liner of smaller diameter is placed inside the existing pipe. The annular space, or
area between the existing pipe and the new pipe, is typically grouted to prevent leaks and to
provide structural integrity. If the annulus between the sections is not grouted, the liner is not
considered a structural liner. Continuous grouting of the annular space provides a seal. Grouting
only the end-of-pipe sections can cause failures and leaks.
In most sliplining applications, manholes cannot function as proper access points to perform
the rehabilitation. In these situations, an insertion pit must be dug for each pipeline segment.
Because of this requirement, in most applications, sliplining is not a completely trenchless
technique. However, the excavation required is considerably less than that for the traditional
dig-and-replace method.
System and site conditions will dictate the amount of excavation spared. Methods of sliplining
include continuous, segmental and spiral wound. All three methods require laterals to be re-
connected by excavation or by a remote-cutter. In continuous sliplining, the new pipe, joined to
form a continuous segment, is inserted into the host pipe at strategic locations. The installation
access point, such as a manhole or insertion pit, must be able to handle the bending of the
continuous pipe section.
Installation by the segmental method involves assembling pipe segments at the access point.
Sliplining by the segment method can be accomplished without rerouting the existing flow. In
many applications, the existing flow reduces frictional resistance and thereby aids in the
installation process. Spiral wound sliplining is performed within a manhole or access point by
using interlocking edges on the ends of the pipe segments to connect the segments.
1.9.3 Cured-in-place pipe
During the cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) renewal process, a flexible fabric liner, coated with a
thermosetting resin, is inserted into the existing pipeline and cured to form a new liner. The liner
is typically inserted into the existing pipe through an existing manhole. The fabric tube holds the
resin in place until the tube is inserted in the pipe and ready to be cured. Commonly
manufactured resins include unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy, with each having
distinct chemical resistance to domestic wastewater The CIPP method can be applied to
rehabilitate pipe lines with defects such as cracks, offset joints, and structurally deficient
segments. The thermosetting resin material bonds with the existing pipe materials to form a
tighter seal than most other trenchless techniques.
The two primary methods of installing CIPP are winch-in-place and invert-in- place. These
methods are used during installation to feed the tube through the pipe. The winch-in- place
method uses a winch to pull the tube through the existing pipeline. After being pulled through
the pipeline, the tube is inflated to push the liner against the existing pipe walls. The more
typically applied inversion-in-place method uses gravity and either water or air pressure to force
the tube through the pipe and invert it, or turn the tube inside out. This process of inversion
presses the resin- coated tube against the walls of the existing pipe. During both the winch-in-
place and inversion-in-place methods, heat is then circulated through the tube to cure the resin to


form a strong bond between the tube and the existing pipe. Under both CIPP methods, as the
liner expands to fit the new pipe, dimples occur in the line where the laterals exist. Dimples in
the line can be found by TV inspection or robotic equipment. In some applications, a Tee is
placed at the junction before rehabilitation begins. Tees enable junction to be easily identified
and modified after the pipeline has been re-lined. Laterals are typically reinstated with robotic
cutting devices, or, for large-diameter pipes, by manually cutting the liner.
1.9.4 Modified cross section lining methods
The modified cross section lining methods include deformed and reformed methods, swage
lining, and roll down. These methods either modify the pipes cross sectional profile or reduce its
cross- sectional area so that the liner can be extruded through the existing pipe. The liner is
subsequently expanded to conform to the existing pipes size.
During deformed and reformed pipeline renewal, a new flexible pipe is deformed in shape and
inserted into the host pipe. While the method of deforming the flexible pipe varies by
manufacturer, with many processes referred to as fold and form methods, a typical approach is to
fold the new liner into a U shape, reducing the pipes diameter by about 30 percent. After the
liner is pulled through the existing line, the liner is heated and pressurized to conform to the
original pipe shape.
Another method of obtaining a close fit between the new lining and existing pipe is to
temporarily compress the new liner before it is drawn through the existing pipeline. The swage
lining and roll down processes use chemical and mechanical means, respectively, to reduce the
cross-sectional area of the new liner. During swage lining, a typical drawdown process, the new
liner is heated and subsequently passed through a reducing die. A chemical reaction between the
die and liner material temporarily reduces the liners diameter by 7 percent to 15 percent and
allows the liner to be pulled through the existing pipe. As the new liner cools, it expands to its
original diameter. The roll down process uses a series of rollers to reduce the pipe liners
diameter. As in deform-and-reform methods, heat and pressure are applied to expand the liner to
its original pipe diameter after it has been pulled through the existing pipe.

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Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage

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