23/04/2014

1
Bahan kuliah ini di ambil dari
berbagai sumber baik dari teks
book maupun internet
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas
Refinery gas
Liquid Fuels
Kerosene
Gasoline, diesel
Alcohol (Ethanol)
Oil
Solid Fuels
Coal (Anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, lignite)
Wood

Something can burn
Why hydrocarbons?
Many are liquids - high density, easy to transport
Lots of it located at Middle East, Saudi Arabia,
Iran, Iraq
Relatively non-toxic fuel & combustion products
Relatively low explosion hazard
23/04/2014
2
Covalent Bonds and Radicals
Chemical bonds result from a mutual sharing of electrons between atoms,
the shared electrons are in the outermost shell, known as valence electrons

Lewis notation:
Hydrogen Atomic # 1 1 valence electron

Carbon Atomic # 6 4 valence electrons

Oxygen Atomic # 8 6 valence electrons
H
C
O
Atoms like to have electron configuration like noble gas, usually eight valence
electrons, an octet.
H H
C H
H
H
H
H
2

CH
4

Atoms and molecules with unpaired valence electrons are called radicals
e.g. O, H, OH, N, C
Most common hydrocarbon fuels are Alkyl Compounds and are
grouped as:
Paraffins (alkanes): single-bonded, open-chain, saturated (no more
hydrogen can be added)


C
n
H
2n+2
n= 1 CH
4
methane n= 4 C
4
H
10
butane
n= 2 C
2
H
6
ethane n= 8 C
8
H
18
n-octane and
n= 3 C
3
H
8
propane isooctane
C
H
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
methane propane
n-octane
H H
H
C
H
For alcohols one hydroxyl (OH) group is substituted for one hydrogen
e.g. methane becomes methyl alcohol (CH
3
OH) also known as methanol
ethane becomes ethyl alcohol (C
2
H
5
OH) also known as ethanol
23/04/2014
3
Olefins (alkenes): open-chain containing one double-bond,
unsaturated (break bond more hydrogen can be added)
C
n
H
2n
n=2 C
2
H
4
ethene
n=3 C
3
H
6
propene
propene
Note: n=1 yields CH
2
is an unstable molecule
H
C
H
H C C
H
H
H
(not very stable -lots of strain in C-C bonds)
H - C - C - H
H H
H H
C
Napthenes Alkanes with cyclo structure
Cyclopropane
C C
C C
C
C
H
|
H
|
H
H
H
H
Benzene
Aromatics - contains one or
more six-sided ring structures
(benzene structure)
23/04/2014
4
Olefins (alkenes): open-chain containing one double-bond,
unsaturated (break bond more hydrogen can be added)
C
n
H
2n
n=2 C
2
H
4
ethene
n=3 C
3
H
6
propene
propene
Acetylenes (alkynes): open-chain containing one C-C triple-bond
unsaturated
C
n
H
2n-2
n=2 C
2
H
2
acetylene
n=3 C
3
H
4
propyne
H C C H
acetylene
Note: n=1 yields CH
2
is an unstable molecule
H
C
H
H C C
H
H
H
More Fuels : hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia
Hydrocarbon
Alkena C = C
Alicyclic
Aromatic
Aliphatic
Alkana C - C
Alkuna C C
Cyclo-alkana
Cyclo-propana Cyclo-butana
Toluene Benzene
23/04/2014
5

Anthracite (hard)
Bituminous (soft)
Mixture of C, H2, S, O2, N2, water and non-combustibles
(e.g. Ash)
Macro-organism
Peat (gambut)
Brown coal Lignite
Sub-bituminous
Bituminous Semi-anthracite
Anthracite
Meta Anthracite Grapite
COAL (others : wood, coke)
23/04/2014
6
65-95% C
2-7% H
<25% O
<10% S
1-2% N
20-70% Char
5-15% Ash
2-20% H
2
O
20-45% VM
Inhomogeneous organic fuel formed
mainly from decomposed plant
matter.
Over 1200 coals have been
classified.
Time, Temperature
Coal Rank
Coalification forms different coal
types:
(Peat)
Lignite
Bituminous coal
Anthracite
(Graphite)

P
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e

A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s

E
l
e
m
e
n
t
a
l

C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

Coal
23/04/2014
7
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Anthracite
Bituminous
Lighite
Burned energy (1,000 calories per kg)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Carbon content (%)
Energy
Carbon
Anthracite
Highest grade; over 85%
carbon.
Most efficient to burn.
Lowest sulfur content; the least
polluting.
The most exploited and most
rapidly depleted coal resource
in many areas.
Bituminous
Medium grade coal, about 50-
75% carbon content.
Higher sulfur content and is
less fuel-efficient.
Most abundant coal found in
the USA.
Lignite
Lowest grade of coal, with
about 40% carbon content.
Low energy content.
Most sulfurous and most
polluting.
Carbon Volatile matter Moisture Ash Heating value
(%) (%) (%) (%) (10
6
J kg
-1
)
Anthracite (PA) 77.1 3.8 5.4 13.7 27.8
Bituminous (PA) 70.0 20.5 3.3 6.2 33.3
Subbituminous (CO) 45.9 30.5 19.6 4.0 23.6
Lignite (ND) 30.8 28.2 34.8 6.2 16.8
23/04/2014
8
Main Processes in Coal
Combustion
coal particle
p-coal, d=30-
70m
devolatilization
volatiles
char
homogeneous
combustion
heterogeneous
combustion
CO
2
, H
2
O,
CO
2
, H
2
O,
t
char
=1-2sec t
volatiles
=50-100ms t
devolatile
=1-5ms
t
Coke :
adalah batu bara yang
dihilangkan moisture dan volatile
matter. Prosesnya disebut
karbonisasi pirolisa.

900 1200 C high temperatur coke
750 900 C medium temperatur coke
500 600 C low temperatur coke
23/04/2014
9
Coal Applications
Homes heat and cooking
Transportation steam engines
Industry metal works
Electricity power plants
A. Analisis PROXIMATE
Analisis yg paling sederhana, yaitu dgn memanaskan batu bara dgn cara2
tertentu, untuk memperoleh hasil analisa :
1. MOISTURE, M (water) : dipanaskan pada suhu 104 110
o
C dalam waktu
tertentu. Pengurangan berat dikalikan 100% = M
Surface moisture : moisture karena sumber luar, mis : percikan air,
hujan, kondensasi udara dll
Inherent moisture : moisture yg terikat dg batu bara dimana
menimbulkan kebasahan. Contoh : kadar IM 2 4 % u/ anthracite
& bitiminous
23/04/2014
10
2. VOLATILE MATTER , VM adl bahan yg mudah menguap : dipanaskan dalam ruang
tertutup pada 950
o
C selama 7 menit. VM terdiri dari Hidrogen, CO, CO
2
,
uap air
3. Kadar abu, A, (ash), caranya membakar sisa batu bara dalam dapur muffler pada
suhu 700 750
o
C.
4. FIXED CARBON, FC : dianggap sb kadar karbon tetap, ditentukan dg mengurangi
sisa M, VM dan A sehingga didapatkan :


Catatan : FC tsb bukan merupakan karbon murni, karena masih mengandung Si, Al, Fe,
Ti, Mg dll. Dan juga tidak mewakili total karbon dari batu bara krn ada C
dikeluarkan sebagai CO, CO2 dll

FC = 100 ( M + VM + A )
A. Analisis ULTIMATE
Analisi ultimate adalah analisa kandungan unsur kimia bahan bakar secara
kimia, terutama unsur-unsur karbon (C), hidrogen (H), oksigen (O) dan sulfur (S).
Dari kedua analisa diatas dapat dibuat suatu hubungan antara analisa ultimate
dengan analisa proximate seperti dibawah ini :
% C = 0,97 + 0,7 ( VM - 0,1A ) M ( 0,6 - 0,01M )
% H = 0,036 FC + 0,086 ( VM - 0,1A ) - 0,0035M
2
%N2 = 2,10 0,020 VM
23/04/2014
11
Nilai kalor bahan bakar dapat dicari dengan :
1. Pengujian langsung dengan menggunakan CALORIMETER
- Padat & cair : bomb calorimeter
- Gas : gas calorimeter

2. Analisis dengan menggunakan rumus pendekatan yang dikembangkan oleh
DULONG PETIT :

HHV = 8080 C + 3446 ( H O / 8 + 2250 S ) ( kkal / kg bb )


8
O
Catatan : - diperlukan data analisa Ultimate
- Analisa tsb akan valid jika kadar karbon 76% dan kadar oksigen 10 %
- Jika kadar tsb memenuhi maka hasil yang didapat berbeda hanya 2% dari uji
laboratorium
23/04/2014
12
What is Petroleum?
Petroleum, also known as Crude Oil ,is
occurring brown to black flammable
liquid.
Mainly constituted of hydrocarbons mixed
with variable amount of sulfur, nitrogen,
oxygen and metal (such as V,Ni) compounds.
100,000 to 1,000,000 different compounds
23/04/2014
13
Mainly properties of petroleum
API gravity


Most commonly crude oil in the rang 20~45
Higher API, more paraffine, higher yields of gasoline
Sulfur, wet %
Sour is S% > 1, Sweet is <0.5
Viscosity at 100F


131.5
SG
141.5
API
C 1 5
g rav i t y

Skematik
Distilasi
23/04/2014
14
23/04/2014
15
Technical features to make/improve fuels
Convert heavier products into lighter ones into gasoline, Such
as thermal cracking,coking, viscosity breaking, catalytic
cracking, and hydrocracking

C
16
H
34
C
8
H
16
+ C
5
H
10
+ C
3
H
8

Combining lighter products into heavier ones, such as butane
and propylene into alkylate , a high-octane gasoline
component,such as alkylation and polymerization



C CH
2

CH
3

CH
3

C
CH
3

CH
3

CH
3

H
+
C C CH
2
CH
3

CH
3

H CH
3

CH
3

CH
3

Rearranging the molecular structure to improve desirable
qualities,such as reforming low-octane gasoline into high octane,
such as catalytic reforming and isomerization




Treating, to remove contaminants such as sulfur and nitrogen

CH
2
CH
2
CH
3
CH
3

H C CH
3

CH
3

CH
3

23/04/2014
16
A fuel designed for SIEs
Mixture of Hydrocarbon, (over 500)
1
, plus
additives.






1. 1 B. Hamilton, FAQ: Automotive Gasoline











Coal tar distillates: Late 19th century.
Gasoline from Petroleum: Early 20th century.
Typical mid-1920s gasoline was 40 - 60 Octane.
1950s: compression ratio increase, requiring higher
octane fuels: Leaded was introduced.
1970s: leaded was prohibited.
1970-1990: slow changes in gasoline as lead was
phased-out.
1990 + : the US Clean Air Act started forcing major
compositional changes on gasoline.
These changes will continue into the 21st Century.




23/04/2014
17
The sound of abnormal combustion.













Detonation (1 of 2)
Ketika terjadi detonasi, flame front merambat
mendekati kecepatan suara.
Ketika terjadi detonasi, tekana di dalam ruang
bakar terbentuk dengan cepat, sehingga bisa
merusak mesin dan menimbulkan spark knock
(suara)
23/04/2014
18
Octane
Bahan bakar terbakar dalam ruang bakar dalam
hitungan beberapa millisecond, tetapi
diharapkan sebagai suatu pembakaran yang
terkontrol, bukan sebuah ledakan.
Flame merambat pada kisaran 50 250 m/s.
Octane number : kecenderungan suatu bahan
menahan detonasi/knock pada kondisi operasi
tertentu.
Semakin besar octane number, semakin besar
dia mampu menahan detonasi
Cara mengukur octane number :
normal heptane (n-C
7
H
16
) = 0
isooctane (C
8
H
18
) = 100.
campuran dari dua hydrocarbon diatas
menunjukkan nilai octane suatu bahan bakar. Mis:
campuran dari 10% n-heptane dan 90% isooctane
mempunyai nilai octane = 90.
23/04/2014
19
Octane Number Measurement
Dua methode telah dibuat untuk mengukur nilai octane, dengan
sebuah mesin standar satu cylinder dibawah pengawasan Cooperative
Fuel Research (CFR) Committee th. 1931.
Mesin CFR engine yang dipakai adalah 4-langkah dgn 3.25 bore and
4.5 stroke, compression ratio dapat divariasi dari 3 to 30.

Research Motor

Inlet temperature (
o
C) 52 149
Speed (rpm) 600 900
Spark advance (
o
BTC) 13 19-26
(varies with CR)
Coolant temperature (
o
C) 100
Inlet pressure (atm) 1.0
Humidity (kg water/kg dry air) 0.0036 - 0.0072

23/04/2014
20
Knock Characteristics of Various Fuels
Formula Name Critical r RON MON

CH
4
Methane 12.6 120 120
C
3
H
8
Propane 12.2 112 97
CH
4
O Methanol - 106 92
C
2
H
6
O Ethanol - 107 89
C
8
H
18
Isooctane 7.3 100 100
Blend of HCs Regular gasoline 91 83
n-C
7
H
16
n-heptane 0 0
Suatu baha bakar dg antiknock lebih tinggi dr octane, ON disetarakan
dg:

m
T
adalah jumlah tetraethyl lead per U.S. gallon
23/04/2014
21
23/04/2014
22
Natural Gas :
1. Low pressure Natural Gas : yang biasanya digunakan langsung untuk
memasak atau memanaskan rumah tangga. Umumnya disalurkan dalam pipa
dalam tanah.
2. CNG ( Compressed Natural Gas ) : adalah gas alam yang di compress
pada tekanan tinggi sehingga bisa di bawa dengan kendaraan misalnya
truck.
3. LNG ( Liquid Natural Gas ) : Gas alam yang di dinginkan sehingga
menjadi cair. LNG lebih padat dari CNG karena berbentuk cair sehingga
lebih mudah diangkut. LNG dibuat dengan proses refrigerasi 260 F.
Pendinginan tersebut akan menghilangkan uap air, butane, propane dan
beberapa gas lain, sehingga komponen utama LNG adalah 98 adalah
methane

LPG ( Liquid Petrolium Gas ) : Gas yang terutama terdiri dari propane
dan beberapa gas lain yang di compress dengan tekanan tinggi ( 200 psi)
sehingga mencair dan disimpan dalam tangki bertekanan.