American Period

U.S. military government

Following the capture of Manila on August 14, 1898, the U.S. established a military government in the Philippines under
General Merritt as Military Governor.
General Otis succeeded General Merritt as Military Governor, governing from 1898 to 1900. General Otis was succeeded by
General MacArthur, who governed from 1900 to 1902
An American-style school system was introduced, initially with soldiers as teachers; civil courts were organized, including a
Supreme Court; local governments were established in towns and provinces
The first local election was conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May 7, 1899, in Baliwag, Bulacan.

First Philippine Commission
On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission (the Schurman Commission), a
five-person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of Cornell University, to investigate conditions in the islands
and make recommendations.

Benevolent Assimilation
On December 21, 1898, announced in the Philippines on January 4, 1899. Referring to the Treaty of Paris, it said that as a
result of the victories of American arms, the future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded
to the United States.

On January 6, 1899, General Otis was quoted in the New York Times as expressing himself as convinced that the U.S.
government intends to seek the establishment of a liberal government, into a government as free and independent as as is
enjoyed by the most favored provinces in the world.

The Philippine-American War (18991913) - Tensions escalate
News had come to Washington from Manila that American forces which had been sent to Iloilo were confronted by 6,000
armed Filipinos, who refused them permission to land.
Felipe Agoncillo, who had been commissioned by the Philippine Revolutionary Government as Minister Plenipotentiary to
negotiate treaties with foreign governments, and who had unsuccessfully sought to be seated at the negotiations between
the U.S. and Spain in Paris, was now in Washington.
On January 6, he filed a request for an interview with the President to discuss affairs in the Philippines. The next day the
government officials were surprised to learn that messages to General Otis to deal mildly with the rebels and not to force a
conflict had become known to Agoncillo, and cabled by him to Aguinaldo.
At the same time came Aguinaldo's protest against General Otis signing himself "Military Governor of the Philippines

Outbreak of general hostilities
War
On February 4, Aguinaldo issued the following proclamation:
That peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within
the limits prescribed by the laws of war.
That the Americans captured be held as prisoners of war.
That this proclamation be communicated to the consuls and that congress order and accord a suspension of the
constitutional guarantee, resulting from the declaration of war.

On June 2, 1899, the Malolos Congress of the First Philippine Republic enacted and ratified a Declaration of War on the
United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day by Pedro Paterno, President of the Assembly
As before when fighting the Spanish, the Filipino rebels did not do well in the field. Aguinaldo and his provisional
government escaped the capture of Malolos on March 31, 1899 and were driven into northern Luzon.

In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and swore allegiance to the United States.
The hostilities of the Philippine-American war began on February 4, 1899 and continued for two years. The United States
used 126,000 soldiers to subdue the Philippines. The war took the lives of 4,234 Americans and about 16,000 Filipinos

Second Philippine Commission
The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by
William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers.
On September 1, the Taft Commission began to exercise legislative functions

Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws, established a judicial system, including a Supreme Court,
drew up a legal code to replace antiquated Spanish ordinances and organized a civil service.

The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal
boards.

Establishment of civil government
On March 2, 1901 the U.S. Congress passed the Spooner Amendment to the Army Appropriation Act. this amendment
provided legislative authority for the President to proceed with the establishment of a civil government in the Philippines.
On July 1, 1901, civil government was inaugurated with William H. Taft as the Civil Governor. later, on February 3, 1903,
the U.S. Congress changed the title of Civil Governor to Governor-General.

A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using English as the medium of instruction. This created a
heavy shortage of teachers, and the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the
Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. the so-called Thomasites.

Official end to the war
The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved, ratified, and confirmed McKinley's Executive Order establishing the
Philippine Commission and stipulated that a legislature would be established composed of a lower house, the Philippine
Assembly, which would be popularly elected, and an upper house consisting of the Philippine Commission. The act also
provided for extending the United States Bill of Rights to Filipinos

On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. Presidency after the assassination of President McKinley on
September 5, 1901 proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who
had participated in the conflict

Post-1902 hostilities
Filipino nationalist historians like Renato Constantino have suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a
decade, since bands of guerrillas, quasi-religious armed groups and other resistance groups continued to roam the
countryside, still clashing with American Army or Philippine Constabulary patrols.

U.S. Territory (19011935)
The 1902 Philippine Organic Act had disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion
Two years after completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a
popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with
the Philippine Commission as the upper house.

Every year from 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the
Filipino desire for independence.
In 1916, the Philippine Autonomy Act, popularly known as the Jones Law, was passed by the U.S. Congress. The law, which
served as the new organic act (or constitution) for the Philippines, stated in its preamble that the eventual independence of
the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government.
On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the
Filipino people to be free and sovereign.
U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine legislature
as to a stable government.
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed
the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the
U.S. is to grant Philippine independence.
Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill on
December 30, 1932. U.S. President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on on January 13, 1933.
Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine
independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs
and quotas on Philippine exports.
Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act.
The result was the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act except in minor
details. The Tydings-McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate.
The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946
The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a Constitution, for a 10-year "transitional period" as
the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence
The first election under the constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935 the Commonwealth
government was inaugurated

Commonwealth Era (19351946)
The period 19351946 would ideally be devoted to the final adjustments required for a peaceful transition to full
independence, a great latitude in autonomy being granted in the meantime.
On May 14, 1935, an election to fill the newly created office of President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was won
by Manuel L. Quezon (Nacionalista Party) and a Filipino government was formed on the basis of principles superficially
similar to the US Constitution.
The Commonwealth featured a very strong executive, a unicameral National Assembly, and a Supreme Court composed
entirely of Filipinos for the first time since 1901.
The Commonwealth however, was also faced with agrarian unrest, an uncertain diplomatic and military situation in South
East Asia, and uncertainty about the level of United States commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines.
INDEPENDENCE

Following decades of rule by the United States and occupation by Japan during much of World War II (1942-1945), the
Republic of the Philippines received its independence on July 4, 1946, when the United States turned over control of
the government to the popularly elected president, Manuel Roxas. The new republic retained strong economic and
political ties to the United States.

In 1944 Osmea succeeded Quezon, who died in the United States, as president of the government-in-exile.
Osmea returned to Manila in 1945, and plans went forward to inaugurate the independent Republic of the
Philippines.

PROBLEMS:
ENVIRONMENTAL REHABILITATION
CULTURAL REHABILITATION
FINANCIAL POVERTY
NO PEACE & ORDER
DEBASED MORAL & SPIRITUAL FIBER

TOTAL WAR LOSSES:
$ 8 079 624 000 OR
P16 159 243 000


Manuel Roxas challenged the elderly Sergio Osmea for the presidency. Roxas won the election of April 1946 and
became the first president of the new republic, with Elpidio Quirino as vice president.

Under Roxas administration, the Parity Amendment was approved on March 11, 1947.

Quirino Becomes President On the night of April 16, 1948, President Roxas died of heart attack at Clark Field,
Pampanga. In the morning of this fateful date, he delivered a stirring speech before the U.S. 13
th
Airforce, in which he
said: If war should come, I am certain of one thing probably the only thing of which I can be certain and it is this:
That America and the Philippines will be found on the same side, and American and Filipino soldiers will again fight
side by side in the same trenches or in the air or at sea in defense of justice, of freedom, and other principles which we
both love and cherish.

On April 17, 1948, Vice-President Elpidio Quirino took his oath of office as second President of the Republic.
His first official act was the proclamation of a state of mourning throughout the land for his predecessor.

The Quirino Administration (1948-53) Upon assuming the reins of government, President Quirino announced the
two main objectives of his administration: 1) economic reconstruction of the nation and 2) restoration of the
faith and confidence of the people in the government.

When the Huk insurgency intensified to the point of threatening the stability of the Philippine government, Quirino
appointed Ramn Magsaysay secretary of national defense. Magsaysay had gained visibility as an able guerrilla leader
during World War II. He enthusiastically took on the mission to crush Huk resistance, using solutions such as tenancy
reform to erode the rural support base of the Huks. His initiative to improve the training of the Philippine armed forces
won help from the United States, which considered the Huks to be a threat to the stability of the Philippines. In 1950
police forces captured the core of the Huk leadership. Huks who surrendered were offered amnesty. The insurgency
effectively ended in May 1954 with the surrender of Huk leader Luis Taruc.

Magsaysay Succeeds Quirino In 1953 elections, he defeated Quirino and became the 3rd president of the republic. No
other President of the Philippines has been so beloved by the Filipino people as Magsaysay, who truly merits the titles
conferred on him by contemporary writers the Savior of Democracy in the Philippines and Man of the Masses.
He restored the peoples faith and confidence in the government. He was the first President to improve the conditions
of the barrios, which had woefully been neglected by former Presidents. To uplift the barrio folks to a better life, he
constructed barrio roads and bridges, barrio artesian wells, and barrio irrigation systems. He prohibited the
indiscriminate slaughter of carabaos, the farmers best friend. As a nationalist, he popularized the use of barong
tagalong in official and social functions. He was the first President to be dressed in barong tagalong during
the presidential inaugural rites. By so doing, he dignified the barong tagalong which was formerly a poor mans
garb.

Garcia Succeeds Magsaysay At the zenith of his popularity and power, President Magsaysay died in a plane crash in
Cebu on Sunday, March 17, 1957. The Filipino people were shocked by the tragedy. The next day, March 18
th
,
Vice-President Carlos P. Garcia was inducted into office

President Garcia completed Magsaysays unexpired term, after which he ran for his own four-year term in the
presidential election of November 12, 1957. Diosdado Macapagal was elected Vice-President.

Among his achievements were: 1) strengthening of democracy in the Philippines, 2) revival of Filipino culture, 3)
adoption of the Filipino First policy to promote greater Filipino participation in business, 4) creation of Dr. Jose Rizal
Centennial Commission to supervise the compilation of all writings of Dr. Rizal, the national hero, 5) fostering
international goodwill and friendship by state visits to Japan, the United States, South Vietnam, and Malaysia.

Macapagal Succeeds Garcia President Garcia lost his bid for reelection in the presidential election of November 14,
1961. Vice-President Macapagal, won & Emmanuel Pelaez, the vice-presidential candidate. On December 30, 1961.

Among these achievements are: 1) Upon his recommendation, the Philippine Congress enacted the Agricultural
Land Reform Code, which he signed into law on August 8, 1963, 2) The propagation of the Filipino language, 3) The
date of Independence Day in the Philippines was changed from July 4
th
to June 12
th
, 4) Formation of MAPHILINDO,
a loose confederation of Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia, in Manila on August 5, 1963.

Among these achievements are: 1) Upon his recommendation, the Philippine Congress enacted the Agricultural
Land Reform Code, which he signed into law on August 8, 1963, 2) The propagation of the Filipino language, 3) The
date of Independence Day in the Philippines was changed from July 4
th
to June 12
th
, 4) Formation of MAPHILINDO,
a loose confederation of Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia, in Manila on August 5, 1963.

Marcos Becomes President On December 30, 1965, Marcos took his oath of office as the sixth President of the
Philippine Republic.

arcos Regime (1965-1981)

Marcos First Term (1965-69) On December 30, 1965, Marcos took his oath of office as the sixth President of the Philippine Republic. At the beginning of his
administration, President Marcos was beset by serious problems. The national treasury was almost empty because of the extravagance of the Macapagal
administration. The government was short of funds for essential services, including education, health, national defense, social welfare and infrastructure. Among the
achievements of President Marcos during his first term (1965-1969) were the following: 1) Stabilization of government finance by means of more effective collection of
taxes, imposing new tax laws, and getting loans from foreign banks and governments, 2) Greater production of rice by promoting the cultivation of miracle rice and
other fast growing rice seeds, the construction of more irrigation systems, and giving financial and technical assistance to the farmers, 3) Building of more roads and
bridges, schoolhouses, and other public works, 4) Intensive drive against smuggling, crime syndicates, and the NPA, 5) Holding of the Manila Summit Conference on
October 24-25, 1966 attended by the heads of state of Australia, South Korea, New Zealand, Philippines, South Vietnam, Thailand and the United States.

Marcos Wins Reelection (1969) Evidently, the Filipino people were satisfied by President Marcos performance during his first term. The reelection of President
Marcos in 1969 was unprecedented in the political annals of the Philippine Republic. First he was the only President of the Philippines to be reelected for a second
term. And, second, he was the first Philippine President to take his oath of office (December 30, 1969) in the native language. All his predecessors took their oath of
office in English.

President Marcos Second Term (1969) As President Marcos commenced his second term, somber clouds loomed in Philippine skies, auguring dark days for the
young republic. The global economic crisis brought about by the rising oil price reached the Philippines, adversely affecting her economy. The prices of prime
commodities spiralled skyward, many people became jobless, and the floating peso was devaluated. On top of the economic recession, other evil s plagued the
nation, such as 1) the prevalence of dirty politics, 2) the rampage of graft and corruption in the government, 3) the widening gap between the rich and the poor, 4) the
impotency of the 1935 Philippine Constitution to cope with the new socio-economic problems of the times, and 5) the rising tides of crimes, communism, and subversion.
These evils produced the disenchantment of the people particularly the young students with the government and society in general.

Student Power and Demonstrations Roused to action by the deplorable conditions of the country, the students of colleges and universities went on the warpath.
They rose in violent demonstrations in the streets of Manila and in the towns of the provinces with the following objectives: 1) a good government without dirty politics,
2) social justice through land reform, 3) lower prices for prime commodities and jobs for the jobless, 4) improvement of the educational system, and 5) a new constitution
to replace the obsolete 1935 Philippine Constitution.

Movement to Change the Constitution Since the Philippines achieved postwar independence in July 1946, there emerged a persistent movement to change the
Constitution of 1935. In the light of the new situation, the Constitution of 1935 was found to be anachronistic because it was no longer in harmony with the new
conditions of the times. Its defects became apparent, as follows: 1) it was a relic of colonialism, for it was drafted during the American regime and the was an imitation
of the U.S. Constitution; 2) too much powers given to the President may spawn a dictator; 3) imbalance among the three branches of government legislative,
executive, judicial; 4) lack of a provision regarding presidential election protests; 5) its Parity Amendment was a memento of American imperialism; 6) the COMELEC
(Commission on Elections) was not granted adequate powers to prevent election anomalies; 7) the GAO (General Auditing Office) was virtually a watchdog without
teeth; and 8) it had no provision on local autonomy.

The Making of a New Constitution The Constitutional Convention met in inaugural session on June 1, 1971 at the Fiesta Pavilion of the Manila Hotel, Manila. The
highlight of the opening ceremonies was the address of President Marcos in which he appealed to the delegates to frame a constitution which would cure the political
and socio-economic ills of the nation.

Martial Law and the New Society

For the first time since regaining our freedom in 1946, the Filipinos experienced the impact of martial law (1972-81). President Marcos used martial law
in order to prolong his stay in power. He claimed other reasons in public to save the Republic and reform the society but these objectives were secondary to his
primary aim of becoming a dictatorial president and establishing a political dynasty. Thus, the strong powers assumed by Marcos eventually did far more harm than
good, because under the New Society which he established, the Philippines suffered the worst political, economic and moral decline in its postwar history.

Explanations of Martial Law

1. Proclamation of Martial Law At 7:30 p.m. of September 23, 1972, President Marcos appeared on nationwide radio and television to formally announce that he
had placed the entire Philippines under martial law as of 9 p.m. of the previous day, September 22, 1972, by way of implementing Proclamation No. 1081, which
he had signed even earlier, on September 21, 1972. It seemed typical of the deceitful way in which the country was to be ruled for the next fourteen years under
President Marcos that he prepared and signed the martial law edict in secret, and he told the public about it only after his military agents had arrested the
opposition and silenced the media.

2. The Legality of Martial Law Martial law is an extraordinary measure taken by the head of state to defend or to protect the people from extreme danger due to
lawless violence, anarchy, rebellion, or invasion. As President of the Republic, Marcos had the authority to impose martial law under Article VII (Section 10,
Paragraph 2) of the 1935 Constitution. His critics pointed out, however, that when martial law was proclaimed, the country was not being invaded or threatened
with invasion, anarchy, insurrection or rebellion. It is true that there were demonstrations and subversive forces, but these did not justify the extreme measure
taken by President Marcos.

3. Martial Law Measures The martial law measures were contained in a contingency plan secretly prepared in advance by the President and military advi sers.
The plan, code-named Oplan Sagittarius, was put into effect starting on September 21, 1972, two days before the official declaration of the proclamation.
Thousands of anti-Marcos politicians, student activists, suspected or real communists, media critics, intellectuals, professionals and others were arrested and
herded into military stockaders. Among them were Senators Aquino, Jose Diokno and Ramon Mitra. All newspapers, television and radio stations, printing
presses and other means of mass media were closed and placed under military control. All student demonstrations and rallies, public political meetings, and
labor strikes were strictly prohibited. Curfew was imposed from midnight to 4 a.m. All schools were closed for one week. A travel ban was imposed on Filipinos
who wanted to go abroad, except on official missions. Private armies of influential politicians were disbanded. Firearms and explosives were confiscated from
the people. Finally, the Congress of the Philippines, the lawmaking body under the 1935 Constitution was abolished. And special military tribunals were created
to try cases involving crimes against national security and crimes against the public order, with jurisdiction over civilians. The initial reaction of the general
public was one of shock and fear. However, when a degree of normalcy returned and no uprising or large-scale violence occurred, and even the crime rate
decreased, most of the public came to accept the martial law regime. Some even praised President Marcos for having restored a semblance of national
discipline. Foreign observers also gave credit to Marcos for his courageous imposition of martial law.

4. To Save the Republic One of the objectives of President Marcos in declaring martial law was to save the Republic from anarchy, secession, rebell ion and
takeover by subversive elements. At the beginning of martial law, a one-man government was established under the aegis of the new constitution. Officially, it
was called a constitutional authoritarianism, but in reality it was a dictatorship by President Marcos. The first achievement of President Marcos under the martial
law was the restoration of peace and order. He accomplished this by the mass arrest and detention of political prisoners as well as suspected criminals;
disbanding and disarming political warlords and their hired goons; by confiscating illegal firearms; and by imposing the curfew. So successful was the peace and
order campaign during the early days of martial law that the crime rate was reported greatly reduced. Martial law also severely restricted human rights in the
Philippines. It marked the end of the freest press in Asia. For two and a half decades after decolonization, the Philippine press was never harassed by
authorities. President Marcos closed down newspapers, magazines, printing presses, radio and tv stations and arrested anti-Marcos publishers, journalists and
news commentators. Only pro-Marcos newspapers, magazines and radio-tv stations were allowed to resume or begin operations. For the first five years of
martial law (1972-77), the Filipinos enjoyed peace and order in most places, political stability and greater economic prosperity. Hence, whatever misgivings the
people may have had about the extension of tenure and powers of President Marcos, they gave him the benefit of the doubt to continue his reforms.

5. The Foundation of the New Society Aside from saving his government, President Marcos aimed to form a New Society a society which would be disciplined,
self-sufficient, peaceful and self-reliant. For martial law to be of lasting benefit to the nation, according to him, there must be great reforms in all spheres of
national life. Marcos also said that the conquest of mass poverty and the democratic distribution of wealth and property were among the major economic goals of
the New Society. He promised to strengthen the national economy, expand and improve government services to the people, institute land reform, and redistribute
incomes and opportunities.

Land reform was the greatest achievement of President Marcos under martial law, hence, by the end of martial law in 1981, 532,153 tenant farmers had
become owners of rice and corn lands in 45 provinces. The Philippines became self-sufficient in rice production and started to export rice to other countries.
President Marcos established the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA), a super policy-making body to plan and supervise the national
economic development program.
He decreed far-reaching tax reforms so that government revenues quadrupled from P5.3 billion in 1972 to P19.2 billion in 1976.
Under martial law, there was a boom in the construction of roads, bridges, ports, airports, dams, irrigation, schools, hospitals, housing projects and
communication facilities. The countrys longest highway was built the Pan-Philippine Highway from Aparri to Zamboanga, passing through 21 provinces
and 11 cities and linking Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao for the first time through land and sea transport.
New sources of energy were tapped. Geothermal energy plants were operated. Oil exploration began in earnest and construction of the countrys biggest
development project, the Morong, Bataan Nuclear Plant was started.
Economic growth of 6.9% from 1972-77 resulted in a double increase of both local and foreign investments. Some 35 multinational firms moved their
headquarters to the Philippines.
The number of tourists increased ten fold between 1972-80. A Tourism Department was created, and new hotels were built.
In the labor sector, unemployment fell from 7% in 1972 to 5.2% in 1977.
The joy of the initial prosperity of martial law made the Philippines boast of having another economic miracle in Asia. Many enjoyed prosperity in the urban
and rural areas, and a general air of confidence and optimism prevailed.

Some Beneficial Effects of Martial Law

1. Resumption of normal classes in all schools, colleges, and universities both public and private.
2. The order for all persons, with some exceptions, to surrender their firearms and ammunitions.
3. Reorganization of the government to make it less top heavy in personnel and more efficient and economical to operate.
4. Land Reform, the emancipation of the tenant farmers from the clutches of their landlords.
5. Tax amnesty, which improved and stabilized the financial standing of the country, not only in the eyes of its own people, but in the eyes of the world as well.
6. Improved credit of the government, both locally and abroad derived from its increased tax collections.
7. Rapid public work constructions, repairs, and improvements throughout the length and breadth of the land, with special emphasis given to Mindanao and outlying
rural areas.
8. The giving of the National College Entrance Examination.
9. The green revolution as applied locally a movement which arose from the acute shortage of food supply, particularly rice, vegetables and fruits as a consequence
of the destructive typhoons and floods of 1972 in Central Luzon. And equally devastating draught that subsequently visited Mindanao especially the Cotabato
provinces, the rice granary of the entire country.
10. The Masagana 99 Movement, which was intended to make the Philippines self-sufficient in the production and consumption of rice and corn.

The End of Martial Law

On January 17, 1981, President Marcos signed Proclamation No. 2045, ending eight years and four months of martial law in the Philippines. Certain
conditions were attached to this proclamation, such as the continued prominence of the armed forces in suppressing lawless crimes, insurrection, rebellion of
subversion, and the continued suspension of the privilege of writ of habeas corpus in the two autonomous regions (Region IX of western Mindanao and Region XII of
central Mindanao). Furthermore, limitations on criticism of the administration were continued by means of the Presidential Commitment Order (PCO) and arrest and
seizure without warrant orders (ASSO), whereby the police or military could arrest and detain a person, or seize the property of a detainee, when the latter engaged in
anti-government activities. Thus, the lifting of martial law was dubbed by the oppositions as a mere facelifting and not a real return to democracy.