3

SUMAR


1. Socialising
1. The Impact of Culture on Business
2. Telephoning
2. Telephoning across cultures
3. Presentations
3. Planning and preparation
4. Image, impact and making impression
5. The presentation
6. The end of the presentation
4. Meetings
7. Preparation for meetings
8. Participating in meetings
9. Ending the meeting
5. Negotiations
10. Know what you want
11. Getting what you can
12. Not getting what you dont want
6. Management
13. What is management?
14. Types of managers
15. The management process
16. Management level and skills
7. Companies and organisations
17. Company structure
18. The external environment of organisations
8. Production and products
19. Just-in-time production
20. Products and brands
9. Marketing, advertising, promotion
21. The centrality of marketing
22. How companies advertise
23. The four major promotional tool
10. Market structure and competition
24. Market leaders, challengers and followers
25.Takeovers, mergers and buyouts
26. Profits and social responsibility
11. Money and finance
27. A history of money what makes the world goes round
28. The profits of labour
29. Accounting and financial statements
30. Exchange Rates
12. Banking and taxation
31. Types of banks
4
32. Opening an account and means of payment
33. Banking Key words and sentences
34. Taxation and how to avoid it
13. Stock market
35. Stocks and shares
36. Bonds
37. Futures, options and swaps
Glossary
Cheia exerciiilor


Verbe modale I form i utilizare; Exerciii
Verbe modale II form i utilizare; Exerciii
Infinitivul form i utilizare; Exerciii
Formele n Ing utilizare; Exerciii
Verbe care primesc infinitive sau forma n Ing; Exerciii
Verbe complexe form i utilizare; Exerciii
Vorbirea indirect form i utilizare; Exerciii
Prepoziii, Conjuncii form i utilizare; Exerciii
Substantivul form i utilizare; Exerciii
Articolul form i utilizare; Exerciii
Adjectivul form i utilizare; Exerciii
Pronumele form i utilizare; Exerciii
Adverbul form i utilizare; Exerciii











Bibliografie

Cotton, David Keys to management, Longman, 1996
Cotton, David; Robbins, Sue Business Class, Nelson English
Language Teaching, London, 1993
MacKenzie, Ian English for Business Studies, Cambridge
University Press, 2001
Sweeney, Simon English for Business Communication,
Cambridge University Press, 2000
5
Chiriacescu, Adriana; Murean, Laura; Barghiel, Virginia;
Hollinger, Alexander Coresponden de afaceri n limbile romn
i englez, Editura Teora, Bucureti, 1995
Geoghegan, C.G.; Geoghegan, J.Y. Engleza pentru negocieri,
Editura Teora, Bucureti, 2000
Roland, Marie-Claude; Mast-Grand, Martha CV n limba englez,
un pas spre angajare, Editura Teora, Bucureti, 2000
Dayan, A.; Lindsay, W.H.; Janakiewicz, A.; Marcheteau, M.
Engleza pentru marketing i publicitate, Editura Teora, Bucureti,
2000
Banta, Andrei; Poreanu, Rodica Limba englez pentru tiin i
tehnic, Editura Niculescu, Bucureti, 1995
Laun, Flavia E. Birotics and Telecommunication Explanatory
Dictionary, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1996
Mnil, D.; Popa, C.; Popa, D.; Popescu, I.M.; Vlad, V.I. Mic
dicionar poliglot de fizic, tehnic i matematic, Editura Acora
Press, Bucureti, 1995
Le Divenach, loi Engleza n pres, Editura Teora, Bucureti,
1999
Marcheteau, Michel Berman, Jean-Pierre Savio, Michel, Engleza
comercial n 40 de lecii, Editura Niculescu, Bucureti, 2001








1. Socialising



Reading
The following text is about cultural diversity. Read it through
once and decide which of the three statements (A, B or C) given
below the extract offers the most accurate summary.


1. The Impact of Culture on Business

Take a look at the new breed of international managers,
educated according to the most modern management philosophies.
They all know that in the SBU, TQM should reign, with products
delivered JIT, where CFTs distribute products while subject to MBO.
6
(SBU = strategic business unit, TQM = total quality management, JIT
= just-in-time, CFT = customer first team, MBO = management by
objectives.)
But just how universal are these management solutions? Are
these truths about what effective management really is, truths that
can be applied anywhere, under any circumstances?
Even with experienced international companies, many well-
intended universal applications of management theory have turned
out badly. For example, pay-for-performance has in many instances
been a failure on the African continent because there are particular,
though unspoken, rules about the sequence and timing of reward and
promotions. Similarly, management by objectives schemes have
generally failed within subsidiaries of multinationals in southern
Europe, because managers have not wanted to conform to the
abstract nature of preconceived policy guidelines.
Even the notion of human-resource management is difficult to
translate to other cultures, coming as it does from a typically Anglo-
Saxon doctrine. It borrows from economics the idea that human
beings are resources like physical and monetary resources. It tends
to assume almost unlimited capacities for individual development. In
countries without these beliefs, this concept is hard to grasp and
unpopular once it is understood. International managers have it
tough. They must operate on a number of different premises at any
one time. These premises arise from their culture of origin, the
culture in which they are working, and the culture of the organization
which employs them.
In every culture in the world such phenomena as authority,
bureaucracy, creativity, good fellowship, verification and
accountability are experienced in different ways. That we use the
same words to describe them tends to make us unaware that our
cultural biases and our accustomed conduct may not be appropriate,
or shared.
SBU = strategic business unit = unitate comercial, economic
strategic
TQM = total quality management = managementul total al calitii
JIT = just-in-time = livrare exact la momentul potrivit
CFT = customer first team =
MBO = management by objectives = managementul pe obiective
pay-for-performance = plat pentru munca depus
human-resource management = managementul resurselor umane
at any one time = n fiecare moment
premises = premise, locaii
grasp = a pricepe, a nelege (n text)
accountability = rspundere
bias = tendin, orientare

7

A. There are certain popular universal truths about management
which can successfully be applied in various cultural contexts.
B. Cultures are so varied and so different throughout the world that
management has to take account of differences rather than simply
assume similarities.
C. Effective management of human resources is the key to everyone
achieving their full potential.



Language Checklist
Cultural diversity and socializing

Welcoming visitors
Welcome to
My names

Arriving
Hello. My names from
Ive an appointment to see
Sorry Im a little late / early.
My plane was delayed

Introducing someone
This is He/shes my Personal Assistant.
Can I introduce you to He/shes our (Project Manager).
Id like to introduce you to

Meeting someone and small talk
Pleased to meet you.
Its a pleasure.
How was your trip? Did you have a good flight / trip / journey?
How are things in (London)?
How long are you staying in (New York)?
I hope you like it.
Is your hotel comfortable/
Is this your first visit to (the Big Apple)?

Offering assistance
Can I get you anything?
Do you need anything?
Would you like a drink?
If you need to use a phone or fax, please say.
Can we do anything for you?
Do you need a hotel / a taxi / any travel information / etc.?
8

Asking for assistance
There is one thing I need
Could you get me
Could you book me a car / taxi / hotel / ?
Could you help me arrange a flight to?
Can you recommend a good restaurant?
Id like to book a room for tomorrow night.
Can you recommend a hotel?


Skills Checklist
Cultural diversity and socializing

Before meeting business partners and fellow professionals from other
countries, you could find out about their country:
The actual political situation
Cultural and regional differences
Religion(s)
The role of women in business and in society as a whole
Transport and telecommunications systems
The economy
The main companies
The main exports and imports
The market for the industrial sector which interests you
Competitors

You might also want to find out:
Which topics are safe for small talk
Which topics are best avoided

If you are going to visit another country, find out about:
The conversations regarding socializing
Attitudes towards foreigners
Attitudes towards gifts
The extent to which public, business and private lives are mixed or
kept separate
Conventions regarding food and drink.

You might also like to find out about:
The weather at the relevant time of the year
Public holidays
The conventions regarding working hours
Leisure interests
9
Tourism
Dress
Body language
Language.

Practice 1

Make a dialogue based on the following flow chart. If you need
help, look at the Language Checklist

Visitor Receptionist

Introduce yourself

Say you have an appointment
with Sandra Bates. Welcome visitor.
Explain that SB will be
along shortly. Offer a drink /
refreshments.
Decline ask if you can
use a phone.
Say yes / Offer fax as well.
Decline you only need
the phone.
Show visitor to the phone.
Thank him/her.
(a few minutes later)

Thank assistant.
Reply offer any other help.
Ask how far it is to station.
Two miles ten minutes
by taxi.
Offer to book one.
Accept offer suggest a time.
Promise to do that say that SB is free
now.
Offer to take him/her to SBs office.


About small talk
If you ask a question you should comment on the answer or ask a
supplementary question.

10
Exercise 1 First words
Often the first words are the most difficult. Below are some
suggestions for breaking the ice. Which of the sentences could be
said by a visitor, and which by the person receiving the visitor?
a. Sorry, Im a little early. I hope it is not inconvenient.
b. Is the weather the same in your country?
c. Sorry to keep you waiting. I was rather tied up just now.
d. Im pleased to be here, after a trip like that!
e. Is this your first visit? What do you think of the city?
f. People are very helpful here. On my way to meet you
g. Isnt it cold today?
h. You found us without too much difficulty, then?
i. Its good of you to spare the time.
j. Its kind of you to come all this way.
k. I like your offices. Have you been here long?
l. Did you have a good trip?
m. Would you like a cup of coffee?


Exercise 2 Ending the small talk
If the small talk continues too long, you may want to change the
subject to business matters. Here are some ways of doing it.

A. With someone you know well:
Lets get down to business. Or lets get started.
B. With someone you dont know well:
Perhaps we could talk about the subject of our meeting.
Or
Perhaps we could talk about the reason Im here.

Which expressions would you use in the following situations?
a. On a sales visit to a potential customer.
b. At a weekly planning meeting with colleagues.
c. At your first meeting with the new group auditors.
d. At a meeting to obtain finance from a bank.
e. Before making a speech at an office party.




2. Telephoning


Reading

2. Telephoning across cultures
11

Many people are not very confident about using the telephone in
English. However, good preparation can make telephoning much
easier and more effective. Then, once the call begins, speak slowly
and clearly and use simple language.
Check that you understand what has been said. Repeat the most
important information, look for confirmation. Ask for repetition if you
think it is necessary.
Remember too that different cultures have different ways of
using language. Some speak in a very literal way so it is always quite
clear what they mean. Others are more indirect, using hints,
suggestions and understatement (for example not very good results =
absolutely disastrous) to put over their message. North America,
Scandinavia, Germany and France are explicit countries, while the
British have a reputation for not making clear exactly what they
mean. One reason for this seems to be that the British use language
in a more abstract way than most Americans and continental
Europeans. In Britain there are also conventions of politeness and a
tendency to avoid showing ones true feelings. For example if a
Dutchman says an idea is interesting he means that it is interesting.
If an Englishman says that an idea is interesting you have to deduce
from the way he says it whether he means it is a good idea or a bad
idea.
Meanwhile, for a similar reason Japanese, Russian and Arabs
subtle countries sometimes seem vague and devious to the British.
If they say an idea is interesting it may be out of politeness.
The opposite of this is that plain speakers can seem rude and
dominating to subtle speakers, as Americans can sound to the British
or the British to the Japanese.
The British have the tendency to engage in small talk at the
beginning and end of a telephone conversation. Questions about the
weather, health, business in general and what one has been doing
recently are all part of telephoning, laying a foundation for the true
purpose of the call. At the end of the call there may well be various
pleasantries, Nice talking to you, Say hello to the family (if you have
met them) and Looking forward to seeing you again soon. A sharp,
brief style of talking on the phone may appear unfriendly to a British
partner. Not all nationalities are as keen on small talk as the British!
Being aware of these differences can help in understanding
people with different cultural traditions. The difficulty on the
telephone is that you cannot see the body language to help you.


Choose the closest definition of the following words from the
text.
1. literal
12
a. direct and clear b. full of literary style c. abstract and
complicated
2. understatement
a. kind words b. less strong way of talking c. clever
speech
3. deduce
a. reduce b. work out c. disagree
4. vague
a. unclear b. unfriendly c. insincere
5. devious
a. rude b. dishonest c. clever
6. pleasantries
a. question b. request c. polite remarks




Language Checklist
Telephoning (1)

Introducing yourself
Good morning, Aristo.
Hello, this is from
Hello, my names calling from

Saying who you want
Id like to speak to please.
Could I have the Department, please?
Is there, please?

Saying someone is not available
Im sorry he/shes not available
Sorry, he/shes away / not in / in a meeting / in Milan.
Leaving and taking messages
Could you give him/her a message?
Can I leave him/her a message?
Please tell him/her
Please ask him/her to ring me on
Can I take a message?
If you give me your number Ill ask him/her to call you later.

Offering to help in other ways
Can anyone else help you?
Can I help you perhaps?
Would you like to speak to his assistant?
Shall I ask him to call you back?
13
Asking for repetition
Sorry, I didnt catch (your name / your number / your company
name )
Sorry, could you repeat your (name, number, etc.).
Sorry, I didnt hear that.
Sorry, I didnt understand that.
Could you spell (that / your name), please.

Acknowledging repetition
Okay, Ive got that now.
(Mr. Kyoto) I understand.
I see, thank you.


Skill Checklist
Telephoning: Preparation for a call

Reading background information
Desk preparation
Have the following available:
Relevant documentation / notes
Correspondence received
Computer files on screen
Pen and paper
Diary
Check time available
How much time do you need?
How much time do you have?

Objectives
Who do you want to speak to?
In case of non/availability, have an alternative strategy:
Call back / be called back when?
Leave a message
Speak to someone else
Write or fax information

Do you want to:
Find out information?
Give information?

Introduction
Do you need to refer to:
A previous call?
A letter, order, invoice or fax?
14
Someone else (who?)
An event (what? When?)

Prediction
What do you expect the other person to say / ask you? how will you
respond?



Exercise 1 Making a call

A few common expressions are enough for most telephone
conversations. Practice these telephone expressions by
completing the following dialogue using the words listed below.

Switchboard Conglomerate Group; can I help you?
You Could I ------ ------- Mr. Pardee, please?
Switchboard Putting you ------ .
Secretary Hello, Mr. Pardees ------ . -------- I help you?
You ------, can you hear me? Its a ------ line. Could you --- ---
- up, please?
Secretary IS THAT BETTER? Whos --------, please?
You (your name) from (your company).
Secretary Oh, hello. How nice to hear from you again. We havent
seen you for ages. How are you?
You Fine thanks. Could you ------- me -------- to Mr. Pardee,
please?
Secretary -------- the line a moment. Ill see if hes in. Im sorry, Im
afraid hes not in the ------- at the ------ . Could you give me
your ----------, and Ill ask him to ------- you ---------- ?
You Im ----- 347 8621. Thats London.
Secretary Would you like to leave any -------- for him?
You No thanks. Just tell him I --------- .
Secretary Certainly. Nice to hear from you again.
You Ill expect him to ------- me this afternoon, then. Thanks.
Secretary Youre welcome. Goodbye.


On speak to back message bad put number call
ring
Secretary through office speak speaking can
hello
Rang hold moment through


15
Note: If you do not hear or understand the other person, say: Im
sorry? or Im sorry, I dont understand. It is not polite to say:
Please repeat!




DATAFILE: The Telephone

This datafile gives you many of the terms and phrases commonly
used in making telephone calls.

The directory
Look up their number in the directory. (UK).
Ill look up the number in the telephone book. (US).
The number is ex-directory. (UK).
The number is unlisted. (US).
Ill ring Directory Enquiries. (UK).
Ill ring information. (US).
The receiver
Can I help you?
Putting you through.
Im afraid hes not available at the moment. (UK).
Im afraid hes tided up at the moment.
Youre welcome. Goodbye.
The line
Hes on the other line.
Would you like to hold the line?
The line is engaged. (UK).
The line is busy. (US).
The operator (in the public telephone system)
Dial 100 for the operator. (UK).
Dial 0 (zero) for the operator. (US).
Id like to make a reverse charge call. (UK).
Id like to make a collect call. (US).
Id like to make a transfer charge call. (UK).
The dial
Dial 123 for the correct time. (UK).
Listen for the dialling tone.
All lines to the country you have dialled are engaged.
Please try later. (UK).
The codebook
Im on a long distance (or international) call.
The STD code is (UK).
The area code is (US).
A message pad
16
Can I tell him who called?
Can I give her a message?
Let me take down your number.

Remember
If you do not understand, say Sorry, I didnt quite catch that.

Practice 1

Use the following flow chart to make a complete telephone
conversation. If you need to, refer to the Language Checklist.

Caller Receptionist

Good morning, Gorliz and Zimmerman.
Introduce yourself.

Ask to speak to Mr. Conrad Bird.
Mr. Bird is not in.
Ask when you can contact him.
Explain that he is away offer to take a
message.
You want Mr. Bird to call you.
Repeat your name.
Give your number.
Confirm the information.
End call.
End call.



Practice 2
In the following conversation, a Singaporean exporter plans to
send goods from Singapore to Greece. He wants to have a
meeting with a Greek shipping company, Intership.
Suggest suitable phrases for each step in the conversation, then
practice the dialogue with a colleague.


Caller (Computech) Called Person (Intership)

Intership, good morning.
Greeting.
Introduce yourself.
Check name.
Confirm / correct.
17
Offer to help.

Ask for appointment
with Mr. Dionis.
Ask what its about.
Explain that you want
to discuss transport of goods
from Singapore to Athens.
Acknowledge ask when would be a good
time.
Suggest next week.
Reject Mr. Dionis is away.
Suggest beginning of next
month.
Agree.
Suggest Monday 3
rd
.
Reject On Monday Mr. Dionis is busy all
day.
Suggest Tuesday.
Agree. Suggest 10.00 a.m.
Agree ask for fax to confirm.
Offer to book hotel.
Agree to fax hotel booking
is not necessary.
Signal end of call.
End call / thanks / refer to fax, etc.

End call.


Language Checklist
Telephoning (2)

Stating reason for a call
Im ringing to
Id like to
I need some information about

Making arrangements
Could we meet some time next month?
When would be a good time?
Would Thursday at 5 oclock suit you?
What about July 21
st
?
That would be fine.
No, sorry, I cant make it then.
Sorry Im too busy next week.
18

Changing arrangements
Weve an appointment for next month, but
Im afraid I cant come on that day.
Could we fix an alternative?

Confirming information
So
Can I check that? You said
To confirm that
Can you / can I confirm that by fax?

Ending a call
Right. I think that all.
Thanks very much for your help.
Do call if you need anything else.
I look forward to seeing you / your call / your letter / your fax /
our meeting.
Goodbye and thanks.
Bye for now.



Skills Checklist
Telephoning (2)

Voice
Speed
Clarity
Volume

Structure
Background information
Key information
Repetition, emphasis and confirmation
Possible confirmation by fax

Style
Formal / informal
Cold call / new contact / established contact
In-company vs. Customer / Supplier / Outside agent
Colleague / friend / business associate / public
Company image

Structure of a call
19

Beginning
Introduce yourself
Get who you want
Small talk
State problem / reason for call

Middle
Ask questions
Get / give information
Confirm information

End
Signal end
Thank other person
Small talk
Refer to next contact
Close call
Check that theres nothing else to say


Exercise 2 Changing arrangements

It is not always possible to follow your original plans. You, or your
contact, may want to change an appointment.

Language input To apologize, say: Im afraid that .
Im sorry but
To suggest another time, say: Could I suggest ?
What about ?
Perhaps ?

Below is the schedule for your week in Sydney, Australia. Just before
you leave for Sydney you receive various telephone calls from the
people you are going to visit. They want to change their appointments.
But you do not want to change the order in which you visit them.
First apologize for not managing the day they suggest, then suggest a
different time on the original day. Here you have their calls:

Hello? Mr. Rossi? This is the Australian Chemical Bank. Im Mr.
Whitles secretary. I understand you have an appointment for 10 a.m.
on Tuesday 13
th
. Im afraid that Mr. Whitley is rather tied up them.
Could I suggest Monday instead?

Yes, Im sure that will be OK.

20
Hello, Mr. Rossi? Tim Brown, your agent. Small problem. Our meeting
for Friday is all right, but Monday afternoon is likely to be difficult;
someone is coming to see us who might be a useful outlet for some of
your range. perhaps we could change our meeting to Tuesday
afternoon?

Yes, OK. Right, thats fine.

Mr. Rossi? Its Jenny Kinsella here. From B.I.G. Im sorry but my
colleagues cant all make it on Thursday afternoon. Could I suggest we
meet on Tuesday instead?

Er yes why not? OK Well, thank you very much.

Hello again, Tim Brown here again. I forgot; I have some other
customers visiting on Friday morning. How about a meeting on
Thursday sometime, if thats all right with you?


Right. Sorry to be difficult. Thanks a lot, Mr. Rossi. Bye now.

Mr. Rossi? Good morning. Im ringing for Mr. Lund of Lund and Lund
Associates. Hes very sorry, but he wont be able to manage
Wednesday afternoon. Could I suggest Friday afternoon instead?

Well, I think that should be all right. Ill give you a cal this afternoon to
confirm. Thank you. Goodbye.



Monday, 12 November
Morning Arrive Sydney airport 8.30 a.m.
Afternoon 3 p.m. Tim Brown (agent) at hotel

Tuesday, 13 November
Morning 10 a.m. Mr. Whitley, Australian Chemical Bank
Afternoon

Wednesday, 14 November
Morning
Afternoon 2 p.m. Lund & Lund Associates (Mr. William Lund)

Thursday, 15 November
Morning
Afternoon 3 p.m. Jenny Kinsella + colleagues (B.I.G. Distribution)

21
Friday, 16 November
Morning 11 a.m. Tim Brown
Afternoon flight 390, Depart Sydney 6 p.m.







Practice 3
Use the flow chart below as the basis for a telephone
conversation involving a complaint. Refer to the Language
Checklist if you need to.

Berraondo S.A. Tao Loon Company
(Sales Office)

Answer.
Greeting.
Introduce yourself.
Offer to help.
Explain problem.
Order HF5618 for 20 printers.
Only 17 have arrived.
Express surprise.
This is second time you have
received an incomplete delivery.
Suggest possible error in order
administration.
Agree say you need the
other three printers urgently.

Delays are costing you goodwill
unhappy customers.
Explain stock problems.
Ask for a promise of delivery
date ASAP.
Promise next Monday.
Complain you want despatch now.
Express regret not possible.
Ask for fax to confirm despatch.
Agree apologize.
End call.


22




Language Checklist
Telephoning (3)

Stating reason for the call
Im calling about
Unfortunately, theres a problem with
Im ringing to complain about

Explaining the problem
There seems to be
We havent received
The doesnt work.
The quality of the work is below standard.
The specifications are not in accordance with our order.

Referring to previous problems
Its not the first time weve had this problem.
This is the (third) time this has happened.
Three months ago
We had a meeting about this and you assured us that

Threatening
If the problem is not resolved
Well have to reconsider our position.
Well have to renegotiate the contract.
Well contact other suppliers.
The consequences could be very serious.


Handling complaints and other problems

Asking for details
Could you tell me exactly what ?
Can you tell me ?
Whats the ?

Apologizing
Im sorry to hear that.
Im sorry about the problem / delay / mistake

Denying an accusation
No, I dont think that can be right.
23
Im sorry but I think youre mistaken.
Im afraid thats not quite right.
Im afraid that cant be true.



Skills Checklist
Telephoning (3)

If you receive a complaint:
Consider your companys reputation
Express surprise
Ask for details
Suggest action
Promise to investigate
Make reasonable suggestions, offers to help.

Consider your customer and:
Show polite understanding
Use active listening
Reassure customer.

If you make a complaint:
Prepare for the call
Be sure of the facts
Have documentation available
Decide what you require to resolve the problem at least partially
or completely.

Who is to blame?
Who is responsible?
Are you talking to the right person?
Was your order or your specifications correct?
Were you partly responsible for arrangements which went wrong, e.g.
transport?
Does responsibility actually lie elsewhere, i.e. with a third party?

If you do not get what you want:
Keep control state what you need calmly
Do you need to continue to do business with the other side?
If you do, keep a good relationship
Express disappointment not anger
Dont use threats unless you have to!


24
Read the text, then mark the sentences that follow as True (T)
or False (F).

In some countries, like Italy and Britain, conversation is a form
of entertainment. There is an endless flow and if you break the flow
for a second someone else will pick it up. In other countries there is a
higher value placed on listening it is not only impolite to break in
but listeners will consider what has been said in silence before
responding. Finland and Japan are examples.
If you are talking to people who are also speaking English as a
foreign language, they are likely to leave gaps and silences while they
search for words or try to make sense of what you have just said. So
be patient and try not to interrupt, as you would hope they would be
patient with you.
Every country has its own codes of etiquette. For example it is
common for Anglo-Saxons to use first names very quickly, even in a
letter of fax or telephone call. Such instant familiarity is much less
acceptable in the rest of Europe and Asia where even business
partners and colleagues of many years acquaintance address each
other by the equivalent of Mr. or Mrs. And the last name or job title.
So stick to last names unless you specifically agree to do
otherwise. Dont interpret the other persons formality as stiffness or
unfriendliness. On the other hand, if business partners with an
Anglo-Saxon background get on to first name terms straightaway,
dont be surprised.
Above all, one should remember that people do not usually mind
if their own codes are broken by foreigners as long as they sense
consideration and goodwill. This is much more important than a set
of rules of etiquette.


a. For the British and the Italians it is normal to interrupt the other
speaker during the conversation.
b. A special importance is attached to listening in Japanese and
Finnish cultures.
c. One should interrupt and try to help speakers who may have
difficulty in saying what they want to say.
d. It is unusual for Americans and British to use first names early in
a business relationship.
e. It doesnt matter if you break certain social rules if it is clear that
you are sensitive to other people.
f. Etiquette is the critical point in telephoning between different
cultures.


25
3. Presentations

3. Planning and preparation

Language Checklist
Structure (1) The introduction to a presentation

Greeting
Good morning / afternoon ladies and gentlemen.
(Ladies and) Gentlemen

Subject
I plan to say a few words about
Im going to talk about
The subject of my talk is
The theme of my presentation is
Id like to give you an overview of

Structure
Ive divided my talk into (three) parts.
My talk will be in (three) part.
Im going to divide
First
Second
Third
In the first part
Then in the second part
Finally

Timing
My talk will take about ten minutes.
The presentation will take about two hours but therell be a twenty-
minute break in the middle. Well stop for lunch at 12 oclock.

Policy on questions / discussion
Please interrupt if you have any question.
After my talk therell be time for a discussion and any questions.

Skills Checklist
Effective presentations planning and preparation

Audience
Expectations
Technical knowledge
Size
26
Questions and / or discussion

Speakers competence
Knowledge
Presentation technique

Content
What to include
Length / depth (technical details)
Number of key ideas

Structure
Sequence
beginning, middle, end
Repetition, summarizing

Delivery
Style
Formal / informal
Enthusiasm / confidence
Voice
Variety / speed
Pauses
Body language
Eye contact
Gesture / movement
Posture

Visual aids
Type / design / clarity
Relevance

Practice
Tape recorder
Script or notes

Room
Size / seating
Equipment (does it work?)
Sound quality

Language
Simple / clear
Spelling
27
Sentence length
Structure signals


Practice 1
Look at the following situations.

A medical congress in Tokyo with papers
on new techniques in open heart surgery.

The Purchasing and Product Manager of
a Taiwanese company interested in buying
some production equipment from your company.


An internal meeting of administrative
staff to discuss a new accounting procedure.

A staff meeting to discuss a charity event for
earthquake victims.


Imagine you have to give a brief presentation in two of the above
situations. Make brief notes on the following:
a. Will your talk be formal or informal?
b. What are the audiences expectations in terms of technical detail,
expertise, etc.?
c. What is the audiences probable level of specialist knowledge? Are
they experts or non-experts?
d. How long will your talk be: five minutes, twenty minutes, half an
hour, or longer?
e. What is your policy on questions? Will the audience interrupt or
will they ask questions afterwards? Will there be any discussion?
f. How will you help the audience to remember what you tell them?


Practice 2
In any presentation the beginning is crucial. Certainly some
things are essential in an introduction and others are useful.
Here is a list of what could be included in an introduction. Mark
them according to how necessary they are using the following
scale:

Essential Useful Not necessary
1 2 3 4 5
28


Subject / title of talk.
Introduction to oneself, job title, etc.
Reference to questions and / or discussion.
Reference to the programme for the day.
Reference to how long you are going to speak for.
Reference to the visual aids you plan to use.
The scope of your talk: what is and is not included.
An outline of the structure of your talk.
A summary of the conclusions.
Reading
Read the text below and find:
a. eight advantages of using visual aids
b. three warnings about using visual aids

4. Image, impact and making an impression

Dinckel and Parnham (1985) say that The great danger (in using
visual aids) is that presenters place the major emphasis on visual aids
and relegate themselves to the minor role of narrator or technician.
You are central to the presentation. The visual aid needs you, your
interpretation, your explanation, your conviction and your
justification.
Visual aids can make information more memorable and they
help the speaker. However, they must literally support what the
speaker says and not simply replace the spoken information. It is also
not enough to just read the text from a visual aid.
There are many advantages to the correct use of visual aids.
They can show information which is not easily expressed in words or
they can highlight information. They cause the audience to employ
another sense to receive information, they bring variety and therefore
increase the audiences attention. They save time and they clarify
complex information.

Relegate = a retrograda, a degrada


Language Checklist
Using visuals

Types of visual support
Visual: film / video / picture / diagram / chart / pie chart / plan /
map
Table graph
x axis / horizontal axis
29
y axis / vertical axis
left hand / right hand axis
Line graph
solid line
dotted line
broken line

Equipment
(slide) projector
slides (B.E.)
diapositives (Am.E.)
overhead projector (OHP)
transparency (B.E.)
slide (Am.E.)
flip chart
whiteboard
metaplan board

Introducing a visual
Id like to show you
Have a look at this
This (graph) shows / represents
Here we can see
Lets look at this
Here you see the trend in

Comparisons
This compares x with y
Lets compare the
Here you see a comparison between



Pie chart = diagram circular (rotund, plcint)
Flow chart = schema procesului tehnologic / organigram
Diagram = diagram
Bar graph = diagram cu bare
Table graph = grafic stil tabel
Line graph = grafic cu linii
overhead projector = proiector
transparency / slide = slide-uri
(slide) projector = dia-proiector
slides / diapositives = diapozitive
flip chart = panou cu foi de hrtie detaabile
whiteboard = panou alb din material sintetic

30

Describing the speed of change

A dramatic dramatically
A marked markedly
A significant increase / fall To increase / fall significantly
A slight slightly

Describing trends

To go up
To increase an
increase
To rise a
rise
To climb a
climb
To improve an
improvement
To go down
To decrease a
decrease
To fall a fall
To decline a
decline
To deteriorate a
deterioration
To recover a
recovery
To get better an
upturn
To get worse a
downturn
To level out a
leveling out
To stabilize
To stay the same

To reach a peak a
peak
To reach a maximum
To peak
To reach a low point
To hit bottom a
trough

To undulate an
undulation
To fluctuate a
fluctuation



Skills Checklist
Using visual supports

Visual must be:
well prepared
well chosen
clear

31
Available media
Use media which suit the room and audience size.
Overhead projector (OHP)
- Transparencies / OHTs / slides (Am.E.)
Slide projector
- Slides / diapositives (Am.E.)
Video / computer graphics / flip chart / whiteboard

Use of visual aids
Combination of OHP and flip chart with pens often good.
First visual should give the title of talk.
Second show structure of talk main headings.
Keep text to minimum never just read text from visuals.
Do not use too many visuals guide is one per minute.
Use pauses give audience time to comprehend picture.
Never show a visual until you want to talk about it.
Remove visual once finished talking about it.
Switch off equipment not in use.

Use of colour
For slides, white writing on blue / green is good. Use different colours
if colour improves clarity of message (e.g. pie charts.).
Use appropriate colour combination: yellow and pink are weak
colours on white backgrounds.

Use of room and machinery
Check equipment in advance.
Check organization of room, equipment, seating, microphones, etc.
Use a pointer on the screen (not your hand).
Have a good supply of pens.
Check order of your slides / OHTs, etc.

You in relation to your audience
Decide appropriate level of formality, dress accordingly.
Keep eye contact at least 80% of the time.
Use available space.
Move around, unless restricted by a podium.
Use gesture.






Practice 3
32

Draw a line graph for use in a presentation. Choose any situation
or subject, real or imagined. If possible draw the picture on an
overhead transparency.
Then present the graph as you would in a presentation. Your
description should last no more than one minute.
If possible, construct a graph that makes comparisons possible.
Use solid, dotted or broken lines (or colours) to make the picture
clear.


5. The presentation

Reading
Read the following passage and identify at least six
recommendations about speaking technique which can help to
make the message in a presentation clear.


Youre lost if you lose your audience

Clear objectives, clear plan, clear signals: the secrets of
presentation success.
Any presentation requires a clear strategy or plan to help you
reach your objectives. The aim is not to pass away twenty minutes
talking non-stop and showing a lot of nice pictures. It is to convey a
message that is worth hearing to an audience who want to hear it.
However, how many speakers really hold an audiences attention?
What is the secret for those who do? First, find out about the
audience and what they need to know. Plan what youre going to say
and say it clearly and concisely.
A good speaker uses various signals to help hold the audiences
attention and make the information clear. One type of signal is to
introduce a list with a phrase like There are three things we have to
consider. The speaker then says what the three things are and talks
about each one at the required level of detail. For example: There are
three types of price that we have to think about: economic price, market
price and psychological price. Lets look at each of these in more detail.
First, economic price. This is based on production costs and the need to
make a profit and the speaker goes on to describe this type of price.
After that, he goes on to talk about the market price and so on.
Another signaling technique is to give a link between parts of the
presentation. Say where one part of the talk finishes and another
starts. For example, a well organized presentation usually contains
different parts and progression from one part to the next must be
33
clear, with phrases like Thats all I want to say about the development
of the product. Now lets turn to the actual marketing plan. This
technique is very helpful to the audience, including those who are
mainly interested in one part only.
Another type of signaling is sequencing of information. This
usually follows a logical order, perhaps based on time. So a project
may be described in terms of the background, the present situation
and the future. Key words in sequencing information are first, then,
next, after that, later, at the end, finally, etc.
Still another technique which helps to emphasize key points is
careful repetition. Examples are As Ive already said, there is no
alternative but to increase production by 100 per cent or Id like to
emphasize the main benefit of the new design it achieves twice as
much power with half as much fuel.
A final point concerns timing and quantity of information.
Psychologists have suggested that concentration is reduced after
about twenty minutes without a break or a change in activity.
Furthermore, audiences should not be overburdened with technical
details or given too many facts to remember. It is claimed that to ask
people to remember more than three things in a five-minute talk is
too much. Some say that seven is the maximum number of any length
of presentation. Any such calculations are probably not very reliable,
but every speaker needs to think about exactly how much information
of a particular type a specific audience is likely to absorb and to plan
accordingly.


Read the following text and identify the following:
a. the relationship between the main body of the presentation and the
introduction
b. a recommendation on one way to divide the main body of the talk.

The main body of the presentation contains the details of the
subject or themes described in the introduction. All the above
techniques are especially useful in making the main body easily
understood. They help the audience to follow the information and to
remember it.
They also help the speaker to keep to the planned structure and
to know exactly what stage has been reached at all times during the
presentation. Clear structure doesnt just help the audience! In many
presentations the main body can be usefully divided into different
parts. The main parts, each with a main heading, are referred to in
the Introduction. Clearly there are many ways to divide the main body
of presentation and often different parts will themselves be divided
into smaller sections of information:

34

Introduction Main body of information

First part Second part Third part

Practice 4

The information below is part of a Product Managers notes for a
presentation on an advertising mix for a new range of beauty
products, with the brand name Cheri. He is talking to a
marketing team set up to promote the new range. Use the notes
to give a presentation of about 5 minutes using listing, linking
and sequencing where necessary.

Advertising mix for Cheri beauty products

Above-the-line advertising Below-the-line advertising

television commercials
newspaper advertising
magazines
youth magazines in-store on-pack
targeted
womens magazines e.g. e.g. mailing
displays, coupons,
merchandising competitions,
free samples joint promotions

Begin as follow:
Good morning, everyone. Id like to talk about the advertising mix for
the new Cheri range of beauty products. We are planning two
categories of advertising, above-the-line and below-the-line. Ill talk
first about

Vocabulary
Merchandising: Any direct efforts to encourage sales of a product,
increase consumer awareness, etc.
Above-the-line advertising: Mass media advertising, such as television,
radio and newspaper.
Below-the-line advertising: Forms of advertising at the point of sale or
directly on the product, such as packaging, shop displays, etc.


Language Checklist
Structure (2) The main body

35
Signaling different parts in a presentation:
Ending the introduction
So that concludes the introduction.
Thats all for the introduction.

Beginning the main body
Now lets move to the first part of my talk, which is about
So, first To begin with

Listing
There are three things to consider. First Second Third
There are two kinds of The first is The second is
We can see four advantages and two disadvantages. First,
advantages.
One is Another is A third advantage is Finally
On the other hand, the two disadvantages.
First Second

Linking: Beginning a new part
Lets move to (the next part which is)
So now we come to
Now I want to describe

Sequencing
There are (seven) different stages to the process
First / then / next / after that / then (x) / after x theres y, last
There are two steps involved.
The first step is The second step is
There are four stages to project.
At the beginning, later, then, finally
Ill describe the development of the idea.
First the background, then the present situation, and then the
prospects for the future.

Skills Checklist
Structure (2) The main body

Organization of presentation
Logical progression of ideas and/or parts of presentation.
Clear development.
Sequential description of processes.
Chronological order of events, i.e. background -- present -- future

Topic
Main parts Sections Subsections
36

A i a.
b.
ii.
B i. a.
b.
ii.
iii. a.
b.
c.
C i. a.
b.
ii.




Internal structure of the main body of a complex presentation
Signaling the structure
Use listing techniques.
Link different parts.
Use sequencing language.

Signaling the structure
Makes the organization of the talk clear
Helps the audience to follow
Helps you to follow the development of your talk.



6.The end of the presentation

Reading
Read the following text and identify:
a. a potential problem at the end of a presentation.
b. three ways to avoid the problem.

Open for questions: The silent disaster

A nightmare scenario is as follows: the speaker finishes his talk
with the words Any questions? This is met by total silence. Not a
word. Then an embarrassed shuffling, a cough how can this be
avoided? A possible answer is that if the presentation has been good
and the audience is clearly interested, someone will have something to
say.
37
Another way to avoid the nightmare of utter silence is to end
with an instruction to the audience. This should ensure immediate
audience response. Giving an instruction is often useful in sales
presentations and where the audience has special requirements.

A sales presentation
After talking about his or her products or services, the speaker
wants the audience to explain their needs and says:
Okay Ive told you about the ways Snappo can help companies
like yours. Now for us to do that, we need to know more about the way
you work. For example, tell me about your particular situation, tell me
what in particular may interest you .

This places a responsibility on the audience to respond unless
of course they have a completely negative view of both the presenter
and the message! Assuming they are well-disposed towards the
potential supplier, it is probably in their interests to offer some
information and begin discussion.

A training manager
Speaking to an audience of Department Managers, vice-
presidents, or potential trainees, the Training Manager has outlined
recommendations and explained what is available. He/she can end
with:
Right! Ive told you what we can offer. Now tell me what are your
impressions, what are your priorities and what else do you need to
know now?'

Another option is for the speaker to have a question prepared.
Ask something which you know the audience will have to answer.
This often breaks the ice and starts discussion. It may be possible to
single out an individual who is most likely to have a question to ask
you or a comment to make, or it may be apparent from earlier contact
perhaps during the reception or coffee break, that a particular
individual has something to say or to ask.


Handling questions is thought by many speakers to be the
most difficult part of a presentation. Why do you think this is?
Here you have a list of the pieces of advice you need in
handling questions:

Be polite.
Check understanding if necessary by paraphrasing.
Listen very carefully.
38
Dont say anything youll regret later.
Ask for repetition or clarification.
Agree partially before giving own opinions: Yes, but
Keep calm.
Tell the truth (most of the time!)
Practice 5
Imagine that you have given a talk on Marketing in Japan at a
conference on business trends. What would you say in these
situations? If you need to, refer to the Language Checklist.

1. At the end of your presentation, move to comments / discussion /
questions.
2. A member of the audience suggests that you said that many small
retail outlets, small shops, had actually closed down in recent years.
In fact, you said this process has been going on for a long time.
Politely correct the other person.
3. Ask the audience for comments on why this has happened.
4. Agree with someones suggestions, but suggest other factors. One
is the increasing number of take-overs of smaller companies.
5. A member of the audience says the following: I understand that
a report showed that 700 new drinks came out in Japan in 1990
and one year later 90 % had failed. Thats a pretty amazing figure
Paraphrasing this, ask if in the USA or Europe that could not
happen.
6. Someone suggests that in Japan there has always been an
emphasis on quality and on products. In the West market research
has been more developed. Agree, but say the situation is changing.
7. A speaker says something you dont understand. What do you say?


Language Checklist
The end of presentation

Ending the main body of the presentation
Right, that ends (the third part of) my talk.
Thats all I want to say for now on

Beginning the summary and/or conclusion
Id like to end by emphasizing the main point(s).
Id like to finish with
A summary of the main points.
Some observations based on what Ive said.
Some conclusions / recommendations.
A brief conclusion.

39
Concluding
There are two conclusions / recommendations.
What we need is
I think we have to
I think we have seen that we should


Inviting questions and/or introducing discussion
That concludes (the formal part of) my talk.
(Thanks for listening) Now Id like to invite your comments.
Now we have (half an hour) for questions and discussion.
Right. Now, any question or comments?
So, now Id be very interested to hear your comments.


Handling Questions

Understood but difficult or impossible to answer
Thats a difficult question to answer in a few words.
it could be
in my experience
I would say
I dont think Im the right person to answer that. Perhaps (Mr.
Holmes) can help
I dont have much experience in that field

Understood but irrelevant or impossible to answer in the time available
Im afraid thats outside the scope of my talk / this session. If I were
you Id discuss that with
Ill have to come to that later, perhaps during the break as were short
of time.

Not understood
Sorry, Im not sure Ive understood. Could you repeat?
Are you asking if ?
Do you mean ?
I didnt catch (the last part of) your question.
If I understood you correctly, you mean ? Is that right?

Checking that your answer is sufficient
Does that answer your question?
Is that okay?


40
Skills Checklist
Structure (3) Ending the presentation

A summary
Restates main point(s).
Restates what the audience must understand and remember.
Contains no new information.
Is short.

A conclusion
States the logical consequences of what has been said.
Often contains recommendations.
May contain new and important information.
Is short.

Questions
Inviting questions implies that the audience is less expert than the
speaker.
Beware of the nightmare scenario total silence! Have one or two
prepared questions to ask the audience.
Keep control of the meeting.

Discussion
Inviting discussion gives the impression that the audience have
useful experience, so is often more diplomatic.
You still need to control the discussion.

Inviting discussion and questions
Offer the best solution.
Keep control, limit long contributions, watch the time.



Handling questions
Listen very carefully.
Ask for repetition or clarification if necessary.
Paraphrase the question to check you understand it.
Give yourself time to think perhaps by paraphrasing the
question.
Check that the question is relevant. If not, dont answer if you dont
want to.
Refer questioner to another person if you cant answer.
Suggest youll answer a question later if you prefer.
41
Check that the questioner is happy with your answer: eye contact
and a pause is often sufficient.
Keep control.
Dont allow one or two people to dominate.
Be polite.
Signal when time is running out Time for one last question.
At the end, thank the audience.


Exercise 1 The new product
Read Mr. Lopez presentation and try to match the titles (used in his
rough plan) of the different parts of his presentation to the right text
body.

Winding-up; Introducing yourself; Delivering the message;
Preparing the audience

Good morning ladies and gentlemen; we havent all met before so Id
better introduce myself. Im Luis Lopez from the development
department of Citrus Incorporated I should say before we start that
I hope youll excuse my English. Im a little out of practice
Anyway, Im going to be talking this morning about a new product
which we are planning to launch in two months time; its called
KOOL-OUT, thats K-O-O-L dash O-U-T, and its a lemon-flavoured
drink
Well, Ill start with the background to the product launch; and then
move on to a description of the product itself, Im going to list some of
the main selling points that we should emphasize in the advertising
and sales campaign. I think if you dont mind, well leave questions to
the end
Now firstly, as you all know, we had a gap in our soft-drink product
range for the last two years; we have been manufacturing mixed-fruit
drinks and orange drinks for the last ten years, but we stopped
producing lemonade two years ago; I think we all agreed that there
was room on the market for a completely new lemon-flavoured drink
Secondly, the market research indicated that more and more
consumers are using soft drinks as mixers with alcohol, so in other
words, the market itself has expanded.
This brings me to my next point which is that we have rather new
customer-profile in mind; I must emphasize that this product is aimed
at the young-professional, high-income, market and not the
traditional consumer of old-fashioned lemonade. At this point we must
consider the importance of packaging and design, and if you look at
the video in a moment, youll see that we have completely re-vamped
the container itself as well as the label and slogan
42
Now to digress for just a moment, the more sophisticated packaging
means a high unit cost, and this may be a problem in the selling area,
but well have a chance to discuss that aspect later so to go back
to my earlier point, this is a totally new concept as far as Citrus
Incorporated are concerned; as you see we are using both the new-
size glass bottle and the miniature metal cans.
Finally, lets look at the major attractions of the product. In spite of
the higher price it will compete well with existing brands; the design
is more modern than any of the current rival products, and
incidentally the flavour is more realistic and natural its low calorie,
too.
O.K., so just before closing, Id like to summarize my main points
again We have KOOL-OUT, a new design concept, aimed at a
relatively new age and income group; its designed to be consumed on
its own, as a soft drink, or to be used as a mixer in alcohol-based
drinks and cocktails. It comes in both bottle and can and this will
mean a slightly higher price than we are used to; but the improved
flavour and the package design should give us a real advantage in
todays market well, thats all I have today for the moment, thank
you for listening, now if there are any questions, Ill be happy to
answer them




Exercise 2 The product presentation
Use the phrases written below to construct a similar presentation to
be given to a client.

a. Now, to change the subject for a moment
b. Before I finish, Id like to run through the main points again
c. Ill begin by describing ---------, and then go on to ---------, and Ill
end with -------- .
d. In conclusion
e. I want to stress
f. Good afternoon.
g. That brings me to the end of my presentation.
h. Id like to talk about
i. To return to the point I made earlier
j. First, let me introduce myself; Im ------- from ---------- .
k. Feel free to interrupt if you have any questions.
l. Thank you for your attention.
m. First of all Next
n. Please excuse my rather poor English!
o. Id like now to turn to
p. If you have any questions, Ill be glad to answer them.
43
q. At this point we have to bear in mind


Exercise 3 Can I interrupt here?
While you were speaking your colleague, or your customer may
interrupt to make a point. You will have to deal with it! Look at the
interruptions listed below and some possible replies. Match the reply
to the interruption.

Interruptions
a. You havent mentioned the price yet!
b. Your product is more expensive than your competitors!
c. Id like the exact specifications, please!
d. I still dont understand the difference between the de-luxe and
economy models!
e. Your new model seems much heavier than the old one!



Replies
1. I take your point but have you taken into account the improved
durability?
2. Ill be coming to that in a moment.
3. Youre right, but on the other hand our product has a number of
unique design features.
4. Our technical department will be able to give you an answer on
that.
5. Let me clarify that for you.

Exercise 4 Anticipating questions
It is a very good policy to try to anticipate questions or problems and
to deal with them before your audience raises them. Here are some
examples of how you can anticipate.

I can hear you say: why is this so costly?
Anticipates
I wonder why its so expensive?

Now, you may well ask, what does the mean by up-market?
Anticipates
Whats up-market?

You will have noticed that I havent given any figures.
Anticipates
Wheres the statistical data?

44
An obvious problem at this stage is the choice of colours.
Anticipates
Does it only come in black?

How would you anticipate the following questions? Example: Why is it
so heavy? An obvious problem is the weight.

a. Why is the delivery period so long?
b. Whats top quality specification?
c. Do the accessories have to be so expensive?
d. Why doesnt he mention the price?
e. Can he prove what he says with figures?
4. Meetings


7. Preparation for the meeting

Language Checklist
Chairing and leading discussion

Opening the meeting
Thank you for coming
(Its ten oclock). Lets start
Weve received apologies from
Any comments on our previous meeting?

Introducing the agenda
Youve all seen the agenda
On the agenda, youll see there are three items.
There is one main item to discuss

Stating objectives
Were here today to hear about plans for
Our objective is to discuss different ideas
What we want to do today is to reach a decision

Introducing discussion
The background to the problem is
This issue is about
The point we have to understand is
Calling on a speaker
Id like to ask Mary to tell us about
Can we hear from Mr. Passas on this?
I know that youve prepared a statement on your Departments
views

45
Controlling the meeting
Sorry Hans, can we let Magda finish?
Er, Henry, we cant talk about that.

Summarising
So, what youre saying is
Can I summarise that? You mean
So, the main point is

Moving the discussion on
Can we go to think about
Lets move on to the next point.

Closing the meeting
I think weve covered everything.
So, weve decided
I think we can close the meeting now.
Thats it. The next meeting will be

Skills Checklist
Preparation for meetings

Chair
Decide objectives.
What type of meeting (formal or informal, short or long, regular or a
one off, internal / external information giving / discussion /
decision making)?
Is a social element required?
Prepare an agenda.
Decide time / place / participants / who must attend and who can
be notified of decisions.
Study subjects for discussion.
Anticipate different opinions.
Speak to participants.

Secretary
Obtain agenda and list of participants.
Inform participants and check:
Room, equipment, paper, materials.
Refreshments, meals, accommodation, travel.

Participants
Study subjects on agenda, work out preliminary options.
If necessary, find out team or department views.
Prepare own contribution, ideas, visual supports, etc.
46

The role of the Chair
Start and end on time.
Introduce objectives, agenda.
Introduce speakers.
Define time limits for contributions.
Control discussion, hear all views.
Summarise discussion at key points.
Ensure that key decisions are written down by the secretary.
Ensure that conclusions and decisions are clear and understood.
Define actions to be taken and individual responsibilities.



Practice 1
Suggest phrases which could be used by a chairperson in the
following situations in a meeting.
a. To welcome the participants to a meeting.
b. To state the objectives of the meeting.
c. To introduce the agenda.
d. To introduce the first speaker.
e. To prevent an interruption.
f. To thank a speaker for his/her contribution.
g. To introduce another speaker.
h. To keep discussion to the relevant issues.
i. To summarise discussion.
j. To ask if anyone has anything to add.
k. To suggest moving to the next topic on the agenda.
l. To summarise certain actions that must be done following the
meeting (for example, do research, write a report, meet again, write
a letter, etc.).
m. To close the meeting.






Practice 2
1. In groups, work out a brief agenda, with an appropriate order,
for a meeting of the marketing department of Axis Finance Ltd.,
a medium-size financial services company. Your agenda should
include the points listed here:
Any other business
New products
47
Minutes of previous meeting
Marketing plans for next year
Date of next meeting
Review of marketing performance in the current year
Personnel changes
Chairs opening address
Apologies for absence.


2. In pairs, prepare a brief opening statement by the chair to
introduce the meeting above:
Think about what the opening statement from the chair needs to say
Use your agenda as a guide
Refer to the Language Checklist
Practise in pairs



8. Participating in meetings


Language Checklist
Discussion in meetings

Stating opinion
It seems to me
I tend to think
In my view
We think / feel / believe
Theres no alternative to
Its obvious that
Clearly / obviously

Asking for opinion
Id like to hear from
Could we hear from ?
Whats your view?
What do you think about ?
Do you have any strong views on ?
Any comments?

Interrupting
Excuse me, may I ask for clarification on this?
If I may interrupt, could you say ?
Sorry to interrupt, but
Do you think so? My impression is
48
What? Thats impossible. We / I think

Handling interruptions
Yes, go ahead.
Sorry, please let me finish
If I may finish this point
Can I come to that later?
Thats not really relevant at this stage
Can we leave that to another discussion?


Skills Checklist
Participating in meetings

Types of meeting
Decision making meeting
Information giving meeting
Spontaneous / emergency meeting
Routine meeting
Internal meeting
Customer / client / supplier - first meeting / established
relationship

Structure of decision making meetings
Study / discuss / analyse the situation
Define the problem
Set an objective
State imperatives and desirables
Generate alternatives
Establish evaluation criteria
Evaluate alternatives
Choose among alternatives

The DESC stage of meeting
D Describe situation
E Express feelings
S Suggest solutions
C Conclude with decision
Goal of decision making meetings
Objective: to get a consensus in a time-efficient and cost effective
manner

Importance of communication
Two-way process
Participants must be aware of others needs
49
Full communication and understanding is essential
Four elements in communication: awareness understanding
empathy perception

Reaching a consensus
Discussion leads to consensus
Consensus is recognised and verbalised by leader
Decisions checked and confirmed



Practice 3
Use the skeleton outline below to recreate the entire dialogue
with a partner. Choose alternative interruptions and ways of
handling interruptions.


The fall in sales is mainly due to
the recession affecting world markets.
Interrupt: ask for clarification.
Polite response.
(general fall of 5 % / most product areas
/ especially oil processing sector
/ also due to sale of Anglo, UK subsidiary)
Interrupt: ask why Anglo was sold.
Reject interruption:
No time / discussed before.

Try to move on to future prospects.
(the outlook is just good now)
Interrupt: disagree.
Respond: you disagree.
Forecast are much better.
Interrupt: you want to talk about new markets.
Promise to discuss this later.
But first
Interrupt: suggest a break.
Reject the idea.


Reading

1. Read the following extract and answer these questions.
a. What kind of meeting is the text about?
b. What structure does the text describe?
50
c. What key points is made about communication?

2. Read the text again. Do you agree with:
a. The first sentence? Give reasons for your answer.
b. Haynes suggestions for the steps involved in decision making?
c. The view that communication must be a two-way process?
d. What the writer says about consensus in the final paragraph?

The reason for having a meeting is to make a decision.
Information may be given in a presentation followed by questions or
discussion, but it is to get a consensus that the meeting has been
arranged in the first place. Achieving this in the most time- and cost-
effective manner possible is a goal that everyone attending (the
meeting) must share.
Marion Haynes (1988) maintains that decision-making meetings
need to follow a specific structure. The rational decision process
includes the following steps:
Study / discuss / analyse the situation
Define the problem
Set an objective
State imperatives and desirables
Generate alternatives
Establish evaluation criteria
Evaluate alternatives
Choose among alternatives.
One other aspect of decision making is the necessity for
participants in the meeting to be aware of one anothers needs and
perceptions. If these are not effectively communicated, if there is an
insufficient degree of understanding of one anothers requirements,
then an acceptable conclusion is unlikely to be reached. There are
four essential elements in decision-making: awareness,
understanding, empathy and perception.
It is only when we accept that communications are a two-way
process that any form of communication, including decision making,
will become genuinely successful and effective.
Decision-making is not always an identifiable activity. Frequently the
discussion can evolve into a consensus which can be recognised and
verbalised by the leader without the need to put things to the vote.


3. Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the
following:
a. common agreement
b. economical use of resources
c. aim
51
d. fix a goal
e. what one must have
f. what one would like to have
g. consider other options
h. way of seeing things
i. seeing things as others see them
j. develop
k. express through speaking.
Interruptions can have different intentions:
To ask for clarification
To add opinion
To ask for more details
To change direction of the discussion
To disagree.


Handling interruptions:
Promise to come back to a point later
Politely disagree with an interruption
Say the interruption is not relevant or that time is short
Politely accept the interruption and respond to it before continuing
Reject a suggestion


9. Ending the meeting


Reading
Read the following text and identify:
a. three recommendations on how a meeting should end
b. what should happen after a meeting.


Regardless of the type of meeting (information or decision
making), it is important to close with a restatement of objective, a
summary of what was accomplished, and a list of agreed action that
needs to be taken.
After the meeting, it is essential to follow up with action. A brief
memorandum of conclusions should be written and distributed.
Inform appropriate people who did not attend the meeting about
essential decisions made.
Finally, each meeting should be viewed as learning experience.
Future meetings should be improved by soliciting evaluations and
deciding what action is required to conduct better meetings.


52

Language Checklist
Ending the meeting

Asking for clarification
Could you be more specific?
Can you explain that (in more detail)?
What do you mean by ?

Clarifying
This means
What I mean is
What I want to say is
To explain this in more detail

Checking that the clarification is sufficient
Is that okay? / is that clearer now?

Referring to other speakers
As Peter has already told us
Im sure Mr. Kowski knows about this
Later well hear a report from Neil on
Professor Gilberto is certainly aware of

Delaying decisions
I think we need more time to consider this.
I think we should postpone a decision
Can we leave this until another date?
It would be wrong to make a final decision

Ending the meeting
Summarising
I think we should end there. Just to summarise
Weve covered everything, so Id like to go over the decisions weve
taken
So, to conclude weve agreed
Confirming action
Well contact
John will
Weve got to
We need to look at
Referring to next contact
Well meet again next month
We look forward to hearing from you
53
Its been a pleasure to see you today and I look forward to our next
meeting


Skills Checklist
Ending meetings

Two general rules
Meeting should end on time!
Decision making meetings should end with decisions!
The Chair should close the meeting with:
A restatement of the objectives
A summary of decisions taken
A summary of the action now required
Reference to any individual responsibilities.

After the meeting
A memorandum should be sent to all participants summarising the
decisions taken and the action required.
The memorandum should be sent to any interested individuals who
were unable to attend.
The Chair should seek feedback on the meetings to try to improve
future meetings.

Improving meetings
Motivation to change
Gather information on present situation
Identify specific areas needing improvement
Identify alternative courses of action
Practise new techniques
Improvement model.



Practice 4
You are at an internal meeting to discuss increases in the price
of your products. With a partner, use these prompts to make a
dialogue. Try to use new language from this unit.

Participant A Participant B

Ask if the meeting can
reach a decision on this.

Respond that we need more information.
54
Ask for clarification.

Say we need to know more about the effects
of a price increase.
Suggest doing market research.
Agree. Suggest contacting a friend who
knows about market consultancy firms.
Suggest first looking at previous
experience of price rises
then later going to a Marketing Consultancy.

Ask for general agreement.
Move to next item for discussion.



Practice 5
In pairs use the outline below to create a chairs closing remarks
for a meeting. To make this more realistic, add names and other
details as required. Practice your closing remarks together.

Indicate that the meeting is almost over.

Check that no one has anything else to say.

Restate the purpose of the meeting.

Introduce a summary of the decisions taken.

Ask if everyone is happy with your summary.

Indicate that a colleague will organise a presentation next week.

Fix a date for a new meeting.

Thank people for coming.



5. Negotiations


10. Know what you want

Language Checklist
Negotiations (1)
55
Making an opening statement

Welcoming
Welcome to
Im sure we will have a useful and productive meeting

First meeting
We see this as a preparatory meeting
We would like to reach agreement on

One of a series of meetings
Following previous meetings we have agreed on some important
issues. Today we have to think about
We have reached an important stage

Stating your aims and objectives
Id like to begin with a few words about our general expectations
May I outline our principle aims and objectives today
We want to clarify our positions
We have a formal agenda
We dont have a formal agenda, but we hope to reach agreement on
There are three specific areas we would like to discuss. These are
We have to decide

Stating shared aims and objectives
Together we want to develop a good relationship
We agree that
It is important for both of us that we agree on

Handing over
Id like to finish there and give you the opportunity to reply to this.
Id like to hand over to my colleague , who has something to say
about

Skills Checklist
Negotiations (1)

Planning and preparation

Type of negotiation
Towards agreement
Both teams try to suit joint interests
Independent advantage
Each team aims to get best deal
Conflict
56
A team aims to win and make the other team lose

Purpose of negotiation
Exploratory (possible areas of interest)
Conciliatory (resolving differences)

Targets
Scale (e.g. 1-10)
Decide realistic maximum and minimum acceptable scores

Facts and figures
Prepare statistical data
Know facts
Prepare visuals

Strengths and weaknesses
List your bargaining strengths
Know your possible weaknesses
Calculate your bargaining position

Possible concessions
Plan your bargaining strategy
List essential conditions
Impossible to concede
List possible concessions

Opening statements
State general objectives
State priorities
State independent (not joint) objectives
Be brief


Practice 1
1. Suggest phrases for each of the following at the start of a
negotiation.
Welcome the other side.
Develop small talk (trip, weather).
Mention plans for lunch make your visitors feel welcome (see city
centre / local restaurant).
Suggest you start talking about the main subject of your meeting.
Introduce a colleague.
Explain general aim or purpose of the meeting. (preliminary /
exploratory)
57
Say what your side wants from the meeting. (Establish beginnings
of a partnership / learn about supply systems / price variations
and supply costs.)





2. Try to bring all the phrases above together in a single opening
statement.

Types of negotiation:

Agreement-based negotiation or win-win negotiation
Proposals and counter proposals (propuneri contrare) are discussed
until agreement is reached. Both sides hopes for repeat business.
Two parties have a shared objective: to work together in a way
which is mutually beneficial.
Independent advantage negotiation
This type of negotiation is less based on mutual benefit, but on
gaining the best deal possible for your side. Each team thinks only
about its own interests.
Winlose negotiation
This type is the negotiation to resolve conflict, for example in a
contractual dispute. Here, it is possible that each party regards the
other as an opponent and seeks to win the argument.

A typical structure of a negotiation:

Suggestion
Counter suggestion

Agreement
Confirmation


Practice 2

1. Mark the seven points below (how to prepare a negotiation) in
the right order. The first is already marked as an example.
Identify your minimum requirements.
Prepare your opening statement.
Decide what concessions you could make.
Know your own strengths and weaknesses.
Know your role as part of a team.
58
Prepare your negotiation position know your aims and objectives. 1
Prepare any figures, any calculations and any support materials you
may need.

2.Match each of the four aspects of good preparation on the left
with why they are important on the right.
a. Knowing your aims i. means you can support your
and objectives argument.
b. Knowing your own strengths and ii. helps clear thinking and
weaknesses purpose.
c. Preparing any figures, calculations iii. creates reasonable
and other materials expectations.
d. Preparing an opening statement iv. helps you to know the market,
the context in which you want to work.



11. Getting what you can

Reading
1. Read the following extract. According to the writer, are these
statements about negotiating true (T) or false (F):
a. Decide on the most important and less important issues.
b. Try to guess what the other side thinks.
c. Note answers to the questions you ask.
d. Deal with issues in isolation, one at a time.
e. Make concessions and get a concession in return.
f. Tough bargaining can combine with a spirit of cooperation.
g. If there are problems, you have to accept or reject what is on
offer.

Effective negotiation requires clear thinking and a constructive
approach

It is necessary to have a clear understanding of what for you are
the most important issues and at the same time what for you are less
important. Try to identify aspects in the second category where the
other side will be very happy to gain concessions. Give what is not so
important for you, but is valuable for the other side.



To do this, you have to do the following:
Check every item of what the other side wants. Ask how important
items are and look for flexibility.
59
Do not guess their opinions or motives you could be wrong, or
they wont like your speculation.
Note the other sides answers, but dont immediately say what you
think.
Avoid being forced into considering one issue alone, consider two or
three at once aim for an agreement to a package.

If there are big differences between the two parties, you have a
choice of these options: to accept, to reject, or to carry on negotiating.
If you decide to carry on, then the options in the next round are:
To make a new offer
To seek a new offer from the other party
To change the shape of the deal (vary the quantity or the quality, or
bring in third parties)
Begin bargaining.

Your bargaining should be governed by three principles: be
prepared, think about the whole package, and be constructive. In
preparing, you must identify the issues, and prepare your bargaining
position. You need:
An essential conditions list issues where you cannot concede
anything
A concessions list issues where you can make concessions
To grade the concessions from the easiest to the most difficult,
where you need most in return.

As for the package, you must look for agreement in principle on a
broad front (zon cu elemente diferite). When the time comes for
compromise, each party will concede on one issue if they win a
concession on another.

The final principle is to be positive and constructive. You should be
fair and cooperative, even during difficult bargaining. This approach
is mot likely to move the negotiation towards a settlement that both
sides feel is to their advantage.


2. Read the text again. Identify the following:
a. How to respond to what the other side wants.
b. Three ways to change a deal.
c. Three actions to prepare for bargaining


Language Checklist
Negotiations (2)
60

Bargaining
We can agree to that if
On condition that
So long as
Thats not acceptable unless
Without

Making concessions
It you could we could consider
So long as we could agree to
On condition that we agree on then we could
Lets think about the issue of
We could offer you
Would you be interested in ?
Could we tie this agreement to ?

Accepting
We agree.
That seems acceptable.
Thats probably all right.

Confirming
Can we run through what weve agreed?
Id like to check what weve said / confirm
I think this is a good moment to repeat what weve agreed so far.

Summarising
Id like to run through the main points that weve talked about.
So. Ill summarise the important points of our offer.
Can we summarise the proposal in a few words?

Looking ahead
So, the next step is
We need to meet again soon.
In our next meeting we need to
So, can we ask you to ?
Before the next meeting well
We need to draw up a formal contract.

Skills Checklist
Negotiations (2) Bargaining in negotiations

Concessions rules
A key principle in negotiation is to give a little and get a little at the
same time.
61
Ask for concessions
All concessions are conditional
Conditions first If then
Its a package
Give whats cheap to you and valuable to them.

During the negotiation

Main speaker
Create a joint, public and flexible agenda.
Question needs and preferences.
Dont talk too much.
Listen.
Dont fill silences.
Build on common ground.
Explore alternatives What if ?
Be clear, brief and firm.
Follow concession rules.

Support speaker
Wait till the Chair or your main speaker brings you in.
Be clear, brief and firm.
Follow the concession rules.
Support your main speaker
- Agree (nod, Thats right )
- Emphasise (This point is very important)
- Add forgotten points (And we must remember )
- But dont make concessions for your main speaker.
- Listen.
- Dont fill silences.

Practice 3
Make sentences which include concessions based on the prompts
below. The first is done for you as an example.
a. a better warranty / quicker payment terms
We could offer a better warranty if you would agree to quicker
payment terms.

b. free delivery / large order
c. free on-site training / small increase in price
d. 5 % discount / payment on delivery
e. extra 50, 000 compensation / agreement not to go to law
f. promise to improve safety for staff / agreement on new contracts
g. better working conditions / shorter breaks

62

Practice 4
You and a partner are representatives of Beck Instruments and
Ojanpera Inc., a machine tool maker. Ojanpera is in discussion
with Beck Instruments to buy a machine, the BI 25. Use the flow
chart below to negotiate some aspects of an agreement for the
sale of the BI 25.

Ojanpera Beck Instruments
Offer to buy the machine if BI
can give a good price.
Say that your prices are very competitive.
Ask for a discount.
Say a discount could be possible if
Ojanpera agrees to pay for shipping costs.
Agree, if the discount is attractive.
Offer 4 % discount.
Ask for 6 % discount.
Unfortunately, you cant agree, unless
Ojanpera pays for the installation.
Agree.
Confirm your agreement.

Practice 5
The following letter is from Gibson Trust Ltd. To the Ministry of
Urban Development summarising the points agreed in the
negotiation between them and outlining the next steps. Complete
the spaces in the letter with appropriate words given below.

Enclosed developed specified examined excluded signed
Agreed drawn up confirm included



GIBSON TRUST LIMITED
Units 9-12 East Side Monks Cross Industrial Estate BRISTOL BSI4
6TR
Telephone 01272 547777 Fax 01272 547701


Neil Finch
Ministry of Urban Development
140- 144 Whitehall
London WCI 4RF
May 2 200

63

Dear Neil,

Re: Meeting in Bristol, April 30 --- Railway Land Sale

I am writing to (a) _______ points (b) _______ in the above meeting, held
to discuss the sale of government owned railway land to Gibson Trust
Limited.

We would like to confirm through this letter and the (c) ________
drawings that the property (d) ______ in the above sale consists of the
land presently occupied by the station buildings and also the former
car parks to the east of the station, the offices to the west and the
warehouse alongside the traks. The government-owned housing on
the north side of the railway lines is (e) _______ .

We also agree that the station will be renovated by the Transport
Department and that the government will be responsible for running
an eventual museum and paying a rent of 100,000 per year to
Gibson Trust. The remaining land will be (f) _________ by Gibson Trust
and later sold off separately. The development is intended to be for
commercial and residential use. The eventual use of the land should
be (g) _______ in the contract.

Our next meeting will be on May 15 at 10 a.m., at which development
plans will be (h) ______. Soon after this, contracts will be (I) ______ .
Then we will need time to consider the contracts but hopefully they
will be (j) ______ by the end of September.

Do contact us if you have any comments or alterations you would like
to make to this summary. Thank you once again for a very
constructive meeting and we look forward to seeing you again on May
15.


Your sincerely,


Jill Kearne
Chief Negotiator
Encs. (I)





64



12. Not getting what you dont want

What type of negotiator are you?
1. Your aim in a negotiation is
a) to find the greatest area of agreement in the joint interests of
both parties.
b) To win and to make the other side lose.
c) To find the best deal for your side.

2. When the other side is talking you
a) use the information you are hearing to identify weaknesses in
the other party.
b) Plan what you are going to say next.
c) Listen with maximum attention.

3. You think that
a) part of the available time must be spent socialising and getting
to know the other side.
b) Goodwill is important but the speed of the meeting should be
quick and businesslike.
c) The meeting should get down to business as soon as possible
and reach quick decisions.

4. When you speak in a negotiation you
a) make bold and forceful statements, possibly banging the table.
b) Make carefully considered statements in a calm, controlled
voice.
c) Are occasionally forceful and inflexible.

5. If the other side disagree with you, you
a) try hard to find a creative position by modifying your position.
b) Repeat your demands and will not concede your objective is to
make the other side give in.
c) Reshape your offer without fundamental changes.

6. If the other side state an opinion you disagree with, you
a) tentatively suggest an alternative.
b) Ask for clarification and explanation.
c) Ridicule it with sarcasm.


1 a)3 b)2 c)2 2 a)1 b)2 c)3 3 a)3 b)2 c)1
4 a)1 b)3 c)2 5 a)3 b)1 c)2 6 a)3 b)2 c)1
65


If you score 15 or more you are a creative negotiator. 11-14 you
negotiate to independent advantage. 7-10 you are a fighter! Less
than 7 you should get a gun licence!


Reading
Match each of the following to a phrase in the text with a similar
meaning:
a. highlight the disadvantages of failing to reach a deal
b. think of new benefits for both sides
c. alter parts of what is on offer
d. take a break to consider positions
e. have the negotiation in a different place
f. change the individuals involved
g. ask an independent person to come and help you reach agreement
h. have an informal meeting to talk things over.


Dealing with conflict

Conflict may sometimes be an unavoidable step on the road
towards agreement. However, in some cases conflict leads to the
break down of negotiations as one or both sides realise that
agreement is not possible. In many cases this is better than agreeing
to something which would be against the interests of the people
concerned.
When conflict arises, there are several possible actions which
may help to resolve conflict in a negotiation:
Leave the problem, go on to a different topic and return later to the
point at issue
Summarise progress and areas of agreement
Emphasise the benefits available to both sides
Emphasise the loss to both sides of not reaching agreement
Restate the issue and wait for a response
Change the package
Invent new options for mutual gain
Offer conditional concessions
Adjourn (a amna, a suspenda) to think and reflect
Fix an off-the-record meeting (ntlnire neoficial)
Change location
Change negotiator (personal chemistry?)
Bring in a third party (mediator?)
Consider walking away.
66

Practice 6
In pairs, use the given prompts to suggest a response to the
statements.

Situation 1
The problem is that we have never offered the kind of warranty you
are looking for.
Suggest leaving the point and returning to it later after discussing other
issues, i.e. training for technical staff.

Situation 2
Theres a number of issues on the table. We seem to be a long way
from an agreement.
Suggest changing the package on offer (variables include price,
shipment costs, payment terms).

Situation 3
The price you are asking is rather high, quite a lot higher than we
were expecting.
Send a signal that you could offer better payment terms.

Situation 4
There are several problems. We think there is quite a lot of negotiation
ahead before we can agree on a common strategy.
Suggest advantages of reaching agreement: more global influence,
better prospects for the future.



Below are five strategies in dealing with conflict. Use them in
making statements.
a. Adjourn to think and reflect.
b. Summarise progress and areas of agreement.
c. Leave the problem, discuss something else, come back later to the
problem.
d. Emphasise the loss to both sides of not reaching agreement.
e. Offer a conditional concession.

Practice 7
Below are four offers or request. Reject each one, using the
information in the prompts.

Situation 1
Let me make a suggestion. If you agree to buy 100 units every month
for the next twelve months, well agree a 10 % discount.
67
You dont know how many units you will need in six and twelve
months. It might be more or less.

Situation 2
The price we are offering excludes installation costs but does include
a twelve months guarantee.
Other suppliers offer free installation and a two year parts and labour
warranty.

Situation 3
I think the absolute minimum investment in advertising must be
$40,000, otherwise we cannot reach enough of our market. Its not
much to ask for.
You cannot spend more than your budget.

Situation 4
Now, some excellent news: wed like to increase our order. Right now
you are sending us 350 boxes a month. We need at least 500, demand
is very high
Your order books are full, the plant is working at capacity.




Practice 8
Suggest what you could say in the following situations.

Situation 1
After a long negotiation, you have reached agreement and now plan a
meal in a local restaurant with the other party in the negotiation.

Situation 2
Your efforts to reach agreement have been unsuccessful. It is late.
End the negotiation but offer some hope that in the future you might
manage some cooperation with the other side.

Situation 3
A colleague has asked you to cooperate on a project, but after long
discussion you feel you cannot participate because of fundamental
disagreement. It is important that you continue to work together in
the other areas.

Situation 4
You want to repeat an order with a supplier but they are trying to
increase prices by 20 %. You cannot agree to this. End your
discussion.
68

Situation 5
A customer is asking you to supply goods in a month. This is
physically impossible. End the discussion.


Language Checklist
Negotiations (3)

Dealing with conflict
I think we should look at the points we agree on
We should focus on the positive aspects
We should look at the benefits for both sides
It is in your interests to resolve the issue
What do you think is a fair way to resolve this problem?
We hope you can see our point of view
Let us explain our position
Could you tell us why you feel like that?
I think we should look at the whole package, not so much at
individual areas of difficulty.
Perhaps we could adjourn for a little while.
I think we need to consider some fresh ideas

Rejecting
Im afraid we cant
Before agreeing to that we would need
Unfortunately
I dont think it would be sensible for us to
I think if you consider our position, youll see that

Ending negotiations
So, can we summarise the progress weve made?
Can we go through the points weve agreed?
Perhaps if I can check the main points
So, the next step is
What we need to do now is
Its been a very useful and productive meeting.
We look forward to a successful partnership.

Breaking off negotiations
I think weve gone as far as we can.
Im sorry, but I dont think were going to agree a deal.
Its a pity we couldnt reach agreement this time.
Unfortunately we appear unable to settle our differences.
It would be better if we looked for some independent arbitrator.

69
Skills Checklist
Negotiations (3)

Dealing with conflict
Show understanding of the other sides position
Highlight advantages of agreement

Dont Do
Be sarcastic ask questions
Attack listen
Criticise summarise
Threaten build on common ground
Blame explain your feelings

Types of negotiators

Hard
Negotiates to win
Makes demands

Principled
Looks for common benefits
Makes offers

Soft
Looks for agreement
Accepts whats on offer

Fighter Independent advantage Creative negotiator
Win-lose win-win looks for agreement

Rejecting
Ask for an adjournment.
Discuss options.
Remember your limits.
Decide if your interests are being met: if not, reject the proposal on
offer, or suggest alternatives.

After the negotiation
Compare the result with your objectives, targets and limits.
Examine the process of the negotiation:
The planning the strategy team roles the issues.
Learn from failure:
What went wrong and why?
Identify weaknesses and errors
70
Discuss and plan ahead.
Build on success:
Recognise success
Praise people
Develop teamwork and partnership.

Negotiating Conditions

Conditions Examples
Unit price $8.50 per unit
Minimum quantity at least 10,000 units
Credit period 30 days after invoice
Delivery date 20 June 2003
Bulk discount -2 % if over 10,000 units
Penalty clause 5 % for each month of delay
Cancellation clause 50 % charge if cancelled less than six
weeks beforehand
Exclusivity sole rights over all East Coast states
Royalty on sales under licence 3 % of turnover on licensed goods
Commission 5 % on sales in the territory
Early settlement discount -2 % if paid within 20 days
Option period first option for 12 months after contract
Method of payment irrevocable letter of credit
Warranty period 18 months warranty from completion

DATAFILE: Negotiation

Below are the stages of negotiation and some expressions which you
may find useful at each stage:

Conversation (1)
Im sure/confident we can reach agreement. (optimistic)
Im sure theres room for negotiation.
We have a lot to discuss.
Lets see how we get on. (cautious)

Presenting your position (2)
This is our position.
This is how we see it.
We think the following is reasonable/appropriate.
Our approach is this.

Questioning the others position (3)
How do you/ explain your attitude?
/ justify ? Account for? Arrive at?
71
Why do you want?
Why such a / high charge?
/ long delivery period?
/ low discount?

Refusing to accept (4)
Im sorry, I cant accept 2 %.
Youll have to do better than that, Im afraid.
Im afraid its not enough.
Other firms offer more than 2 %.

Refusing to move (5)
Im afraid I cant agree to / that.
/ increase the rate.
/ lower the price.
/ shorten delivery.
Weve done our best for you.
We have maintain a policy.
I have my instructions.

Suggesting a compromise (6)
May I make a suggestion?
If you then we may be able to
We may be able to but only if you
Unless you there is no question of our being able to

Reaching agreement (7)
Lets just go through the terms.
Lets summarize the conditions.


Exercise 1 Your turn to negotiate!
Now you have the opportunity to negotiate. To help you with each
answer you are given some information in the script below and a
number which refers back to the Datafile.

Supplier Well, lets get started. You know, with this delivery
problem Im sure theres room for negotiation.
You (1: cautious)
Supplier Right, well this is how we see it. We can deliver the first
machine in ten weeks, and install it four weeks after that.
You (3: long delivery period)
Supplier Well, these are in fact the usual periods. Its pretty normal
in this kind of operation. Did you expect we could deliver any
quicker?
You (2: 6 weeks maximum delivery; 4 weeks installation)
72
Supplier I see what you mean, but that would be very difficult. You
see we have a lot of orders to handle at present, and moving just one
of these machines is a major operation. Look, if I can promise you
delivery in eight weeks, does that help?
You (4: too late)
Supplier Ah-ha! Well, look er You want the machine in six
weeks. Now that is really a very short deadline in this business. You
said that you couldnt take it any later, but couldnt your engineers
find a way to re-schedule just a little, say another week?
You (5: refuse)
Supplier Well, you really are asking us for something that is very
difficult. Ive already offered you seven weeks. Ill have to consult with
my colleagues and come back to you, but I cant see what we can do.
You (6: if deliver in 6 weeks perhaps talk about further order)
Supplier Well, on that basis I suppose we might be able to look at
some kind of arrangement. In fact, if you can promise another order I
think we could accept your terms.
You (7: 6 weeks delivery; 4 weeks installation; decision on next order
by 26
th
of this month)
Supplier Exactly. If you could confirm this in writing I


Exercise 2 Ten rules for negotiating
Dr Ed Zap is holding a two-day seminar on negotiating techniques. At
the end of the first morning he gives the group his ten rules for
negotiating. Here they are.

1. Find out how many points are to be negotiated.
2. Start from an extreme position.
3. Assume the other person owes you a concession.
4. Never concede without exchange.
5. Never give what you can sell.
6. Exaggerate the value of your concessions, minimize the value of
his.
7. If he insists on principle, expect a concession in return.
8. Only threaten what you are prepared to carry out.
9. Dont show disrespect to your opponent.
10. If youre happy with the result, dont shout Ive won!

Read Dr Zaps rules and then look at the remarks in list A. These
remarks are not good for negotiating. Instead, use phrases from list B.
which one would you use in each case?



a. You see? I knew Id win!
73
1. If you increase the order, then we may be able to reduce the price.
b. I know what you want to discuss, so lets start.
2. Very well, but if you cant give discounts Im sure you can extend
c. I can reduce the price. Does that help?
3. If you cant accept this, I may have to reconsider my position.
d. Delivery? Thats no problem; no extra charge.
4. I think we can agree on these terms.
f. Its against your policy to give discounts? OK.
5. Im afraid that will not be possible.
g. What a ridiculous idea! Dont be stupid!
6. May we go through the points to be discussed before we begin?
h. Another half per cent? Yes, thats very generous offer youre
making.
7. Half per cent is very small amount
i. This is my final offer. If you refuse, Ill cancel everything.
8. Delivery? Well it may be possible but only if


Exercise 3 When things get difficult
In their negotiation exercises the managers on Dr Zaps seminar
sometimes find themselves in difficult situations. As they are all from
English-speaking countries they know what to say.


Could you give me a moment to do some calculations?
Certainly! Would you excuse me a minute?
Would you like me to go through that again?
Im sorry, could you go through that again?
I dont think were talking about the same thing.
Thats right! Were talking at cross-purposes.
Can we say its agreed, here and now?
Ill have to come back to you on this.
Where does the January figure come from?
Im just looking. Could you bear with me a moment?
So what is the basis of calculation?
Im sorry, I dont have the figures to hand.


Which expression would you use in the following cases?

a. The other person does not seem to understand your explanation of
the payment schedules.
b. He wants you to agree a definite price today, but you need to
consult your boss at the office before committing yourself.
c. He suddenly asks you what discount you would make for a very
large order indeed. You need a minute to work it out.
74
d. You are rather surprised at the high charge for transport.
e. He suddenly asks the price of similar products in the range. You
have the price list in your briefcase somewhere.
f. You think he has just made up the figure for installation costs!
g. He has already explained the commission system twice but you are
still not really clear about it.


Understanding contracts

Exercise 4 Vocabulary for contracts
The words below are often used in connection with contracts. Use
some of them to complete the sentences which follow. You may need
to put certain words in the plural.

Terminate clause draw up agreement condition
binding
Section party provide for arbitration compromise
comply with/abide by
Litigation out of court breach valid court
term void


a. A contract is an ---------- between two ----------- . It is divided into --
-------- , ------------ , and ------------ .
b. The contract --------- ---------- any problems between the two
parties. The conditions of the contract are --------- on both parties.
If one party does not ----------- ----------- the clauses, this is called a
--------- of contract.
c. In the case of a dispute, many contracts provide for ----------, but in
some cases the dispute results in ---------- . Most parties reach a ---
------ without going to --------- , and the dispute is settled -------- ---
--- ---------- .
d. Some contracts are for a fixed period, or --------- ; also, there are
ways in which the parties can end, or ---------, the contract.


Exercise 5 Licensing terms
You have asked a US firm if you could make one of its products under
licence, in your own country. Here is part of their answer. But what
do the legal terms really mean? Replace the underlined terms with the
phrases listed below.


Weve checked with our legal department. Yes, we are the patent
holders for the XT7. We are prepared, in fact, to grant you a licence to
75
make it in your own territory on these conditions: there would be a fee
on agreement and then a royalty of 5 % with a minimum annual royalty
of $50,000. The term would be four years, with the possibility of
renewal on expiry. And, of course, in the event of any infringement, as
our licensee you would have to apply for an injunction on the infringers
production.



Let you have yearly bottom limit illegal copying
Official manufacturer have the legal rights over copiers
Further years period country
Ask for a ban when it ended permission
An immediate payment 5 % to pay



6. Management


13. What is management?


Discussion

What do you think makes a good manager? Which four of the
following qualities do you think are the most important?
A being decisive: able to make quick decisions
B being efficient: doing things quickly, not leaving tasks unfinished,
having a tidy desk, and so on
C being friendly and sociable
D being able to communicate with people
E being logical, rational and analytical
F being able to motivate and inspire and lead people
G being authoritative: able to give orders
H being competent: knowing ones job perfectly, as well as the work of
ones subordinates
I being persuasive: able to convince people to do things
J having good ideas


Reading
This text summarizes some of Peter Druckers views on
management. As you read about his description of the work of a
manger, decide whether the five different functions he mentions
76
require the four qualities you selected in your discussion, or
others you did not choose.


Peter Drucker, the well-known American business professor and
consultant, suggests that the work of a manager can be divided into
planning (setting objectives), organizing, integrating (motivating and
communicating), measuring, and developing people.
First of all, managers (especially senior managers such as
company chairmen and women and directors) set objectives, and
decide how their organization can achieve them. This involves
developing strategies, plans and precise tactics, and allocating
resources of people and money.
Secondly, managers organize. They analyse and classify the
activities of the organization and the relations among them. They
divide the work into manageable activities and then into individual
jobs. They select people to manage these units and perform the jobs.
Thirdly, managers practice the social skills of motivation
and communication. They also have to communicate objectives to
the people responsible for attaining them. They have to make the
people who are responsible for performing individual jobs form teams.
They make decisions about pay and promotion. As well as organizing
and supervising the work of their subordinates, they have to work
with people in other areas and functions.
Fourthly, managers have to measure the performance of their
staff, to see whether the objectives set for the organization as a whole
and for each individual member of it are being achieved.
Lastly, managers develop people both their subordinates and
themselves.
Obviously, objectives occasionally have to be modified or
changed. It is generally the job of a companys top managers to
consider the needs of the future, and to take responsibility for
innovation, without which any organization can only expect a limited
life. Top managers also have to manage a businesss relations with
customers, suppliers, distributors, bankers, investors, neighbouring
communities, public authorities, and so on, as well as deal with any
major crises which arise. Top managers are appointed and supervised
and advised (and dismissed) by a companys board of directors.
Although the tasks of a manager can be analyzed and classified
in this fashion, management is not entirely scientific. It is human
skill. Business professors obviously believe that intuition and
instinct are not enough; there are management skills that have to be
learnt. Drucker, for example, wrote over 20 years ago that Altogether
this entire book is based on the proposition that the days of the
intuitive manager are numbered, meaning that they were coming to
an end. But some people are clearly good at management, and others
77
are not. Some people will be unable to put management techniques
into practice. Others will have lots of technique, but few good ideas.
Outstanding managers are rather rare.


Vocabulary
a. Complete the following sentences with these words.

Achieved board of directors communicate innovations
manageable performance
Resources setting supervise


1 Managers have to decide how best to allocate the human, physical
and capital .. available to them.
2 Managers logically have to make sure that the jobs and tasks
given to their subordinates are .. .
3 There is no point in . objectives if you dont them to your
staff.
4 Managers have to . their subordinates, and to measure, and try
to improve, their .
5 Managers have to check whether objectives and targets are being
. .
6 A top manager whose performance is unsatisfactory can be
dismissed by the companys . .
7 Top managers are responsible for the . that will allow a
company to adapt to a changing world.


b. The text contains a number of common verb-noun partnerships
(e.g. achieve objectives, deal with crises, and so on).


Match up these verb and nouns to make common collocations.
Allocate decisions
Communicate information
Develop jobs
Make objectives
Measure people
Motivate performance
Perform resources
Set strategies
Supervise subordinates


14. Types of Managers
78

We have been using the term manager to mean anyone who is
responsible for subordinates and other organizational resources.
There are many different types of managers, with diverse tasks and
responsibilities. Managers can be classified in two ways: by their level
in the organization so-called first-line, middle, and top managers
and by the range of organizational activities for which they are
responsible so-called functional and general managers.


Management Levels

First-Line Managers. The lowest level in an organization at which
individuals are responsible for the work of others is called first-line or
first-level management. First-line managers direct operating
employees only; they do not supervise other managers. Examples of
first-line managers are the foreman (maistru) or production
supervisor (ef de producie) in a manufacturing plant, the technical
supervisor (ef de echip) in a research department, and the clerical
supervisor (ef de birou) in a large office. First-level mangers are often
called supervisors.

Middle Managers. The term middle management can include to more
than one level in an organization. Middle managers direct the
activities of lower-level managers and sometimes also those of
operating employees. Middle managers principal responsibilities are
to direct the activities that implement their organizations policies and
to balance the demands of their superiors with the capacities of their
subordinates.

Top Managers. Composed of a comparatively small group of
executives, top management is responsible for the overall
management of the organization. It establishes operating policies and
guides the organizations interactions with its environment. Typical
titles of top managers are chief executive officer, president and
senior vice-president. Actual titles vary from one organization to
another and are not always a reliable guide to membership in the
highest management classification.

Functional and General Managers
The other major classification of managers depends on the scope of
the activities they manage.

Functional Managers. The functional manager is responsible for
only one organizational activity, such as production, marketing, sales,
79
or finance. The people and activities headed (a conduce) by a
functional manager are engaged in a common set of activities.

General Managers. The general manager, on the other hand,
oversees (a supraveghea) a complex unit, such as a company, a
subsidiary, or an independent operating division. He or she is
responsible for all the activities of that unit, such as its production,
marketing, sales, and finance.

A small company may have only one general manager its
president or executive vice-president but a large organization may
have several, each at the head of a relatively independent division. In
a large food company, for example, there might be a grocery-
production division, a refrigerated-products division, and a frozen-
food-products division, with a different general manager responsible
for each. Like the chief executive of a small company, each of these
divisional heads would be responsible for all the activities of the unit.

chief executive officer = director executiv
senior vice-president = vice-preedinte senior (mai important dect cel
Junior)
president = preedinte

executive vice-president vice-preedinte executiv
chief executive = director sau administator al unei firme


15. The Management Process

Planning
Plans give the organization its objectives and set up the best
procedures for reaching them. In addition, plans become the guides
by which the organization obtains and commits (a angaja) the
resources required to reach its objectives, members of the
organization carry on activities consistent with (concordant cu) the
chosen objectives and procedures, and progress toward the objectives
is monitored and measured, so that corrective action can be taken if
progress is unsatisfactory.
The first step in planning is the selection of goals for the
organization. Then objectives are established for the subunits of the
organization its divisions, departments, and so on. Once the
objectives are determined, programs are established for achieving
them in a systematic manner. Of course, in selecting objectives and
developing programs, the manager considers their feasibility and
whether will be acceptable to the organizations managers and
employees.
80
Plans made by top management for the organization as a whole
may cover periods as long as five or ten years. In a large organization,
such as a multinational energy corporation, those plans may involve
commitments (angajamente) of billions of dollars. Planning at the
lower levels, by middle or first-line managers, covers much shorter
periods. Such plans may be for the next days work, for example, or
for a two-hour meeting to take place in a week.

Organizing
Once managers have established objectives and developed plans
or programs to reach them, they must design and staff an
organization able to carry out those programs successfully. Different
objectives will require different kinds of organizations. For example,
an organization that aims to develop computer software will have to
be far different from one that wants to manufacture blue jeans.
Producing a standardized product like blue jeans requires efficient
assembly-line techniques, whereas writing computer programs
requires teams of professionals systems analysts, software
engineers, and operators.
Although they must interact effectively, such people cannot be
organized on an assembly-line basis. It is clear, then, that managers
must have the ability to determine what type of organization will be
needed to accomplish a given set of objectives. And they must have
the ability to develop (and later to lead) that type of organization.

Leading
After plans have been made, the structure of the organization
has been determined, and the staff has been recruited and trained,
the next step is to arrange for movement toward the organizations
defined objectives. This function can be called by various names:
leading, directing, motivating, actuating (impulsionare, stimulare), and
others. But whatever the name used to identify it, this function
involves getting the members of the organization to perform in ways
that will help it achieve its established objectives.
Whereas planning and organizing deal with the more abstract
aspects of the management process, the activity of leading is very
concrete; it involves working directly with people.

Controlling
Finally, the manager must ensure that the actions of the
organizations members do in fact move the organization toward its
stated goals. This is the controlling function of management, and it
involves four main elements:

Establishing standards of performance.
81
Measuring current performance and comparing it against the
established standards.
Detecting deviations from standard goals in order to make
corrections before a sequence (succesiune, ir) of activities is
completed.
Taking action to correct performance that does not meet those
standards.
Through the controlling function, the manager can keep the
organization on its chosen track, keeping it from straying (a se
deprata, a se abate) from its specified goals.



16. Management Level and Skills

Managers at every level plan, organize, lead, and control. But
they differ in the amount of time devoted to each of these activities.
Some of these differences depend on the kind of organization in which
the manager works, some on the type of job the manager holds.
Managers of small private clinics, for example, spend their time
quite differently from the way the heads of large research hospitals
spend theirs: Managers of clinics spend comparatively more time
practicing medicine, and less time actually managing, than do
directors of large hospitals. The technical supervisor of research
physicists at AT&T Bell Labs will have a job that in some respects is
quite different from that of a production supervisor on a General
Motors assembly line. Yet both are first-line managers. And yet there
will also be important similarities in the jobs of all these managers.
Other differences in the ways managers spend their time depend
upon their levels in the organizational hierarchy. Robert L. Kats, a
teacher and business executive, has identified three basic kinds of
skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Every manager needs all
three. Technical skill is the ability to use the procedures, techniques,
and knowledge of a specialized field. Surgeons, engineers, musicians,
and accountants all have technical skills in their respective fields.
Human skill is the ability to work with, understand, and motivate
other people, as individuals or in groups. Conceptual skill is the ability
to coordinate and integrate all of an organizations interests and
activities. It involves the managers ability to see the organization as a
whole, to understand how its parts depend on one another, and to
anticipate how a change in any of its parts will affect the whole.
Kats suggests that although all three of these skills are essential
to a manager, their relative importance depends mainly on the
managers rank in the organization. Technical skill is most important
in the lower levels. Human skill, by contrast, is important for
82
managers at every level: because they must get their work done
primarily through others, their ability to tap (a capta, a aborda) the
technical skills of their subordinates is more important than their
own technical skills. Finally, the importance of conceptual skill
increases as one rises through the ranks of a management system
based on hierarchical principles of authority and responsibility. It
depends mainly on the managers rank in the organization.



7. Companies and Organizations


17. Company structure

Vocabulary
Match up the words on the left with the definitions on the right

1 autonomous A a system of authority with different levels, one above
the other
2 decentralization B a specific activity in a company, e.g.
production, marketing, finance
3 function C independent, able to take decisions without
consulting a higher authority
4 hierarchy D people working under someone else in a hierarchy
5 line authority E dividing an organization into decision-making units
that are not centrally controlled
6 report to F the power to give instructions to people at the level
below in the chain of command
7 subordinates G to be responsible to someone and to take
instructions from him or her


Reading
Read the text below, about different ways of organizing
companies, and then label the diagrams, according to which of
these they illustrate:
Line structure / functional structure / matrix structure / staff
structure






83
A. B..







C.. D..

Most organizations have hierarchical or pyramidal structure,
with one person or a group of people at the top, and an increasing
number of people below them at each successive level. This is a clear
line or chain of command running down the pyramid. All the people
in the organization know what decisions they are able to make, who
their superior (or boss) is (to whom they report), and who their
immediate subordinates are (to whom they can give instructions).
Some people in an organization have colleagues who help them:
for example, there might be an Assistant to the Marketing Manager.
This is known as a staff position: its holder has no line authority, and
is not integrated into the chain of command, unlike, for example, the
Assistant Marketing Manager, who is number two in the marketing
department.
Yet, the activities of most companies are too complicated to be
organized in a single hierarchy. Shortly before the First World War,
the French industrialist Henry Fayol organized his coal-mining
business according to the functions that it had to carry out. He is
generally credited with inventing functional organization. Today, most
large manufacturing organizations have a functional structure,
including (among others) production, finance, marketing, sales, and
personnel or staff departments. This means, for example, that the
production and marketing departments cannot take financial decision
without consulting the finance department.
Functional organization is efficient, but there are two standard
criticisms. Firstly, people are usually more concerned with the
success of their department than that of the company, so there are
permanent battles between, for example, finance and marketing, or
marketing and production, which have incompatible goals. Secondly,
separating functions is unlikely to encourage innovation.
Yet, for a large organization manufacturing a range of products,
having a single production department is generally inefficient.
Consequently, most large companies are decentralized, following the
model of Alfred Sloan, who divided General Motors into separate
operating divisions in 1920. Each division had its own engineering,
production and sales departments, made a different category of car
84
(but with some overlap (suprapunere, ntreptrundere), to encourage
internal competition), and was expected to make a profit.
Business that cannot be divided into autonomous divisions with
their own markets can simulate decentralization, setting up divisions
that deal with each other using internally determined transfer prices.
Many banks, for example, have established commercial, corporate,
private banking, international and investment divisions.
An inherent problem of hierarchies is that people at lower levels
are unable to make important decisions, but have to pass on
responsibility to their boss. One solution to this is matrix
management, in which people report to more than one superior. For
example, a product manager with an idea might be able to deal
directly with managers responsible for a certain market segment and
for a geographical region, as well as the managers responsible for the
traditional functions of finance, sales and productions. This is one
way of keeping authority at lower levels, but it is not necessarily a
very efficient one. Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman, in their well-
known book In Search of Excellence, insist on the necessity of pushing
authority and autonomy down the line, but they argue that one
element probably the product must have priority; four-
dimensional matrices are far too complex.
A further possibility is to have wholly autonomous, temporary
groups or teams that are responsible for an entire project, and are
split up (a se diviza, a se mpri) as soon as it is successfully
completed. Teams are often not very good for decision-making, and
they run the risk or relational problems, unless they are small and
have a lot of self-discipline. In fact, they still require a definite leader,
on whom their success probably depends.







Describing company structure

The most common verbs for describing structure are:
Consists of contains includes
Is composed of is made up of is divided into
e.g. The company consists of five main departments.
The marketing department is made up of three units.

Other verbs frequently used to describe company organization
include:
85

To be in charge of to be responsible for
To support or to be supported by to assist or to be assisted by
To be accountable to
e.g. The marketing department is in charge of the sales force.
The five department heads are accountable to the Managing Director.

This is an example of part of a company organization chart:

Board of Directors
with a Chairman (GB)
or President (US)


Managing Director (GB)
or
Chief Executive Officer (US)


Production Marketing Finance Research & Personnel
Development
Market Sales Advertising
Research Promotions Financial Accounting
Management

Northern Southern
Region Region

Now write a description of either the organization chart above, or a
company you know, in about 100-150 words.

18. The External Environment of Organizations


The many rapid changes taking place in the external environment
of organization require increasing attention from managers. The
direct-action component of the environment consists of the
organizations stakeholders that is, the groups with direct impact on
the organizations activities. External stakeholders include
customers, suppliers, governments, consumer and environmental
advocates, special interest groups, labor unions, financial
institutions, the media, and competitors. Internal stakeholders
include employees, shareholders, and the board of directors.

Managers must balance the interests of the various stakeholders
for the good of the organization as a whole. They may be able to use
86
the network of relationships among the stakeholders and the
organization to influence stakeholders individually. For their part,
stakeholders may unite in coalitions to exert over (a exercita, a face uz
de influen) the organization. Individual stakeholders may also hold
conflicting stakes (interes, participare) in an organization.

The indirect-action component of the environment consists of
their factors that influence the organization indirectly. Not only do
these factors create a climate to which the organization must adjust,
but they have the potential to move into the direct-action
environment. Demographic and lifestyle variables mold (a forma, a
modela)an organizations labor supply and customer base, and
changes in values are at heart of every other social, economic,
political, and technological change. Managers must distinguish
between and adjust to structural and cyclical changes in the
economy. In addition, they must contend with (a lupta cu) the growing
influence of special interest groups in politics, and technological
developments also fuel the competition between organizations.
Technological advances in communication and transportation have
made the international environment increasingly important. Greater
international competition has made the U.S. lag (a ntrzia, a rmne
n urm) in competitiveness critical, and has also blurred (a ntuneca,
a pune n cea) the distinction between the private and public
sectors.
The environment determines the extent to which (gradul n care)
organizations face uncertainty and to which they are dependent on
others for vital resources. In turbulent environments, organizations
must devote more of their resources to monitoring the environment.
The natural-selection, resource-dependence, and industrial-
organization models provide alternative views of the relationship
between organizations and the environment.
Managers especially at higher levels must monitor the external
environment and try to forecast changes that will affect the
organization. They may use strategic planning and organizational
design to adjust to the environment.


8. Production and products

Vocabulary
a. Match up these words with the definitions which follow.

Capacity component inventory lead time plant
Location subcontractor outsourcing or contracting out

87
1. any company that provides goods or services for another one
2. any of the pieces or parts that make up a product, machine, etc.
3. buying products or processed materials from other companies
rather than manufacturing them
4. the (maximum) rate of output that can be achieved from a
production process
5. the buildings, machines, equipment and other facilities used in the
production process
6. the geographical situation of a factory or other facility
7. the stock of any item or resource used in an organization (including
raw materials, parts, supplies, work in process and finished
products)
8. the time needed to perform an activity (i.e. to manufacture or
deliver something)





b. After it has been decided what to manufacture, operations
managers have to decide where to manufacture the different
products, how much productive capacity their factories and
plants should have, and how much inventory to maintain. Read
the 15 sentences below, and classify them under the following six
headings. Some sentences may fall under two headings.

A The consequences of insufficient capacity
B The consequences of excess capacity
C The advantages of large facilities
D The disadvantages of large facilities
E The advantages of having a large inventory
F The disadvantages of having a large inventory

1. A long lead time may allow competitors to enter the market.
2. Average fixed cost per unit drops as volume increases because each
succeeding unit absorbs part of the fixed costs, giving economies of
scale.
3. Finding staff and coordinating material flow become expensive and
difficult.
4. If lead time increases, some customers may go to other suppliers.
5. Lost sales and market share are usually permanent.
6. The working environment might worsen and industrial relations
deteriorate.
7. There are costs of storage, handling, insurance, depreciation, the
opportunity cost of capital, and so on.
88
8. You can be more flexible in product scheduling, and have longer
lead times and lower cost operation through larger production runs
with fewer set-ups.
9. There is always a risk of obsolescence, theft, breakage, and so on.
10. You can meet variation in product demand.
11. You may be under-utilizing your work force.
12. You have protection against variation in raw material delivery
time (due to shortages, strikes, lost orders, incorrect or defective
shipments, etc.)
13. You may be forced to produce additional less profitable
products.
14. You can take advantage of quantity discounts in purchasing.
15. You may have to reduce prices to stimulate demand.


19. Just-in-time production

Read the text below, and insert the eight words defined in
vocabulary a) in the spaces.

Capacity component inventory lead time
Location outsourcing plants subcontractor

Manufacturing companies are faced with a make-or-buy decision
for every item or (1) . they use (as well as for every process and
service). Do they make it themselves or do they outsource (a contracta
lucrri n afara companiei), and buy from a (2) ? If a company
assembles products supplied by a large number of subcontractors
(furnizor intermediar), they face the problem of how much (3) .
they require.
In Just-In-Time (JIT) production also called lean production,
stockless production, and continuous flow manufacture nothing is
bought or produced until it is needed. Each section of the production
process makes the necessary quantity of the necessary units at the
necessary time which is when it is required by the next stage of the
manufacturing process, or by distributors or customers.
The JIT system is usually credited to Taiichi Ohno, who was vice-
president for manufacturing with Toyota in Japan in the early 1950s
although he stated that he got the idea from American
supermarkets! JIT is wholly contrary to the European and American
logic of encouraging greater productivity, and welcoming production
that exceeds the agreed schedule or quota, and stocking extras in
case of the future problems.
JIT minimizes the cost of holding inventories, which are regarded
negatively, as avoidable costs, rather than as assets. The large
89
Japanese manufacturing companies have long practised (4),
and generally use extensive networks of small subcontractors. Of
course, if a single subcontractor fails to deliver a component on time,
the whole production process is sabotaged, but the Japanese
industrial system relies on mutual trust and long-term relationships.
Small suppliers often attempt to situate their facilities close to the
(5). of a larger company with which they work.
The Japanese also prefer small, specialized production (6).
with a limited (7).. , in which, wherever possible, all the machines
required for a certain job are grouped together. This avoids all the
waiting and moving time involved in sending half-finished item from
one department to another, although it often requires flexible, multi-
skilled employees.
JIT thus greatly reduces transportation and inventory costs, and
should ensure that there is no waste from overproduction, or from
idle workers waiting for parts. It allows increased productivity
because of shortened throughput time (timpul de prelucrare a
materialelor). If factories are equipped so that set-up times are short,
very small production runs (etape de producie) are possible. Any
quality problems or product defects should be noticed more quickly,
production (8) (timpul de conducere a produciei) are reduced,
and the firm can react more rapidly to demand changes.



20. Products and brands

Read the following text, and write a brief heading for each
paragraph.

1
Marketing theorists tend to give the word product a very broad
meaning, using it to refer to anything capable of satisfying a need or
want. Thus services, activities, people (politicians, athletes, film
stars), places (holiday resorts), organizations (hospitals, colleges,
political parties), and ideas, as well as physical objects offered for sale
by retailers, can be considered as products. Physical products can
usually be augmented (a spori, a crete) by benefits such as customer
advice, delivery, credit facilities, a warranty or guarantee,
maintenance, after-sales service, and so on.

2
Some manufactures use their name (the family name) for all their
products, e.g. Philips, Colgate, Yamaha. Others, including Unilever
and Procter & Gamble, market various products under individual
brand names, with the result that many customers are unfamiliar
90
with the name of the manufacturing company. The major producers
of soap powders, for example, are famous for their multi-brand
strategy, which allows them to compete in various market segments,
and to fill shelf space in shops, thereby leaving less room for
competitors. It also gives them a greater chance of getting some of the
custom of brand-switchers (cei care schimb mrcile pe care le
cumpr).

3
Most manufactures produce a large number of products, often
divided into product lines. Most product lines consist of several
products, often distinguished by brand names, e.g. a range of soap
powders, or of tooth-pastes. Several different items (different sizes or
models) may share the same brand name. Together, a companys
items, brands and products constitute its product mix. Since different
products are always at different stages of their cycles, with growing,
stable or declining sales and profitability, and because markets,
opportunities and resources are in constant evolution, companies are
always looking to the future, and re-evaluating their product mix.
4
Companies whose objectives include market share and market
growth generally have long product lines, i.e. a large number of items.
Companies whose objective is high profitability will have shorter lines,
including only profitable items. Yet, most product lines have a
tendency to lengthen over time, as companies produce variations on
existing items, or add additional items to cover further market
segments. Additions to product lines can be the result of either up-
market or down-market, i.e. making items of higher or lower quality.
This can be carried out in order to reach new customers, to enter
growing or more profitable market segments, to react to competitors
initiatives, and so on. Yet, such moves may cause image problems:
moving to the lower end of the market dilutes (a slbi, a dilua) a
companys image for quality, while a company at the bottom of a
range may not convince dealers and customers that it can produce
quality products for the high end. Line-filling adding further items in
that part of a products range which a line already covers might be
done in order to compete in competitors niches (ni), or simply to
utilize excess production capacity.






Vocabulary
91
Find words or expressions in the text which mean the following.

1 the possibility of paying for a product over an extended period
2 a promise by a manufacturer or seller to repair or replace defective
goods during a certain period of time
3 a surface in a store on which goods are displayed
4 consumers who buy various competing products rather than being
loyal to a particular brand
5 the standard pattern of sales of a product over the period that is
marketed
6 the extend to which an activity provides financial gain
7 possibilities of filling unsatisfied needs in sectors in which the
company can produce goods or services effectively
8 the sales of a company expressed as a percentage of total sales in a
given market
9 the set of beliefs that the public at large holds of an organization
10 a small, specialized, but profitable segment of a market


9. Marketing, Advertising, Promotion

Vocabulary
Match up the words or expressions on the left with the definitions on
the right.

1 distribution channel A all the companies or individuals involved
in moving a particular good or service from the
producer to the consumer
2 to launch a product B an idea for a new product, which is tested
with target consumers before the actual product
is developed
3 market opportunities C attributes or characteristics of a product:
quality, price, reliability, etc.
4 market research D dividing a market into distinct groups of
buyers who have different requirements or
buying habits
5 market segmentation E places where goods are sold to the public
shops, stores, kiosks, market stalls, etc.
6 packaging F possibilities of filling unsatisfied needs in
sectors in which a company can profitably
produce goods or services
7 points of sale G someone who contacts existing and potential
customers, and tries to persuade them to buy
goods or services
92
8 product concept H collecting, analysing and reporting data
relevant to a specific marketing situation (such
as a proposed new product)
9 product features I to introduce a new product onto the market
10 sales representative J wrappers and containers in which
products are sold


21. The centrality of marketing

Look quickly through the following text and decide which
paragraphs are about these subjects:
- company-to-company marketing
- identifying market opportunities
- the marketing mix
- the selling and marketing concepts
- the importance of market research

Most management and marketing writers now distinguish between
selling and marketing. The selling concept assumes that resisting
consumers have to be persuaded by vigorous hard-selling techniques
to buy non-essential goods or services. Products are sold rather than
bought. The marketing concept, on the contrary, assumes that the
producers task is to find wants and fill them. In other words, you
dont sell what you make, you make what will be bought. As well as
satisfying existing needs, marketers can also anticipate and create
new ones. The markets for the Walkman, video games, personal
computers, and genetic engineering, to choose some recent examples,
were largely created rather than identified.
Marketers are consequently always looking for market
opportunities profitable possibilities of filling unsatisfied needs or
creating new ones in areas in which the company is likely to enjoy a
differential advantage, due to its distinctive competencies (the things
it does particularly well). Market opportunities are generally isolated
by market segmentation. Once a target market has been identified, a
company has to decide what goods or service to offer. This means that
much of the work of marketing has been done before the final product
or service comes into existence. It also means that the marketing
concept has to be understood throughout the company, e.g. in the
production department of a manufacturing company as much as in
the marketing department itself. The company must also take
account of the existence of competitors, who always have to be
identified, monitored and defeated in the search for loyal customers.
Rather than risk launching a product or service solely on the basis
of intuition or guesswork, most companies undertake market
research (GB) or marketing research (US). They collect and analyze
93
information about the size of a potential market, about consumers
reactions to particular product or service features, and so on. Sales
representatives, who also talk to customers, are another important
source of information.
Once the basic offer, e.g. a product concept, has been established,
the company has to think about the marketing mix, i.e. all the various
elements of a marketing program, their integration, and the amount
of effort that a company can expend on them in order to influence the
target market. The best-known classification of these elements is the
4Ps: product, place, promotion and price. Aspects to be considered in
marketing products include quality, features (standard and optional),
style, brand name, size, packaging, services and guarantee. Place in a
marketing mix includes such factors as distribution channels,
locations of points of sale, transport, inventory size, etc. Promotion
groups together advertising, publicity, sales promotion, and personal
selling, while price includes the basic list price, discounts, the length
of the payment period, possible credit terms, and so on. It is the job of
a product manager or a brand manager to look for ways to increase
sales by changing the marketing mix.
It must be remembered that quite apart from consumer markets (in
which people buy products for direct consumption) there exists an
enormous producer or industrial or business market, consisting of all
the individuals and organizations that acquire goods and services that
are used in the production of other goods, or in the supply of services
to others. Few consumers realize that the producer market is actually
larger than the consumer market, since it contains all the raw
materials, manufactured parts and components that go into
consumer goods, plus capital equipment such as building and
machines, supplies such as energy and pens and paper, and services
ranging from cleaning to management consulting, all of which have to
be marked. There is consequently more industrial than consumer
marketing, even though ordinary consumers are seldom exposed to it.


Comprehension
Look at the following diagrams from Marketing Management by
Philip Kotler.

1 The first diagram contrasts the selling and the marketing concepts.
Fill in the four spaces with the following words or expressions:
Coordinated marketing Market
Customer needs Profits through customer satisfaction


Starting Focus Means Ends
94
point
Factory Products Selling & promoting Profits
through sales volume

a. The selling concept

(1) .. (2) . (3) .. (4)

b. The marketing concept

22. How companies advertise

Advertising informs consumers about the existence and benefits
of products and services, and attempts to persuade them to buy
them. The best form of advertising is probably word-of-word
advertising, which occurs when people tell their friends about the
benefits of products or services that they have purchased. Yet,
virtually no providers of goods or services rely on this alone, but use
paid advertising instead. Indeed, many organizations also use
institutional or prestige advertising, which is designed to build up
their reputation rather than to sell particular products.
Although large companies could easily set up their own
advertising departments, write their own advertisements, and buy
media space themselves, they tend to use the services of large
advertising agencies. These are likely to have more resources, and
more knowledge about all aspects of advertising and advertising
media than a single company. The most talented advertising people
generally prefer to work for agencies rather then individual companies
as this gives them the chance to work on a variety of advertising
accounts (contracts to advertise products or services). It is also easier
for a dissatisfied company to give its account to another agency than
it would be to fire its own advertising staff.
The client company generally gives the advertising agency an
agreed budget; a statement of the objectives of the advertising
campaign, known as a brief; and an overall advertising strategy
concerning the message to be communicated to the target customers.
The agency creates advertisements (the word is often abbreviated to
adverts or ads), and develops a media plan specifying which media
newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema, posters, mail, etc.
will be used and in which proportions. (On television and radio, ads
are often known as commercials.) Agencies often produce alternative
ads or commercials that are pre-tested in newspapers, television
stations, etc. in different parts of a country before a final choice is
made prior to a national campaign.
95
The agencys media planners have to decide what percentage of
the target market they want to reach (how many people will be
exposed to the ads) and the number of times they are likely to see
them. Advertising people talk about frequency or OTS (opportunities
to see) and the threshold effect (efectul de pronire) the point at which
advertising becomes effective. The choice of advertising media is
generally strongly influenced by the comparative cost of reaching
1,000 members of the target audience, the cost per thousand (often
abbreviated to CPM, using the Roman numeral for 1,000). The timing
of advertising campaigns depends on factors such as purchasing
frequently and buyer turnover (new buyers entering the market).
How much to spend on advertising is always problematic. Some
companies use the comparative-parity method (metoda comparativ-
analogic) they simply match their competitors spending, thereby
avoiding advertising wars. Others set their ad budget at a certain
percentage of current sales revenue. But both these methods
disregard (a nu ine seama, a neglija) the fact that increased ad
spending or counter-cyclical advertising (reclam anticiclic) can
increase current sales. On the other hand, excessive advertising is
counter-productive (antiproductiv) because after too many exposures
people tend to stop noticing ads, or begin to find them irritating. And
once the most promising prospective customers have been reached,
there are diminishing returns, i.e. an ever-smaller increase in sales in
relation to increased advertising spending.


Vocabulary
Find the terms in the text which mean the following.

1 free advertising, when satisfied customers recommend products to
their friends.
2 advertising that mentions a companys name but not specific
products
3 companies that handle advertising for clients
4 a contract with a company to produce its advertising
5 the amount of money a company plans to spend in developing its
advertising and buying media time or space
6 the statement of objectives of an advertising campaign that a client
works out with an advertising agency
7 the advertising of a particular product or service during a particular
period of time
8 a defined set of customers whose needs a company plans to satisfy
9 the people who choose where to advertise, in order to reach the
right customers
96
10 the fact that a certain amount of advertising is necessary to attract
a prospective customers attention
11 choosing to spend the same amount on advertising as ones
competitors
12 advertising during periods or seasons when sales are normally
relatively poor

Discussion
Which of the following claims do you agree with?

1. Advertising is essential for business, especially for launching new
consumer products.
2. A large reduction of advertising would decrease sales.
3. Advertising often persuades people to buy things they dont need.
4. Advertising often persuades people to buy things they dont want.
5. Advertising lowers the publics taste.
6. Advertising raises prices.
7. Advertising does not present a true picture of products.
8. Advertising has a bad influence on children.

In a well-known survey, the Harvard Business Review asked
2,700 senior business managers whether they agree with these
statements. The survey produced some unexpected results.
Which of the following percentages do you think go with which of
the statements above?

41% 49% 51% 57% 60% 72% 85% 90%

23The four major promotional tools

Insert the following words in the text below.

Advertising aimed awareness channel loyalty
Maturity medium tactics target trial

The basic idea behind the marketing concept that you make
what you can sell rather than sell what you make does not mean
that your product will sell all by itself. Even a good, attractively-priced
product that clearly satisfies a need has to be made known to its
(1). Customers. During the introduction and growth stages of
the standard product life cycle, the producer (or importer, and so on)
has to develop product or brand (2). , i.e. inform potential
customers (and distributors, dealers and retailers) about the
products existence, its features, its advantages, and so on.
According to the well-known Four Ps formulation of the
marketing mix (product, place, promotion and price), this is clearly a
97
matter of promotion. Since budgets are always limited, marketers
usually have to decide which tools advertising, public relations,
sales promotion, or personal selling to use, and in what proportion.
Public relations (often abbreviated to PR) is concerned with
maintaining, improving or protecting the image of a company or
product. The most important element of PR is publicity which (as
opposed to advertising) is any mention of companys products that is
not paid for, in any (3). : read, viewed or heard by a companys
customers or potential customers, aimed at assisting sales. Many
companies attempt to place stories or information in news media to
attract attention to a product or service. Publicity can have a huge
impact on public awareness that could not be achieved by
advertising, or at least, not without an enormous cost. A lot of
research has shown that people are more likely to read and believe
publicity than advertising.
Sales promotions such as free samples, coupons, price
reductions, competitions, and so on, are temporary (4).
Designed to stimulate either earlier or stronger sales of a product.
Free samples, for example, (combined with extensive advertising), may
generate the initial (5). Of a new product. But the majority of
products available at any given time are of course in the (6)..
stage of the life cycle. This may last many years, until the product
begins to be replaced by new ones and enters the decline stage.
During this time, marketers can try out a number of promotional
strategies and tactics. Reduced-price packs in supermarkets, for
example, can be used to attract price-conscious brand-switchers,
and, also, to counter (a contracara) a promotion by a competitor.
Stores also often reduce prices of specific item as loss leader, which
bring customers into the shop where they will also buy other goods.
Sales promotions can also be (7).. at distributors, dealer
and retailers, to encourage them to stock new items or larger
quantities, or to encourage off-season buying, or the stocking of items
related to an existing product. They might equally be designed to
strengthen brand (8). Among retailers, or to gain entry to new
markets. Sales promotions can also be aimed at the sales force,
encouraging them to increase their activities in selling a particular
product.
Personal selling is the most expensive promotional tool, and is
generally only used sparingly, e.g. as a complement to (9).. . As
well as prospecting for customers, spreading information about a
companys products and services, selling these products and services,
and assisting customers with possible technical problems,
salespeople have another important function. Since they are often the
only person from a company that customers see, they are an
extremely important (10) of information. It has been
98
calculated that the majority of new product ideas come from
customers via sales representatives.

Summarizing
Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above.

1 When a new product is launched, the producer has to ..
2 Promotion is one of the four . ; sales promotions are one of the
four different .
3 The advantages of publicity include ..
4 The four stages of the standard product life cycle (excluding the pre-
launched development stage) are .
5 Reasons to offer temporary price reductions include .
6 Sales promotions need not only be aimed at customers; .
7 Apart from selling a companys products, sales representatives .


Discussion
What kind of sales promotions are you receptive to?

coupons giving a price reduction?
free samples?
discounts for buying a large quantity?
price reductions in shops?
packets offering 20% Extra?
competitions?

Vocabulary
There is a logical connection among three of the four words in
each of the following groups. Which is the odd one out, and why?

1 advertising competitors publicity sales promotion
2 advertising agency advertising campaign media plan word-of-
mouth advertising
3 advertising manager brand-switcher marketing manager sales
rep
4 after-sales service guarantee optional features points of sale
5 brand awareness brand loyalty brand name brand preference
6 competitions coupons free samples line-stretching
7 credit terms discount list price packaging
8 decline growth introduction product improvement
9 focus group interviews internal research media plan
questionnaire
10 packaging place product promotion

99

10. Market structure and competition

24. Market leaders, challengers and followers

Read the following text and write short headings for each
paragraph.

1 .
In most markets there is a definite market leader: the firm with
the largest market share. This is often the first company to have
entered the field, or at least the first to have succeeded in it. The
market leader is frequently able to lead other firms in the introduction
of new products, in price changes, in the level or intensity of
promotions, and so on.
2
Market leaders usually want to increase their market share even
further, or at least to protect their current market share. One way to
do this is to try to find ways to increase the size of the entire market.
Contrary to a common belief, wholly dominating a market, or having a
monopoly, is seldom an advantage: competitors expand markets and
find new uses and users for products, which enriches everyone in the
field, but the market leader more than its competitors. A market can
also be expanded by stimulating more usage: for example, many
households no longer have only one radio or cassette player, but
perhaps one in each room, one in the car, plus a Walkman or two.
3 ..
In many markets, there is often also a distinct market
challenger, with the second-largest market share. In the car hire
business, the challenger actually advertises this fact: for many years
Avis used the slogan Were number two. We try harder. Market
challengers can either attempt to attack the leader, or to increase
their market share by attacking various market followers.
4 ..
The majority of companies in any industry are merely market
followers, which present no threat to the leader. Many market
followers concentrate on market segmentation: finding a profitable
niche in the market that is not satisfied by other goods or services,
and that offers growth potential or gives the company a differential
(distinctiv, deosebit) advantage because of its specific competencies.
5
A market follower, which does not establish its own niche is in a
vulnerable position: if its product does not have a unique selling
proposition there is no reason for anyone to buy it. In fact, in most
established industries, there is only room for two or three major
companies: think of soft drinks, soap and washing powders, jeans,
100
sports shoes, and so on. Although small companies are generally
flexible, and can quickly respond to market conditions, their narrow
range of customers causes problematic fluctuations in turnover and
profit. Furthermore, they are vulnerable in a recession when, largely
for psychological reasons, distributors, retailers and customers all
prefer to buy from big, well-known suppliers.

Vocabulary
Find words in the text which mean the following.

1 a companys sales expressed as a percentage of the total market
2 short-term tactics designed to stimulate stronger sales of a product
3 the situation in which there is only one seller of a product
4 companies offering similar goods or services to the same set of
customers
5 a short and easily memorized phrase used in advertising
6 the division of a market into submarkets according to the needs or
buying habits of different groups of potential customers
7 a small and specific market segment
8 a factor which makes you superior to competitors in a certain
respect
9 a businesss total sales revenue
10 a period during which an economy is working below its potential



25. Takeovers, mergers and buyouts

Vocabulary
Match up these words with the definitions below.

Backward integration to diversify (diversification) synergy
Forward integration horizontal integration to merge (a merger)
to innovate (innovation) a raid a takeover bid
vertical integration

1 designing new products and bringing them to the market
2 to expand into new fields
3 to unite, combine, amalgamate, integrate or join together
4 buying another companys shares on the stock exchange, hoping to
persuade enough other shareholders to sell to take control of the
company
5 a public offer to a companys shareholders to buy their shares, at a
particular price during a particular period, so as to acquire a
company
101
6 to merge with or take over other firms producing the same type of
goods or services
7 joining with other firms in other stages of the production or sale of a
product
8 a merger with or the acquisition of ones suppliers
9 a merger with or the acquisition of ones marketing outlets
10 combined production that is greater than the sum of the separate
parts

Reading

Leveraged buyouts
One indication that the people who warn against takeovers
might be right is the existence of leveraged buyouts.
In the 1960s, a big wave of takeovers in the US created
conglomerates collections of unrelated businesses combined into a
single corporate structure. It later became clear that many of these
conglomerates consisted of too many companies and not enough
synergy. After the recession of the early 1980s, there were many large
companies on the US stock market with good earnings but low stock
prices. Their assets were worth more than the companies market
value.
Such conglomerates were clearly not maximizing stockholder
value. The individual companies might have been more efficient if
liberated from central management. Consequently, raiders (persoan
agresiv, acaparatoare) were able to borrow money, buy badly-
managed, inefficient and under-priced corporations, and then
restructure them, split them up, and resell them at a profit.
Conventional financial theory argues that stock markets are
efficient, meaning that all relevant information about companies is
built into their share prices. Raiders in the 1980s discovered that this
was quite simply untrue. Although the market could understand data
concerning companies earnings, it was highly inefficient in valuing
assets, including land, buildings and pension funds. Asset-stripping
selling off the assets of poorly performing or under-valued companies
proved to be highly lucrative (avantajos, profitabil).
Theoretically, there was little risk of making a loss with a
buyout, as the debts incurred (datoriile fcute) were guaranteed by the
companies assets. The ideal targets for such buyouts were companies
with huge cash reserves that enabled the buyer to pay the interest on
the debt, or companies with successful subsidiaries that could be sold
to repay the principal, or companies in fields that are not sensitive to
a recession, such as food and tobacco.
Takeovers using borrowed money are called leveraged buyouts
or LBOs. Leverage (raportul dintre creane i capital) means having a
102
large proportion of debt compared to equity capital. (Where a
company is bought by its existing managers, we talk of a
management buyout or MBO.) Much of the money for LBOs was
provided by the American investment bank Drexel Burnham Lambert,
where Michael Millken was able to convince investors that the high
returns on debt issued by risky enterprises more than compensated
for their riskiness, as the rate of default (rata neonorrii plii) was
lower than might be expected. He created a huge and liquid market of
up to 300 billion dollars for junk bonds (obligaiuni cu risc). (Millken
was later arrested and charged (a fi acuzat) with 98 different felonies
(crime, acte penale), including a lot of insider dealing (operaiuni ale
unui iniiat, a unei persoane angajate n respectiva firm), and Drexel
Burnham Lambert went bankrupt (a da faliment) in 1990.)
Raiders and their supporters argue that the permanent threat of
takeovers is a challenge to company managers and directors to do
their jobs better, and that well-run businesses that are not
undervalues are at little risk. The threat of raids forces companies to
put capital to productive use. Fat or lazy companies that fail to do
this will be taken over by raiders who will use assets more efficiently,
cut costs, and increase shareholder value. On the other hand, the
permanent threat of a takeover or a buyout is clearly a disincentive
(mijloc de intimidare) to long-term capital investment, as a company
will lose its investment if a raider tries to break it up as soon as its
share price falls below expectations.
LBOs, however, seem to be largely an American phenomenon.
German and Japanese managers and financiers, for example, seem to
consider companies as places where people work, rather than as
assets to be bought and sold. Hostile takeovers and buyouts are
almost unknown in these two countries, where business tends to
concentrate on long-term goals rather than seek instant stock market
profits. Workers in these companies are considered to be at least as
important as shareholders. The idea of a Japanese manager
restructuring a company, laying off (a concedia temporar) a large
number of workers, and getting a huge pay rise (as frequently
happens in Britain and the US), is unthinkable. Lay-offs in Japan are
instead a cause for shame for which managers are expected to
apologize.
Summarizing
Complete the following sentences, which summarize the text
above.

1 The fact that many large conglomerates assets were worth more
than their stock market valuation demonstrated that
2 Raiders bought conglomerates in order to
3 Raiders showed that the stock market did not
103
4 Raiders were particularly interested in
5 Investors were prepared to lend money to finance LBOs because
6 Raiders argue that the possibility of a buyout


26. Profits and social responsibility

In the 1920s, many large American corporations began, on a
wide scale, to establish pension funds, employee stock ownership, life
insurance schemes, unemployment compensation funds, limitations
on working hours, and high wages. They built houses, churches,
schools and libraries, provided medical and legal services, and gave
money to charities (acte filantropice). Since this is fairly surprising
behavior for business corporations, there must be a good explanation.
In the Generous Corporations, Neil J. Mitchell argues that the
reason for many of these actions, most of which clearly did not bring
immediate cash benefits, was that large corporations had a legitimacy
problem. The existence of large corporations showed the classical
economic theory of perfect competition to be inadequate.
Consequently large corporations introduced welfare capitalism
(capitalism social) as a way of creating favorable public opinion.
Rational capitalists starting with Henry Ford, also realized that a
better paid work force would be more loyal, and would be able to buy
more goods and services, and that a better educated work force would
be a more efficient one.
Of course, pure free market theorists disapprove of welfare
capitalism, and all actions inspired by social responsibility rather
than the attempt to maximize profits. Since the benefits of such
initiatives are not confined to (a se limita la) those who bear the costs,
Milton Friedman has criticized them for being unbusinesslike, and for
threatening the survival not only of individual corporations but also
the general vitality of capitalism. In a newspaper article titled The
social responsibility of business is to increase its profits, he argued
that:
In a free enterprise, private-property system, a corporate
executive is an employee of the owners of the business. He has direct
responsibility to his employers. That responsibility is to conduct the
business in accordance with their desires, which generally will be to
make as much money as possible, while of course confirming to the
basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those
embodied in ethical custom.
Thus executives should not make expenditures on reducing
pollution beyond the amount that is required by law or that is the
best interest of the firm. Nor should they deliberately hire less-
qualified, long-term unemployed workers, or workers from ethnic
minorities suffering from discrimination. To do so is to be guilty of
104
spending the stockholders (or the customers or the employees)
money. Friedman does not consider the possibility that stockholders
might prefer to receive lower dividends but live in a society with less
pollution or less unemployment and fewer social problems.
An alternative view to the stockholder model exemplified by
Friedmans article is the stakeholder (cei care dein un interes) model,
outlined, for example, in John Kenneth Galbraiths book, The New
Industrial State. According to his approach, business managers have
responsibilities to all the groups of people with a stake in or an
interest in or a claim on the firm. These will include suppliers,
customers, employees, and the local community, as well as the
stockholders. A firm which is managed for the benefit of all its
stakeholders, will not, for example, pollute the area around its
factories, or close down a factory employing several hundred people in
a small town with no other significant employers, and relocate
production elsewhere in order to make small financial savings.
Proponents of the stakeholder approach suggest that suppliers,
customers, employees, and members of the local community should
be strongly represented on a companys board of directors.

Vocabulary
Find words or expressions in the text which mean the following.

1 institutions or organizations that provide help for people in need
2 acceptability, according to law or public opinion
3 the situation when there are a large number of sellers and buyers,
freedom to enter and leave markets, a complete flow of information,
and so on
4 a condition of general well-being (and government spending
designed to achieve this)
5 menacing, endangering
6 liveliness, health, energy, strength
7 an economic system in which anyone can attempt to raise capital,
form a business, and offer goods or services
8 complying with or following (rules, etc.)
9 expressed, given a material form
10 supporters, people who argue in favour of something








105

11. Money and Finance


27. A history of money what makes the world go round

Money it jingles in your pocket, it rustles in your wallet and it
clinks in your piggy-bank. Money makes the world go round, but
whats it? Its a store of value or a measure of wealth. Money is
anything that is generally accepted as payment for goods and
services. This is a wide definition and, over the centuries, money has
appeared in all shapes and sizes; cowrie shells in ancient China,
huge stone discs on a South Pacific Island or beads (Wampum) for
the North American Indians.


Jingle = a zorni
Rustle = a foni
Clink = a zngni
Piggy-bank = puculi
Cowrie = scoic, ghioc
Beads = mrgele, mtnii
Wampum = colier de scoici


From Chickens to Plastic

At the end of the day, of course, it doesnt really matter what
shape or size the money takes, as long as everyone recognises it and
accepts it in payment. But, over the course of history, money has
predominantly been associated with metals, in particular gold, silver
and copper.

Bartering (troc)
Before metal money become the usual means of exchange,
people would swap (schimba) goods and services in a process known
as bartering Ill swap you ten chickens for your goat. This kind of
exchange does not really encourage trade, as all sorts of problems
arise; are all the chickens of the same size? If Ive only got five
chickens, can I buy half a cow? Obviously, precious metals are a
practical alternative to payment in kind (n natur).

Four Essential Qualities
For money to be practical and efficient it should possess these
qualities:
106
Durability in prison, cigarettes may become a medium of exchange
but theyre easy to break and quickly dry up; in other words, they
dont last.
Portability in some parts of Africa your wealth is measured in
cattle. This is fine if youre trading locally, but if money isnt easy to
carry, how can trade develop?
Divisibility small units make life much easier imagine trying to
buy a hot dog in New York if the $100 bill was the lowest unit of
currency!
Intrinsic value money should have some worth in itself, otherwise
it wont inspire confidence.

Coins
We first read of coins in the Kingdom of Lydia in the 7
th
century
BC. Their coins were of equal weight and therefore of equal value,
simplifying trade. Stamping a design onto the coins is called
minting; Alexander the Great introduced the practice of stamping
a picture of the sovereigns head on the coins, an idea that was soon
copied.
Coins however, were not always as valuable as they seemed
they were often clipped or shaved by unscrupulous individuals or
debased by the state. The Romans, with the economic pressure of the
Punic wars, began a long process of debasement, mixing more and
more copper in with the silver, so that the intrinsic value of the coin
was far lower than the marked face value.

Mint = a bate moned
Debase = a devaloriza
Debasement = devalorizare
Clipped = retezat, scurtat
Shaved = redus

Paper Money
Bank notes were first introduced by the Chinese in the 10
th

century. They were later used by governments in dire financial
straits (n dificulti mari financiare) caused by things like having to
finance a war, for example. The English colonies in North America
made important strides in the use of bank notes. For various political
and economic reasons, the Colonists often found themselves short of
coinage. To get round this problem, they used first wampum, then
tobacco, rice and whisky or brandy not exactly the most practical
solution. The first paper money issue was by the Massachusetts Bay
Colony in 1690. The practice was frowned upon and eventually
banned by the mother country, but the inventive money-making
instincts of the new United States of America meant that, during the
19
th
century, most of the money used was in the form of paper
107
dollars. The first fully printed note in England was issued in 1855
until that time the cashier had to write the name of the payee and
sign each note individually.
At first, bank notes were redeemable for gold on Bank of
England notes you will see written I promise to pay the bearer on
demand the sum of If you took a ten-pound note to the Bank they
used to have to give you ten pounds in gold coin. Britain left the gold
standard in 1931 and thus the notes are no longer backed by gold.

Strides = progrese, pai
Short of coinage = lips de monezi
Ban = a interzice, a scoate n afara legii
Frown upon = a nu fi de acord cu ceva
Redeem = a compensa, rscumpra


Plastic money
Nowadays many transactions are carried out with plastic
money such as credit cards. The newest are called smart cards
and carry small silicon chips that can record every transaction on
the card. Research into the cards of the future continues, but the
latest development is e-cash, cash to be used across the Internet
youll be able to spend money from the comfort of your armchair. If
only earning the damn stuff was so easy!






MONEY TALK the language of cash

Money is so central to our lives that it has spawned (a prolifera)
a wealth of specific terminology, idioms and sayings. Great thinkers in
all ages have had something to say about it; governments are elected
on the strength of how they plan to manage it, empires rise and fall
because of it.

The Root of All Evil

Money is so important to us people even say it makes the
world go round that it has acquired many nicknames, such as
bread, dough, dinero, mazuma, spondulicks, rhino, gravy, dosh,
lucre or simply the necessary. Small amounts of it are chickenfeed
or peanuts. (n slang: lovele, bitari, parale, bani, ctig)
108
So what are you thinking about now? A penny for your thoughts!
Oh, I see, you like the look of that new jacket itll cost you an arm
and a leg. Im afraid, or, to put it another way, youll have to pay
through the nose for it.
You may like it so much you insist that moneys no object but
dont forget: money doesnt grow on trees, so dont live beyond
your means! If you do go ahead and buy that jacket, your friends will
tell you that you might as well flush it (the money) down the
toilet. So, if you cant afford it, buy the cheapo version: you can
bet your bottom dollar that nobody will be able to tell the difference.
Of course your attitude to money depends, to a certain extend,
on how well off you are. You may be experiencing a liquidity
problem or a cashflow problem at the moment; in other words,
youre strapped for cash, broke, or even flat broke. Perhaps you
dont have a dollar to your name, you dont have a red cent and
you havent got a bean, in which case youre as poor as a church
mouse!
If, on the other hand, youve got plenty of money then youre
filthy rich, or stinking rich or rolling in it perhaps you had some
good business ideas and put your money where your mouth is or
cashed in on a golden business opportunity and managed to get
rich quick, so now youre laughing all the way to the bank.
Youve got money to burn; youre earning megabucks and, now
that you know its power, you believe what people say money talks!
In spite of this, you might be so careful with money that people think
youre mean or stingy (zgrcit). Perhaps theyll call you a miser
behind your back; in the US youd be called a tightwad (calic, avar).
You might reply that money doesnt grow on trees but then
others might say that you cant take it with you (when you die) and
so they spend money as if it were going out of fashion. In this
case, money burns a hole in their pocket, and you would be the
first to remind them that a fool and his money are soon parted. If,
on the other hand, you look after the pennies, then the pounds
will look after themselves.


28. The profits of labor

Roman soldiers were given part of their pay in salt, as it was
so valuable at least thats the excuse the Senate gave!
At the time it was called their salario, and it is for this reason that
we still use the word salary to describe the regular monthly
payment made to employees especially white-collars workers. If
you receive your pay every week, then you receive wages on
payday, in the form of a paycheck in the US, or a paypacket in the
UK.
109
You may find that some of your money is taken from you before
you even see it, that is it is deducted at source; in the US these
deductions are known as deducks or ducks. They may be for tax
and also, in the UK, National Insurance, which means that your
take-home pay may be a lot less than you expected!
Those who are unlucky enough not to have a job will be on the
dole receiving unemployment benefit in the UK or on welfare in
the US. If you pay money for your retirement then your company
runs a pension scheme. If you work more than your normal hours,
then youre paid overtime. If your company has been doing well, you
may get a bonus.
If youre one of the bosses of a newly-privatised monopoly, your
employees may call you a fat cat, and part of your pay may take the
form of share options; when you started to work for the company
you were given a golden hello and, regardless of the companys
performance, you will be given a golden handshake when you leave.
Perhaps youre the kind of boss that never stops complaining about
your employees; if so remember: if you pay peanuts you get
monkeys!
You and your fellow top-managers are likely to enjoy a range of
fringe benefits or perks like a free car, house and even private
education for your children. This is in lieu of money, and means that
you have a high standard of living without having to declare
hundreds of thousands of pounds at the end of the tax year. All the
expenses the company incurs on your behalf are also tax
deductible for the company, so it doesnt lose out either.
When the time comes to retire, sooner rather then later, for the
lucky few who can choose early retirement, you may decide to take
your company pension in a lump sum and finally you can go on
that world cruise!

White-collars workers = funcionari
On the dole = ajutor de omaj, subvenie de la stat
On welfare = ajutor social
Share options =
Fringe benefit / perks = beneficiu suplimentar
In lieu of money = n loc de bani
Incur = a face, a crea
Lump sum = sum global / unic, plat unic


Borrowing
Many of us go to the bank at some point to ask for a loan it is
often said that a bank manager is someone who lends you an
umbrella when the sun is shining and who asks for it back when it
starts to rain.
110
The simplest way to borrow is with an overdraft, or by using the
facilities offered by a credit card; but to borrow large sums youll
probably negotiate a loan with your bank; you can either borrow a
fixed amount or agree a credit limit.
If youre buying a house, then youll want a mortgage. If the
bank refuses to lend you money, you might resort to borrowing from a
finance company or even the local loan shark to pay off your IOUs
(I Owe You). For any loan, you should look at the Annual
Percentage Rate which takes into account the various charges
which will be included in your repayments.
Borrowing from a loan shark can involve exorbitant interest
rates. If youre being gouged in this way, then you may end up being
unable to make the repayments. Your debt may be sold to a debt
collector or you may receive a visit from the bailiffs in the UK. If
youve been buying something in instalments or on a hire purchase
(HP) scheme, defaulting on the repayments will probably lead to a
visit from the dreaded repo (repossesssion) man.

Gouged = escrocat, tras pe sfoar
Bailiff = inspector
Dreaded = de temut

Forgery
With the invention of money came forgery. Modern counterfeit
notes can be extremely difficult to spot and new developments in the
production of notes are soon copied by the forgers. Heres a quick
guide to recognizing a counterfeit Bank of England note:
The feel of the paper: it should be crisp and slightly rough in the
heavily printed areas.
The watermark: you shouldnt be able to notice it until you hold the
note up to the light; then you can see a picture of the Queen.
The thread: all genuine notes have a thread embedded in the paper.
Recent notes have a windowed thread which does not appear as a
continuous line until the note is held up to the light.
Quality of printing: pure, clear colours and sharp, well-defined
lines.

Spot = a identifica, a distinge
Counterfeit notes = bancnote contrafcute
Forgers = falsificatori
Crisp = fragil
Embedded = introdus

IDIOMS

111
Hard Times
If youve fallen on hard times, you might tell people that you
need to watch your spending, your money or your pennies. In the
States, you might say that you have to watch every dime. Perhaps
your bank account is in the red, so you decide to control your
spending and keep track of your expenses more closely. This will
certainly involve cutting down on expenses in general, budgeting
your money, tightening your belt and saving your pennies.
Almost certainly you will have to cut the frills (unneccessary
expenditure), trim (reduce) the budget and go back to basics. If an
unexpected expense comes up that you have to meet, you might
decide to dip into your savings, or scrounge the money somehow.
If, on the other hand, you splash out on something
extravagant, you might justify the expense by telling people that
youve got enough saved up, that youve been saving for a rainy
day or that youre lucky enough to have a nest egg that youve finally
decided to use.

Frills = fasoane, lucruri care nu sunt necesare
Scrounge = a aprli, a terpeli
Splash out = a se arunca


29. Accounting and financial statements

Vocabulary
a. Match up the terms on the left with the definitions on the
right.

1. Bookkeeping
A calculating an individuals or a companys liability for tax
2. Accounting
B writing down the details of transactions (debits and credits) -
3. Managerial accounting
C keeping financial records, recording income and expenditure,
valuing assets and liabilities, and so on
4. Cost accounting
D preparing budgets and other financial reports necessary for
management
5. Tax accounting
E inspection and evaluation of accounts by a second set of
accountants audit
6. Auditing
F using all available accounting procedures and tricks to disguise the
true financial position of a company
7. creative accounting
112
G working out the unit cost of products, including materials, labour
and all other expenses

b. Match up these words with the definitions below

1. Assets
A a companys owners
2. Depreciation
B all the money received by a company during a given period
3. Liabilities
C all the money that a company will have to pay to someone else in
the future, including taxes, debt, and interest and mortgage payments
4. Turnover
D the amount of business done by a company over a year
5. Creditors (GB) accounts payable (US)
E anything owned by a business (cash investments, buildings,
machines, and so on) that can be used to produce goods or pay
liabilities
6. Debtors (GB) accounts receivable (US)
F the reduction in value of a fixed asset during the years it is in use
(charged against profits)
7. Overheads (GB) overhead (US)
G sums of money owed by customers for goods or services purchased
on credit
8. Revenue or earnings or income
H sums of money owed to suppliers for purchases made on credit
9. Shareholders (GB) stockholders (US)
I (the value of) raw materials, work in progress, and finished products
stored ready for sale
10. Stock (GB) inventory (US)
J the various expenses of operating a business that cannot be
charged to any one product, process or department


Reading
Insert the words in vocabulary b) in the gaps in the text below.

Accounting and financial statements

In accounting it is always assumed that a business is a going
concern, i.e. that it will continue indefinitely into the future, which
means that the current market value of its assets is irrelevant, as
they are not for sale. Consequently, the most common accounting
system is historical cost accounting, which records (1) at
their original purchase price, minus accumulated depreciation
charges. In times of inflation, this understates the value of
113
appreciating assets such as land, but overstates profits as it does not
record the replacement cost of plant or (2) . The value of a
businesss assets under historical cost accounting purchase price
minus (3) .. is known as its net book value. Countries with
persistently high inflation often prefer to use current cost or
replacement cost accounting, which values assets (and related
expenses like depreciation) at the price that would have to be paid to
replace them (or to buy a more modern equivalent) today.
Company law specifies that (4) . Must be given certain
financial information. Companies generally include three financial
statements in their annual reports.
The profit and loss account (GB) or income statement (US) shows (5)
.. and expenditure. It usually gives figures for total sales or (6)
. And costs and (7) . The first figure should obviously be
higher than the second, i.e. there should be a profit. Part of the profit
goes to the government in taxation, part is usually distributed to
shareholders (stockholders) as dividend, and part is retained by the
company.
The balance sheet shows a companys financial situation on a
particular date, generally the last day of the financial year. It lists the
companys assets, its (8) , and shareholders (stockholders)
funds. A businesss assets include (9) as it is assumed that
these will be paid. Liabilities include (10) , as these will have to
be paid. Negative items on financial statements, such as creditors,
taxation, and dividends paid, are usually enclosed in brackets.
In accordance with the principle of double-entry bookkeeping (that
all transactions are entered as credit in one account and as debit in
another), the basic accounting equation is Assets = Liabilities +
Owners (or Shares) Equity. This can be rewritten as Assets
Liabilities = Owners Equity or Net Assets. This includes share capital
(money received from the issue of shares), share premium (GB) or
paid-in surplus (US) (any money realised by selling shares at above
their nominal value), and the companys reserves, including the years
retained profits. Shareholders equity or net assets are generally less
than a companys market capitalisation (the total value of its shares
at any given moment, i.e. the number of shares times their market
price), because net assets do not record items such as goodwill.
The third financial statement has various names including the
source and application of funds statement, and the statement of
changes in financial position. This shows the flow of cash in and out of
the business between balance sheet dates. Sources of funds include
trading profits, depreciation provisions, sales of assets, borrowing,
and the issuing of shares.
Applications of funds include purchases of fixed or financial assets,
payment of dividends, repayment of loans, and in a bad year
trading losses.
114


The profit and loss account (GB) or income statement (US)
calculul rezultatelor, al pierderilor i a profitului
The balance sheet bilanul contabil
Net Assets activul net
Share capital capitalul acinilor
Share premium (GB) or paid-in surplus (US) prim suplimentar
din aciuni
Companys reserves rezervele firmei
The years retained profits profitul pstrat dintr-un an
Goodwill clientela; fondurile comerciale; vad
Source and application of funds statement / the statement of
changes in financial position situaia surselor i a aplicrii
fondurilor / situaia schimbrilor din situaia financiar


Vocabulary
There are ten gaps in the two statements which follow. According
to the information in the previous text, decide where the
following headings should appear:

Called-up share capital cash in hand and at bank
Corporation tax debtors depreciation turnover
Freehold properties historical cost net assets overheads



The Arsenal Football Club PLC
Profit and Loss Account for the Year Ended 31
st
May 1994


1994 1993

[1 .] 21,471,680 15,341,689
(income from football and related
activities: gate receipts, broadcasting,
ground advertisements, prize money)

Costs and [2 ], (14,951,737)
(12,804,538)
less other income (costs include
salaries, [3 ], auditors
remuneration, and lease payments; other
income includes Interest Receivable)

115
Profit on Ordinary Activities before
Transfer Fees 6,519,943 2,537,151

Transfer fees payable (889,588) (54,259)

Profit on Ordinary Activities before
Taxation 5,630,355 2,482,892

Taxation (1,596,226) (750,000)

Profit after Taxation Retained for
The Financial Year 4,034,129 1,732,892


Arsenal Football Club PLC Balance Sheet 31
st
May 1994



1994 1993

Fixed Assets 28,478,922 18,982,931
(including [4 .],
leasehold properties, plant and
equipment, and motor vehicles;
all recorded at [5 ]
minus depreciation)

Current Assets 9,607,592 7,991,088
Stocks; (including [6 .],
Instalments on executive boxes);
and [7 .]

Creditors (9,863,457) (8,755,491)
Amounts falling due within one
year (including [8 .]
and social security)

Total Assets less Current Liabilities 28,223,057
18,218,528

Long Term Liabilities
Amounts falling due after more than
One year (including debenture
Subscriptions) (17,893,500) (11,923,100)

[9 ..] 10,329,557 6,295,428
116

Capital and Reserves
[10 ] 56,000 56,000
Share premium account 237,201
237,201
Building reserve 846,000
846,000
Profit and loss account 9,190,356
5,156,227
(years profit added to previous balance)

Shareholders Funds 10,329,557 6,295,428


30. Exchange rates

While reading the text, decide which paragraph could be given
the following headings.

- Floating exchange rates
- Intervention and managed floating exchange rates
- Supporters of fixed and floating rates
- The abolition of exchange controls
- The period of gold convertibility
- The power of speculators and the collapse of the EMS
- Why many business people would prefer a single currency

The Bretton Woods agreement of 1944 established fixed
exchange rates, defined in terms of gold and the US dollar. Between
1944 and 1971, many currencies were pegged against (fixat, stabilizat
dup) the US dollar, i.e. their parties with the US dollar were fixed. In
this period, a US dollar was a promissory note issued by the United
States Treasury. If anybody requested it, the Treasury had to
exchange the note for 1/35
th
of an ounce of gold. Under this system,
overvalued or undervalued currencies could only be adjusted with the
agreement of the International Monetary Fund. Such adjustments are
called devaluations and revaluations. The Bretton Woods system of
gold convertibility and pegging against the dollar was abandoned in
1971, because following inflation, the Federal Reserve did not have
enough gold to guarantee the American currency.
Gold convertibility was replaced by a system of floating exchange
rates. (Today, the US dollar the unofficial world currency is merely
a piece of paper on which is written In God We Trust. God, not gold!)
a freely (or clean) floating exchange rate is determined purely by
supply and demand. Theoretically, in the absence of speculation,
exchange rates should reflect purchasing power parity the cost of a
117
given selection of goods and services in different countries.
Proponents of floating exchange rates, such as Milton Friedman,
argued that currencies would automatically establish stable exchange
rates, which would reflect economic realities more precisely than
calculations by central bank officials. Yet, they underestimated the
impact of speculation, and the fact that companies and investors
frequently follow short-term money market trends even if these are
contrary to their own long-term interests.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the American, British and
other governments deregulated their financial systems, and abolished
all exchange controls. Residents in these countries are now able to
exchange any amount of their currency for any other convertible
currency. This has led to the current situation in which 95% of the
worlds currency transactions are unrelated to transactions in goods
but are purely speculative. Enormous amounts of money move round
the world, chasing high interest rates or capital gains, as investors
including rich individuals, companies and pension funds seek to
maximize the value of their assets. In London alone, over $300 billion
worth of currency is traded on an average day the equivalent of
about 30% of the value of the goods Britain procedures each year.
Banks make a profit from the spread (marj) between a currencys
buying and selling prices.
Few governments, however, leave exchange rates wholly at the
mercy of market forces. Most of them attempt to influence the level of
their currency when necessary. Managed (or dirty) floating exchange
rates are more common than freely floating ones. In 1979, most
Western European governments joined the EMS (European Monetary
System), with its ERM (Exchange Rate Mechanism). This established
parties between member currencies, and a margin of plus or minus 2
%. If the rate diverged by more than this amount from the central
parity, governments and central banks had to intervene in exchange
markets, buying or selling in order to increase or decrease the value
of their currency.
Yet, government policy can easily be defeated by the combined
action of international speculators. For example, on a single day in
September 1992 the Bank of England lost five billion pounds in a
hopeless attempt to support the pound sterling. For weeks, all the
worlds financial institutions and rich individuals had been selling
their pounds, as everyone except the British Government believed
that ever since it joined the ERM in 1990, the pound had been
seriously overvalued. When the British central bank ran out of
reserves and could no longer buy pounds, the currency was
withdrawn from the ERM and allowed to float, instantly losing about
15% of its value against the D-mark. The next year, speculators
attacked the French franc, the Belgian franc, the Danish krone and
118
the Spanish peseta. In August 1993, the European Monetary System
was more or less suspended.
Many manufacturers are in favour of fixed exchange rates, or a
single currency. Although it is possible to some extend to hedge
against (a se asigura mpotriva) currency fluctuations by way of
futures contracts, forward planning is difficult when the price of raw
materials bought from abroad, or the price of your products in export
markets, can rise or fall by 50% in only a few months. (Since
exchange controls were abolished, currencies including the US$ and
the pound sterling have in turn appreciated by up to 100% and then
depreciated by more than 50% against the currencies of major trading
partners.)
Other supporters of fixed exchange rates or a single currency
include extreme conservatives who want to return to something like
the gold standard, as well as people on the left who believe that
speculators have too much power. Supporters of flexible rates include
monetarists who want countries to follow strict monetary rules, as
well as Keynesians who want to be free to devalue in the attempt to
reduce unemployment. These are both rather surprising alliances,
which put into doubt the planned timetable for the introduction of a
Single European Currency.


Comprehension
Are the following statements True or False?

1 Gold convertibility was abandoned because there was too much
gold.
2 It is now impossible to exchange dollars for gold.
3 Only a pegged currency can be devalued or revalued.
4 A floating currency can either appreciate or be devalued.
5 Central banks sometimes attempt to decrease the value of their
currency.
6 The EMS was designed to stabilize exchange rates.
7 To speculate is to take risks; to hedge is to try to avoid risks.
8 Under the system of floating exchange rates, currencies can
depreciate 100% in a short time.



Vocabulary

1. Match up the half-sentences below.

1. To peg a currency against something means to
119
A. the amount of a countrys money that residents were able to
change into foreign currencies.
2. A clean floating exchange rate
B. fix its value in relation to it.
3. Exchange controls used to limit
C. make a profit by making capital gains or by investing at higher
interest rates.
4. Speculators buy or sell currencies in order to
D. is determined by supply and demand.
5. Market forces means
E. trying to insure against unfavourable price movements by way of
futures contract.
6. Hedging means
F. the determination of price by supply and demand (the quantity
available and the quantity bought and sold).


2. Which six of these verbs are defined below?


Abolish adjust appreciate convert diverge
Establish fluctuate peg suspend revalue

1 to make changes to something
2 to change something into something else
3 to end something permanently
4 to end something temporarily
5 to go up or down (in quantity, value, etc.)
6 to move away from what is considered normal


12. Banking and taxation


Vocabulary
Match up these terms with the definitions below.

Cash card cash dispenser credit card home banking
Loan mortgage overdraft standing order
Current account (GB) or checking account (US)
Deposit account (GB) or time or notice account (US)

1 an arrangement by which a customer can withdraw more from a
bank account than has been deposited in it, up to an agreed limit;
interest on the debt is calculated daily
120
2 a card which guarantees payment for goods and services purchased
by the cardholder, who pays back the bank or finance company at a
later date
3 a computerized machine that allows bank customers to withdraw
money, check their balance, and so on
4 a fixed sum of money on which interest is paid, lent for a fixed
period, and usually for a specific purpose
5 an instruction to a bank to pay fixed sums of money to certain
people or organizations at stated times
6 a loan, usually to buy property, which serves as a security for the
loan
7 a plastic card issued to bank customers for use in cash dispensers
8 doing banking transactions by telephone or from ones own personal
computer, linked to the bank via a network
9 one that generally pays little or no interest, but allows the holder to
withdraw his or her cash without any restrictions
10 one that pays interest, but usually cannot be used for paying
cheques (GB) or checks (US), and on which notice is often required to
withdraw money


31. Types of banks

Read the text below and write short headings (one or two words)
for each paragraph

1..
Commercial or retail banks are businesses that trade in money.
They receive and hold deposits, pay money according to customers
instructions, lend money, offer investment advice, exchange foreign
currencies, and so on. They make a profit from the difference (known
as a spread or a margin) between the interest rates they pay to
lenders or depositors and those they charge to borrowers. Banks also
create credit, because the money they lend, from their deposits, is
generally spent (either on goods or services, or to settle debts), and in
this way transferred to another bank account often by way of a bank
transfer or a cheque (check) rather than the use of notes or coins
from where it can be lent to another borrower, and so on. When
lending money, bankers have to find a balance between yield and
risk, and between liquidity and different maturities.
2
Merchant bank in Britain raise funds for industry on the various
financial markets, finance international trade, issue and underwrite
securities, deal with takeovers and mergers, and issue government
bonds. They also generally offer stockbroking and portfolio
management services to rich corporate and individual clients.
121
Investment banks in the USA are similar, but they can only act as
intermediaries offering advisory services, and do not offer loans
themselves. Investment banks make their profits from the fees and
commissions they charge for their services.
3..
In the USA, the Glass-Steagall Act of 1934 enforced a strict
separation between commercial banks and investment banks or
stockbroking firms. Yet, the distinction between commercial and
investment banking has become less clear in recent years.
Deregulation in the USA and Britain is leading to the creation of
financial supermarkets: conglomerates combining the services
previously offered by banks, stockbrokers, insurance companies, and
so on. In some European countries (notably Germany, Austria and
Switzerland) there have always been universal banks combining
deposit and loan banking with share and bond dealing and
investment services.
4
A countrys minimum interest rate is usually fixed by the central
bank. This is the discount rate, at which the central bank makes
secured loans to commercial banks. Banks lend to blue chip
borrowers (very safe large companies) at the base rate or the prime
rate; all other borrowers pay more, depending on their credit standing
(or credit rating, or creditworthiness): the lenders estimation of their
present and future solvency. Borrowers can usually get a lower
interest rate if the loan is secured or guaranteed by some kind of
asset, known as collateral.
4
In most financial centres, there are also branches of lots of
foreign banks, largely doing Eurocurrency business. A Eurocurrency
is any currency held outside its country of origin. The first significant
Eurocurrency market was for US dollars in Europe, but the name is
now used for foreign currencies held anywhere in the world (e.g. yen
in the US, DM in Japan). Since the US$ is the worlds most important
trading currency and because the US has for many years had a
huge trade deficit there is a market of many billions of Eurodollars,
including the oil-exporting countries petrodollars. Although a central
bank can determine the minimum lending rate for its national
currency it has no control over foreign currencies. Furthermore,
banks are not obliged to deposit any of their Eurocurrency assets at
0% interest with the central bank, which means that they can usually
offer better rates to borrowers and depositors than in the home
country.

Commercial / retail bank banc comerciale / banc de depozit
Merchant bank / Investment bank banc comercial / de
investiii
122


Vocabulary
a. Find the words or expressions in the text which mean the
following.

1 to place money in a bank; or money placed in a bank
2 the money used in countries other than ones own
3 how much money a loan pays, expressed as percentage
4 available cash, and how easily other assets can be turned into cash
5 the date when a loan becomes repayable
6 to guarantee to buy all the new shares that a company issues, if
they cannot be sold to the public
7 when a company buys or acquires another one
8 when a company combines with another one
9 buying and selling stocks or shares for clients
10 taking care of all a clients investments
11 the ending or relaxing of legal restrictions
12 a group of companies, operating in different fields, that have joined
together
13 a company considered to be without risk
14 ability to pay liabilities when they become due
15 anything that acts as a security or a guarantee for a loan

b.The text contains a number of common verb-noun partnerships
(e.g. to lend money, to finance international trade). Match up the
verbs and nouns below to make common collocations.

Charge advice
Do bonds
Exchange business
Issue currencies
Make deposits
Offer funds
Pay interest
Raise loans
Receive profits
Underwrite security issues



32. Opening an account and means of payment


At the Bank Opening an account

123
Mr. X I would like to open an account with you.
Bank Clerk Very well, sir. Here is a form youll have to fill in.
Mr. X There may be a problem. You see, Im a foreign resident.
Bank Clerk This is quite all right, sir. Quite a large number of our
clients are foreigners. Do you want to open a current account or a
deposit account?
Mr. X Well, Im going to stay and work here for a while, and Id like
my salary to be paid into my account. But I dont want to have to give
notice before I can withdraw money.
Bank Clerk Its obviously a current account you need.
Mr. X How long will take to open an account?
Bank Clerk Doesnt take long, sir. Let me see Today is Thursday,
if you can complete this form today, your cheque-book will be ready
for you on Tuesday.
Mr. X Fine. So, my salary could be paid in at the end of the month.
Bank Clerk No doubt, sir.
Mr. X There are two questions Id like to ask. Will this be the only
place where I can cash a cheque?
Bank Clerk Oh, no, sir. You can have them cashed at any of our
branches.
Mr. X Good. And what about statements of account? How frequently
does one get them?
Bank Clerk Normally, once a month. But we shall send one out
after each transaction if you want us to.





General Information:
When do/are you open?
How late do you stay open?
When do you close?
What are your opening hours?
In the US: Does this bank have an ATM (Automatic Teller Machine
bancomat)
In the UK: Do you have a cash point/dispenser?
The ATM ate/kept my card.
The cash dispenser wont give me my card back.

If you want to use bank services you may have to queue (UK) or stand
in line (US) and wait for the next available teller (US) or clerk (UK):
When their desk is free, a light will come on:
Next, please.
Please step down (US).
Im open over/down here.
124

Queue / stand in line = a sta la coad
Teller / clerk = funcionar la ghieu

You can then tell him or her what you want:
I want/need/would like to cash a check.
Id like to cash these travelers checks, please.
Can you change a ten-pound note, please?
Id like ten dollars worth of quarters, please.
I need a roll of quarters.

If you have an account there:
Id like to make a deposit.
Id like to withdraw some money from my account.
Id like to make a withdrawal.

If you want to withdraw some money from abroad:
Id like to transfer some money from an overseas bank account.
Before the clerk gives you any money, she/he will ask:
How would you like that?
Any preference?
Large or small bills (US) notes (UK)?

Your reply:
It doesnt matter (which denomination)
All twenties, please.
Just tens and twenties, please.
Five, tens and three fives, please.
No small bills/notes, please.

If you want to transfer some money, the clerk will say:
Are you a customer here?
First of all, I need some ID, please.
May I see some identification?
Do you have a bank card with you?
Id like the name and address of your bank, your account number
and your sorting code, please.
Please fill in this form.
Im afraid youll have to go to the enquiries desk (biroul de informaii).

Or, if youre cashing a check:
Could you endorse this (sign it on the back), please.

Perhaps youre withdrawing money with a credit card:
Enter your PIN number, please (PIN: Personal Identification Number).

125
If you have foreign currency:
Do you handle foreign exchange here?
Is there a foreign exchange desk?
Id like to change/buy some foreign currency.
Whats the current exchange rate, please?
How many marks to the dollar, please?

And the reply:
The exchange rate is 1,5 marks to the dollar.
Im afraid the rate has gone up today.

You might want to know:
Do I have to pay bank charges (comision) on top of that?
Is that inclusive of commission?
Are there any additional expenses?
What commission do you charge?

Maybe youre staying in an Anglophone country for more than a
year and you want to open a bank account there:
Id like to open a deposit/checking/ savings account, please.
Id like to apply for a loan.
Id like to get a safety deposit box (safe de depuneri).
Whats the interest rate on this account?
Could you explain the service charges on this account?
Could I have a new checkbook, please?
Id like to apply for a bank/cheque/credit/cash card, please.


Means of payment.

Id just had a phone call from the bank. They couldnt cash in Ds
cheque. They were told there were insufficient funds on his account.
Im surprised. That would be the first time. Can you remind me of the
amount?
Its not a large sum: only 135 pounds.
This is all the more surprising. He is not the kind of person to
overdraw his account. What sort of a cheque did he make out?
Im looking into his file Now It was a giro cheque. Usually he pays
us by bank cheque for small amounts, and by draft for large sums.
It makes more sense. Just give him a ring, will you? Im sure hell
settle immediately.
Ill do that. Something else. Ive had very bad information about B,
you know, the reseller (vnztor) who wanted immediate delivery.
I see who you mean. Its his first order with us?
Thats it. Hes already had a current account cancelled and has a
reputation for being a slow payer.
126
If so, insist on payment with the order (plata la comand). Delivery is
out of the question until the sum has been paid into our account.
Well, I think thats all. Oh yes! One more thing, the drafts to be
discounted





Means of payment. Key sentences.

His account is overdrawn (in the red).
Cecul su este descoperit.
The settlement is long overdue.
Plata ar fi trebuit s fie fcut demult.
Whats his current account number?
Care este numrul contului su curent?
Charge it to my account.
Scoatei suma din contul meu.
Settle the amount by money order if you find it more convenient.
Pltii suma prin mandat potal dac considerai c este mai practic.
The cheque was made out to his order.
Cecul era fcut la ordinul su.
He intends to open a deposit account at one of our branches.
El are intenia s deschid un cont pentru depuneri la una din
sucursalele noastre.
I think I remember it was a bearer cheque.
Cred c mi amintesc, era un cec la purttor.
Normally, that payment-in ought to have been recorded on my last
statement of account.
Normal, acea plat (vrsmnt) ar trebuie s figureze pe ultimul meu
extras de cont.
For sight withdrawals, you simply have to go to counter no.3
Pentru retragerile la vedere, ajunge s mergei la ghieul nr.3
She will pay us by instalments over six months.
Ea ne va plti n rate ealonate pe ase luni.
I have kept the stub (counterfoil) of the cheque which I issued on
March 6
th
.
Am pstrat talonul cecului pe care l-am emis pe 6 martie.
The holder of the credit card must inform our nearest office in case of
loss or theft.
Titularul crii de credit trebuie s informeze imediat biroul nostru cel
mai apropiat n caz de pierdere sau de furt.
Thanks to your credit card, you may rent a car without leaving a
deposit.
127
Datorit crii dumneavoastr de credit vei putea nchiria o main
fr s lsai o garanie.
How is it that this cheque has not been endorsed?
Cum se face c acest cec nu a fost andosat?
I suppose youd rather be paid in cash?
Presupun c preferai s fii pltii cu bani ghea.
The draft will fall due at the end of the month.
Trata ajunge la scaden la sfritul lunii.
Why havent you presented this draft for acceptance yet?
De ce nu ai prezentat nc aceast trat la acceptare?
How long will it take to have the sum transferred to my account?
Ct dureaz s virai suma n contul meu?
It has been rejected for non-conformity of the signature (because the
signature was not true).
El a fost refuzat din cauza nepotrivirii semnturii (din cauz c
semntura nu era cea adevrat).
This is not the first time he has issued bad cheques (dud checks;
cheques that bounce).
Nu este prima dat cnd el emite cecuri fr acoperire.



33. Banking Key words and sentences


The banks have played a prominent role in the development of
modern economy since the very beginning of commercial activities.
Their branches have become a familiar sight on many city streets, but
also in villages, as more and more people now bank with any one of
the national or local banks.
Banks offer their services both to private individuals and to
businesses. One can open a current account or a deposit account
with them. The former will enable a person to use a cheque for
payment instead of hard cash, whereas the latter will bring a small
interest. People can ask their bank to pay recurring expenses for
them, such as subscription, rents, telephone, gas or electrical bills.
Valuables or deeds can be left in custody in a bank safe on payment
of certain charge. The bank will obtain foreign currencies, issue
travellers cheques and letter of credit payable at their branches or at
correspondent banks.
Besides, banks will operate transactions on the stock exchange
for you and give advice on investments. They also lend money,
generally on a short term basis: thus they can allow overdraft
facilities or personal loans; if your credit rating is good and if you can
offer some sort of security, they may consider longer term credit. Most
of this applies to business discounting of their bills Bills of
128
Exchange (drafts), or even Promissory Notes. In the field of foreign
trade, the banks can help by financing or advising their clients. They
can be referred to by either party for status enquiries in business
transactions.


Recurring expenses = cheltuieli recurente
Valuables / deeds = acte, valori
Overdraft = cont debitor, descoperire de cont
Be referred to = a fi ndrumat



Definition
A cheque is signed by the payer and payable to the payee or to his
order. A draft (or bill of exchange) is drawn by the creditor on the
debtor and payable to the drawer or to a third party after acceptance
by the drawee.

Un cec este semnat de pltitor i se pltete beneficiarului sau la
ordinul su. O trat este tras de creditor asupra debitorului i se
pltete trgtorului sau unei tere pri dup acceptare de ctre tras.



Bank. Key sentences.

1. An interest is charged on all banks services.
Se percepe dobnd pentru toate serviciile bancare.
2. You had better ask for an overdraft before your account is
overdrawn (in red).
Ar fi bine s cerei un descoperit nainte de a vi se epuiza contul.
3. I always deposit my valuables and my wifes jewels in a bank safe
before leaving for a long holiday.
Depun ntotdeauna obiectele mele de valoare i bijuteriile soiei la o
banc nainte de a pleca ntr-o vacan de lung durat.
4. Where can I cash this cheque (check U.S.)?
Unde pot ncasa acest cec?
5. Remember to record all withdrawals on counterfoils (U.S. stubs)
in your cheque-book.
Nu uitai s nregistrai toate retragerile pe talonul carnetului
dumneavoastr de cecuri.
6. They offered me to refund a 2,000 personal loan over a 30-month
period.
Ei mi-au propus s rambursez un mprumut personal de 2.000 de
lire n treizeci de rate lunare.
129
7. When writing out or endorsing a cheque, one must be careful to
avoid any erasure.
Cnd se redacteaz sau se andoseaz un cec, trebuie s se evite
orice terstur.
8. She made out so many dud (bad) cheques that no bank will trust
her with a cheque-book.
Ea a ntocmit attea cecuri fr acoperire, nct nici o banc nu-I va
mai ncredina un carnet de cecuri.
9. Dont forget to have these bills discounted by the end of this
month.
Nu uitai s scontai aceste efecte la sfritul lunii.
10. Recently a trader sued his banker after he could no longer have
his bills discounted.
Recent, un comerciant a intentat un proces bncii sale dup ce n-a
mai avut posibilitatea s-i sconteze efectele de comer.
11. The clearing-house will centralize all the operations dealing with
the exchange of bills and cheques between banks.
Camera de decontri/oficiul de cliring va centraliza toate
operaiunile care se refer la schimbul interbancar de efecte de
comer i cecuri.
12. The U.S. investment banks have just raised their prime rate by
point to 6,75%.
Bncile de investiii americane tocmai au crescut rata de baz (a
dobnzii) la 6,75% mrind-o cu un sfert de punct.
13. The increase in the price of short-term money has been
confirmed whereas longer term rates remain stable.
S-a confirmat creterea preului pentru mprumuturile pe termen
scurt, n timp ce ratele (dobnzii) pe termen lung rmn stabile.
14. The Prime Rate (fine rate, blue-chip rate, [B.E.] base rate) is the
rate granted by U.S. banks to their clients with the highest rating.
Rata de baz reprezint rata acordat de bncile americane
clienilor care prezint cel mai mic risc.
15. The spell of monetary stability has lasted since the begining of
the year.
Aceast perioad de stabilitate monetar dureaz de la nceputul
anului.
16. The policy of expensive money is meant to fight inflation.
Politica dirijat mpotriva creterii preurilor este destinat combaterii
inflaiei.
17. but it has immediate repercussions on corporate income
statements.
dar acest lucru are repercursiuni imediate asupra conturilor de
venit i pierderi ale ntreprinderilor.
18. The Central Bank acts as banker to the government and to other
banks, and as the central note-issuing authority.
130
Banca central funcioneaz n calitate de bancher pentru guvern i
alte bnci i ca autoritate central de emisiune monetar.



Banking. Key sentences.

1. Id like to change French francs into pounds.
A vrea s schimb franci francezi n lire.
2. Your account is in the red (overdrawn).
Contul Dumneavoastr este epuizat.
3. Should I (must I) endorse the cheque?
Trebuie s andosez cecul?
4. He has opened a giro account.
El a deschis un cont-cec potal.
5. My salary is paid into my account every month.
Salariul meu este vrsat n contul meu n fiecare lun.
6. The holders of such deposit accounts must give seven days notice
before withdrawal.
Deintorii de astfel de conturi de depuneri trebuie s ntiineze
(banca) cu apte zile nainte pentru a-i retrage banii.
7. Savings accounts earn an interest.
Conturile de economii aduc o dobnd.
8. The last withdrawal dates back to the 27
th
of last month.
Ultima retragere este din 27 luna trecut.
9. He wanted me to make out a blank cheque.
El voia s fac un cec n alb.
10. Im not sure I kept the stub.
Nu sunt sigur c am pstrat talonul.
11. Why not endorse the cheque to his (her) name?
De ce s nu andosez cecul pe numele lui (ei)?
12. My bank will lend me part of the sum.
Banca mea o s-mi dea cu mprumut o parte din sum.
13. He will find it hard to repay his loan.
i va fi greu s ramburseze mprumutul.
14. Why has his (her) overdraft been discontinued ?
De ce nu i s-a mai dat descoperitul?
15. He should not have borrowed so much.
Nu ar fi trebuit ca el s mprumute att.
16. This is the 5
th
bad cheque (dud cheque) weve had this month.
Este al cincilea cec fr acoperire care mi se d luna aceasta.
17. Please go to counter 6.
V rog s mergei la ghieul 6.
18. Please give me the rest in 5-pounds notes.
Dai-mi restul n hrtii (bancnote) de 5 lire.
19. The statement has still not reached me.
131
Extrasul (de cont) nu a ajuns nc la mine. (nu mi-a parvenit nc)
20. I have to (I must) replenish my account.
Trebuie s-mi reaprovizionez contul.
21. She hasnt drawn on her account for 3 weeks.
Ea nu a mai scos din contul su de trei sptmni.

34. Taxation and how to avoid it


Vocabulary
Which terms do the following sentences define?

1. The tax people pay on their wages and salaries is called
Capital transfer tax income tax wealth tax
2. A tax on wages and salaries or on company profits is a/an
Direct tax indirect tax value-added tax
3. A tax levied at a higher rate on higher incomes is called a
Progressive tax regressive tax wealth tax
4. A tax paid on property, sales transactions, imports, and so on is
a/an
Direct tax indirect tax value-added tax
5. A tax collected at each stage of production, excluding the already-
taxed costs from previous stages, is called a/an
Added-value tax sales tax value-added tax
6. Profits made by selling assets are generally liable to a
Capital gains tax capital transfer tax wealth tax
7. Gifts and inheritances over a certain value are often liable to a
Capital gains tax capital transfer tax wealth tax
8. The annual tax imposed on peoples fortunes (in some countries) is
a/an
Added-value tax capital gains tax wealth tax
9. Making false declarations to the tax authorities is called
Fiscal policy tax avoidance tax evasion
10. Reducing the amount of tax you pay to a legal minimum is
called
Creative accounting tax avoidance tax evasion

Income tax impozit pe venit
Wealth tax impozit pe avere
Direct tax impozit direct
Indirect tax impozit indirect
Progressive tax impozit progresiv
Regressive tax impozit regresiv
Value-added tax TVA
Sales tax impozit pe vnzri
Capital gains tax impozit pe plusul de capital
132
Capital transfer tax impozit pe transferul de capital
Fiscal policy politic fiscal
Tax avoidance evitare fiscal
Tax evasion evaziune fiscal
Tax tax, impozit
Taxation impozit, impozitare
Tax shelter protecie fiscal
Tax haven paradis fiscal
Tax-deductible deductibil fiscal
Excise duties accize, impozit de fabricare





Reading

Read the following text and decide which paragraphs could be
given the following headings.

- Advantages and disadvantages of different tax systems
- Avoiding tax on profits
- Avoiding tax on salaries
- Tax evasion
- The functions of taxation

Taxation (and how to avoid it!)

The primary function of taxation is, of course, to raise revenue to
finance government expenditure, but taxes can also have other
purposes. Indirect excise duties, for example, can be designed to
dissuade (a preveni, a schimba prerea) people from smoking,
drinking alcohol, and so on. Governments can also encourage capital
investment by permitting various methods of accelerated depreciation
accounting that allow companies to deduct more of the cost of
investments from their profits, and consequently reduce their tax
bills.
There is always a lot of debate as to the fairness of tax systems.
Business profits for example, are generally taxed twice: companies
pay tax on their profits (corporation tax in Britain, income tax in the
USA), and shareholders pay income tax on dividends. Income taxes in
most countries are progressive, and are one of the ways in which
governments can redistribute wealth. The problem with progressive
taxes is that the marginal rate the tax people pay on any additional
income is always high, which is generally a disincentive to both
working and investing. On the other hand, most sales taxes are
133
slightly regressive, because poorer people need to spend a larger
proportion of their income on consumption than the rich.
The higher the tax rates, the more people are tempted to cheat,
but there is a substantial black or underground economy nearly
everywhere. In Italy, for example, self-employed people whose
income is more difficult to control than that of company employees
account for more than half of national income. Lots of people also
have undeclared, part-time evening jobs (some people call this
moonlighting) with small and medium-sized family firms, on which
no one pays any tax or national insurance. At the end of the 1986,
the Director of the Italian National Institute of Statistics calculated
the size of the underground economy, and added 16.7% to Italys
gross national product (GNP) figure, and then claimed that Italy had
overtaken Britain to become the worlds fifth largest economy.
To reduce income tax liability, some employers give highly-paid
employees lots of perks (short for perquisites) instead of taxable
money, such as company cars, free health insurance, and subsidized
lunches. Legal ways of avoiding tax, such as these, are known as
loopholes in tax lows. Life insurance policies, pension plans and other
investments by which individuals can postpone the payment of tax,
are known as tax shelters. Donations to charities that can be
subtracted from the income on which tax is calculated are described
as tax-deductible.
Companies have a variety of ways of avoiding tax on profits.
They can bring forward capital expenditure (on new factories,
machines, and so on) so that at the end of the year all the profits have
been used up; this is known as making a tax loss. Multinational
companies often set up their head offices in countries such as
Liechtenstein, Monaco, the Cayman Islands, and the Bahamas, where
taxes are low; such countries are known as tax havens. Criminal
organizations, meanwhile, tend to pass money through a series of
companies in very complicated transactionsin order to disguise its
origin from tax inspectors and the police; this is known as
laundering money.


Comprehension
According to the text, are the following statements True or
False?

1. Taxes can be designed both to discourage and to encourage
spending.
2. The same amount of money can be taxed more than once.
3. Progressive taxes may discourage people from working extra hours.
4. Sales taxes are unfair because poor people spend more than the
rich do.
134
5. The Italian government knows that about one seventh of national
income escapes taxation.
6.Loopholes are a common form of tax evasion.
7.If you pay a lot of your income into a pension fund or a life
insurance policy you never have to pay tax on it.
8. A company that makes an unusually large profit during a tax year
might quickly decide to spend it, for example, on a new factory or
equipment.


Vocabulary
Find words in the text that mean the following.

1. reducing the value of a fixed asset, by charging it against profits
2. something which discourages an action
3. an adjective describing a tax that is proportionally higher for people
with less money
4. spending money to buy things, rather than saving it
5. working for yourself, being your own boss
6. a tax on incomes that pays for sickness benefit, unemployment
benefit, and old-age pensions
7. non-financial benefits or advantages of a job
8. a way to delay the payment of tax to a later time
9. an adjective describing expenditure that can be taken away from
taxable income or profits
10. a country offering very low tax rates to foreign businesses





13. Stock Market


35. Stocks and shares

Companies
Individuals and groups of people doing business as a
partnership, have unlimited liability for debt, unless they form a
limited company. If the business does badly and cannot pay its debts,
any creditor can have it declared bankrupt. The unsuccessful
business people may have to sell nearly all their possessions in order
to pay their debts. This is why most people doing business form
limited companies. A limited company is a legal entity separate from
its owners, and is only liable for the amount of capital that has been
invested in it. If a limited company goes bankrupt, it is wound up and
135
its assets are liquidated (i.e. sold) to pay the debts. If the assets dont
cover the liabilities or the debts, they remain unpaid. The creditors
simply do not get all their money back.
Most companies begin as private limited companies. Their
owners have to put up the capital themselves, or borrow from friends
or a bank, perhaps a bank specializing in venture capital. The
founders have to write a Memorandum of Association (GB) or a
Certificate of Incorporation (US), which states the companys name,
its purpose, its registered office or premises, and the amount of
authorized share capital. They also write Articles of Association (GB)
or Bylaws (US), which set out the duties of directors and the rights of
shareholders (GB) or stockholders (US). They send these documents
to the registrar of companies.
A successful, growing company can apply to a stock exchange to
become a public limited company (GB) or a listed company (US).
Newer and smaller companies usually join over-the-counter markets,
such as the Unlisted Securities Market in London or Nasdaq in New
York. Very successful businesses can apply to be quoted or listed (i.e.
to have their shares traded) on major stock exchanges. Publicly
quoted companies have to fulfil a large number of requirements,
including sending their shareholders an independently-audited report
every year, containing the years trading results and a statement of
their financial position.
The act of issuing shares (GB) or stocks (US) for the first time is
known as floating a company (making a flotation). Companies
generally use an investment bank to underwrite the issue i.e. to
guarantee to purchase all the securities at an agreed price on a
certain day, if they cannot be sold to the public.
Companies wishing to raise more money for expansion can
sometimes issue new shares, which are normally offered first to the
existing shareholders at less than their market price. This is known
as a rights issue. Companies sometimes also choose to capitalize part
of their profit, i.e. turn it into capital, by issuing new shares to
shareholders instead of paying dividends. This is known as a bonus
issue.
Buying a share gives its holder part of the ownership of a
company. Shares generally entitle their owner to vote at a companys
Annual General Meeting (GB) or Annual Meeting of Stockholders (US),
and to receive a proportion of distributed profits in the form of a
dividend or to receive part of the companys residual value if it goes
into liquidation. Shareholders can sell their shares on the secondary
market at any time, but the market price of a share the price quoted
at any given time on the stock exchange, which reflects (more or less)
how well or badly the company is doing may differ radically from its
nominal value.

136

Vocabulary
Find words in the text which mean the following

1 having a responsibility or an obligation to do something, e.g. to pay
a debt
2 a person or organization to whom money is owed (for goods or
services rendered, or as repayment of a loan)
3 to be insolvent: unable to pay debts
4 everything of value owned by a business that can be used to
produce goods, pay liabilities, and so on
5 to sell all the possessions of a bankrupt business
6 money that a company will have to pay to someone else (bills, taxes,
debts, interest and mortgage payments, etc.)
7 to provide money for a company or other project
8 money invested in a possibly risky new business
9 the people who begin a new company
10 the place in which a company does business: an office, shop,
workshop, factory, warehouse, and so on
11 to guarantee to buy an entire new share issue, if no one else wants
it
12 a proportion of the annual profits of a limited company, paid to
shareholders

Alternative terminology

Americans often talk about corporations rather than companies and
about an initial public offering rather than a flotation.

Another name for stocks and shares is equities, because all the stocks
or shares of a company or at least all those of a particular category
have equal value.

Two terms for nominal value are face value and par value.

Other names for a bonus issue are a scrip issue (short for
subscription certificate) and a capitalization issue, and in the US, a
stock dividend or stock split.


Vocabulary
Match up the following words and definitions.

Blue chip Defensive stock Growth stock
Insider share-dealing Institutional investors Mutual fund
137
Market-maker Portfolio Stockbroker

1. a company that spreads investors capital over a variety of
securities
2. an investors selection of securities
3. a person who can advise investors and buy and sell shares for
them
4. a stock in a large company or corporation that is considered to be a
secure investment
5. a stock in an industry not much affected by cyclical trends that
offers a good return but only a limited chance of rise or decline in
price
6. a stock which usually has a high purchasing price and a low
current rate of return that is expected to appreciate in capital
value
7. a wholesaler in stocks and shares who deals with brokers
8. financial organizations such as pension funds and insurance
companies which own most of the shares of all leading companies
(over 60%, and rising)
9. the use of information not known to the public to make a profit out
of buying or selling shares

36. Bonds

Companies finance most of their activities by way of internally
generated cash flows. If they need more money they can either sell
shares or borrow, usually by issuing bonds. More and more
companies now issue their own bonds rather than borrow from
banks, because this is often cheaper: the market may be a better
judge of the firms creditworthiness than a bank, i.e. it may lend
money at a lower interest rate. This is evidently not a good thing for
the banks, which now have to lend large amounts of money to
borrowers that are much less secure than blue chip companies.
Bond-issuing companies are rated by private rating companies
such as Moodys and Standard & Poors, and given an investment
grade according to their financial situation and performance, Aaa
being the best, and C the worst, i.e. nearly bankrupt. Obviously, the
higher the rating, the lower the interest rate at which a company can
borrow.
Most bonds are bearer certificates, so after being issued (on the
primary market), they can be traded on the secondary bond market
until they mature. Bonds are therefore liquid, although of course their
price on the secondary market fluctuates according to the changes in
interest rates. Consequently, the majority of bonds on the secondary
market are traded either above or below par. A bonds yield at any
138
particular time is thus its coupon (the amount of interest it pays)
expressed as a percentage of its price on the secondary market.
For companies, the advantage of debt financing over equity
financing is that bond interest is tax deductible. In other words, a
company deducts its interest payments from its profits before paying
tax, whereas dividends are paid out of already-taxed profits. Apart
from this tax shield, it is generally considered to be a sign of good
health and anticipated higher future profits if a company borrows. On
the other hand, increasing debt increases financial risk: bond interest
has to be paid, even in a year without any profits from which to
deduct it, and the principal has to be repaid when the debt matures,
whereas companies are not obliged to pay dividends or repay share
capital. Thus companies have a debt-equity ratio that is determined
by balancing tax savings against the risk of being declared bankrupt
by creditors.
Governments, of course, unlike companies, do not have the
option of issuing equities. Consequently they issue bonds when public
spending exceeds receipts from income tax, VAT, and so on. Long-
term government bonds are known as gilt-edged securities, or simply
gilts, in Britain, and Treasury Bonds in the US. The British and
American central banks also sell and buy short-term (three months)
Treasury Bills as a way of regulating the money supply. To reduce the
money supply, they sell these bills to commercial banks, and
withdraw the cash received from circulation; to increase the money
supply they buy them back, paying with newly created money which
is put into circulation in this way.

Rating company firm de rating
Debt financing finanarea debitului
Equity financing finanarea aciunilor
Investment grade gradul riscului de investiie
Debt-equity ratio raia debit-aciuni
Public spending chletuieli publice
Receipts ncasri, venituri
Treasury bonds certificate de trezorerie pe termen lung
Treasury bills certificate de trezorerie pe termen scurt


Vocabulary
Match up the words or phrases on the left with the corresponding
ones on the right.

1 investors A the amount of a loan
2 issuing bonds B borrowing money
3 principal C date at which the money will be returned
4 maturity D fall in interest rates
139
5 pension funds E keep their bonds till maturity
6 buy-and-hold investors F default
7 non-payment G profits on the sale assets
8 price appreciation H providers of funds
9 price depreciation I retirement money
10 capital gains J rise in interest rates


Vocabulary
Match up the expressions on the left with the definitions on the
right.

1 equity financing A a security whose owner is not
registered with the issuer
2 debt financing B easily sold (turned into cash)
3 bearer certificate C the rate of interest paid by a fixed interest
security
4 liquid D the rate of income an investor receives taking
into account a securitys current price
5 par E issuing bonds
6 coupon F issuing shares
7 yield G nominal or face value (100%)



37. Futures, options and swaps


Vocabulary
Match up the following words and definitions.

1 Futures
A contracts giving the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a
security, a currency, or a commodity at a fixed price during a certain
period of time
2 Options
B contracts to buy or sell fixed quantities of commodity, currency, or
financial asset at a future date, at a price fixed at the time of making
the contract
3 Commodities
C a general name for all financial instruments whose price depends
on the movement of another price
4 Derivatives
140
D buying securities or other assets in the hope of making a capital
gain by selling them at a higher price (or selling them in the hope of
buying them back at a lower price)
5 Hedging
E making contracts to buy or sell a commodity or financial asset at a
pre-arranged price in the future as a protection or insurance against
price changes
6 Speculation
F raw materials or primary products (metals, cereals, coffee, etc.) that
are traded on special markets


Reading
Select ten or eleven of the following words that you would expect
to find in an introductory text about futures and options.

Assets beer bush call commodities contracts
Copper currencies discount store foodstuffs hedge
Liabilities plastic phone raw materials shout
Spot market supermarket tea

Now read the text, and see if you find the words you selected.

Futures

Every weekday, enormous amounts of commodities, currencies
and financial securities are traded for immediate delivery at their
current price on spot markets. Yet there are also futures markets on
which contracts can be made to buy and sell commodities,
currencies, and various financial assets, at a future date (e.g. three,
six or nine months adead), but with the price fixed at the time of the
deal. Standardized deals for fixed quantities and time periods (e.g. 25
tons of copper to be delivered next June 30) are called futures;
individual, non-standard, over-thecounter deals between two parties
(e.g. 1.7 billion yen to be exchanged for dollars on September 15, at a
rate set today) are called forward contracts.


Hedging and speculating

Futures, options and other derivatives exist in order that
companies and individuals may attempt to diminish the effects of, or
profit from, future changes in commodity and asset prices, exchange
rates, interest rates, and so on. For example, the prices of foodstuffs,
such as wheat, maize, coca, coffee, tea and orange juice are frequently
affected by droughts, floods and other extreme weather conditions.
141
Consequently many producers and buyers of raw matrials want to
hedge, in order to guarantee next seasons prices. When commodity
prices are expected to rise, future prices are obviously higher than (at
a premium on) spot prices; when they are expected to fall they are at
a discount on spot prices.
In recent years, especially since financial deregulation, exchange
rates and interest rates have also fluctuated widly. Many businesses,
therefore, want to buy or sell currencies at a guaranteed future price.
Speculators, anticipating currency appreciations or depreciations, or
interest rate movements, are also active in currency futures markets,
such as the London International Financial Futures Exchange (LIFFE,
pronounced life).

Options

As well as currencies and commodities, there is now a huge
futures market in stocks and shares. One can buy options giving the
right but not the obligation to buy and sell securities at a fixed
price in the future. A call option gives the right to buy securities (or a
currency, or a commodity) at a certain price during a certain period of
time. A put option gives the right to sell an asset at a certain price
during a certain period of time. These options allow organizations to
hedge their equity investments.
For example, if you think a share worth 100 will rise, you can
buy a call option giving the right to buy at 100, hoping to sell this
option, or to buy and resell the share at a profit. Alternatively, you
can write a put option giving someone else the right to sell the shares
at 100: if the market price remains above 100, no one will exercise the
option, so you earn the premium.
On the contrary, if you expect the value of a share that you own
to fall below its current price of 100, you can buy a put option at 100
(or higher): if the price falls, you can still sell your shares at this price.
Alternatively, you could write a call option giving someone else the
right to buy the share at 100: if the market price of the underlying
security remains below the options exercise price or strike price, no-
one will take up the option, and you earn the premium.

Swaps

Options are merely one type of derivative instrument, based on
another underlying price. Many companies nowadays also arrange
currency swaps and interest rate swaps with other companies or
financial institutions. For example, a French company that can
borrow francs at a preferential rate, but which also needs yen, can
arrange a swap with a Japanese company in the opposite position.
Such currency swaps, designed to achieve interest rate savings, are of
142
course open to the risk of exchange rate fluctuations. A company with
a lot of fixed interest debt might choose to exchange some of it for
another companys floating rate loans. Whether they save or lose
money will depend on the movement of interest rates.

Call option opiune de achiziie
Put option opiune de vnzare
Exercise price / strike price pre de exerciiu
Swap schimb


Summarizing
Complete the following sentences

1 The difference between futures and forward contracts is .
2 Producers and buyers often choose to hedge because .
3 Speculators can make money on currency futures if
4 If you believe that a share price will rise, possible option strategies
include
5 On the contrary, if you think a share price will fall, possible option
strategies include
1. The risk with currency and interest rate swaps is that


Vocabulary
Find words in the text that are in an obvious sense the opposite
of the terms below.

Appreciate call discount drought floating
Hedging spot market strike price



Glossary


Acceptance acceptare (trat)
Acceptor tras, acceptor
Allow credit a acorda un credit
All-time high un record de cretere a cursului
All-time low un record de scdere a cursului
Amount o sum, un total
Amount to a se ridica la, a ajunge la
Arrears datorii, restane, arierate
Articles of Association statutul societii
143
Assess, to estimate a evalua, a estima
Assessment, an estimate o evaluare, o estimare
Assets activul
Auction o vnzare prin licitaie
Austerity austeritate
Back a susine financiar
Bad cheque, dud check cec fr acoperire
Bad debt o crean nepltit
Balance of account un sold de cont
Balance of Payments balana de pli
Balance of Trade balana comercial
Bank clerks funcionari bancari
Bank (A.E. discount) rate rata scontului Bncii centrale
Bank account cont bancar
Bank tellers casieri (la banc)
Bank wickets ghiee ale bncii
Banking regulation reglementri bancare
Banknotes (A.E. bills) bancnote
Bargain a negocia
Barrier o barier
Barter / counter-trade troc
Base rate / prime rate tax preferenial / rata de baz
Be in the black a fi creditor
Be in the red a fi descoperit/ n deficit
Bear un speculator de burs (care mizeaz pe scderea cursului)
Bear an interest a produce o dobnd
Bearer un purttor
Bearer cheque cec la purttor
Benefit un avantaj
Bill, a check (US) o not de plat
Bills facturi, note de plat, efecte bancare
Bills of Exchange (B.E.), drafts cambii, polie, trate
Bite a avea efect
Blank cheque cec n alb
Blue chips aciuni ale marilor companii
Board of directors consiliul de administraie
Bond o obligaiune
Bonus issue, shares / stock dividends aciuni gratuite, dividente
nominale
Boom un avnt (perioad de succes)
Boost a relansa
Borrow a lua cu mprumut
Borrower cel care ia cu mprumut
Branch sucursal
Brand o marc comercial
Break even a echilibra conturile
144
Bring down a micora, a diminua
Brisk activ, animat
Buck bancnot sau bancnote de un dolar (A.E. familiar)
Building society o banc popular de economii pentru cumprare
de locuine
Bull un speculator de burs (care mizeaz pe creterea cursului)
Bullion lingou din metal preios
Buoyant susinut, bine orientat
Buy forward a cumpra la termen
Bylaw prevedere regulamentar
Cap taxes a fixa un plafon pentru impozite
Cash a cheque a ncasa un cec
Cash flow flux de numerar
Cash point un aparat distribuitor de bancnote
Cashier casier n uniti economice
Ceiling plafon, nivel maxim
Central Bank banca central
Change francs into pounds a schimba francii n lire
Charge tax, pre, cheltuieli
Cheque-book carnet de cecuri
Cheque-book (A.E. checkbook) carnet de cecuri
Chief executive officer / managing director director general
Clearance sale o vnzare la solduri
Clearing-house camer de compensare/decontare/oficiu cliring
Close nchidere
Close down a avea un curs sczut la nchidere
Coin money a bate moned
Coins monede, bani metalici
Collapse a se prbui
Collateral garanie, gaj / garant, girant, gir
Collect a ncasa, a percepe (impozite)
Commercial / retail bank banc comerciale / banc de depozit
Commodity o marf (de larg consum)
Compete with sb. a concura cu cineva, a face concuren cuiva
Competitive competitiv
Composite rate rat compus
Contribution cotizaie, contribuie
Convergence criteria criterii de convergen
Cost accounting contabilitate analitic / analiza costurilor
Cost effective- rentabil, care i merit preul
Cost of living costul vieii
Council tax impozite locale
Counter ghieu
Counterfeit a contraface, a falsifica, a face bancnote false
Credit a sum to an account a vira o sum ntr-un cont
Credit an account a credita un cont
145
Credit rating evaluare a solvabilitii clientelei
Credit squeeze restrngere a creditului
Credit standing situaie financiar, gradul de solvabilitate
Creditor creditor
Crisis o criz
Cross out a bara
Crumble a se prbui
Curb a frna, a stpni
Currencies devize
Current / checking account cont curent
Current account deficit un deficit al balanei de pli curente
Current account; account current cont curent
Custom-made fcut pe/la comand
Customs vam
Dabble on the Stock Exchange a juca la Burs
Deal o tranzacie
Dealer un dealer
Debit a sum from an account a debita o sum dintr-un cont
Debit an account by a sum a debita un cont dintr-o sum
Debt o datorie
Debtor un debitor
Decline a decdea, o scdere
Deeds acte, contracte
Default a nu onora
Default on a payment a nu onora o plat
Defaulter ru platnic
Defer a amna, a ntrzia
Deficit un deficit
Deflation deflaie
Delay a amna, a ntrzia
Demand cerere
Deposit a depune
Deposit / time / notice account cont de depunere
Deposit account cont de depunere la scaden, de depozit
Deposit bank banc de depuneri
Depositor depuntor
Depreciation amortizare, depreciere
Deregulation dereglementare
Devaluate a devaloriza
Devalue a devaloriza
Dip a scdea, a descrete
Direct debit debitare direct
Directive o directiv
Discontinue a nceta (de a mai face ceva), a ntrerupe
Discount a sconta (o poli)
Discount a draft a sconta o trat
146
Discount bank banc de scont
Dividends dividente
Downturn, a downswing un regres
Draw on an account a scoate dintr-un cont, a retrage dintr-un cont
Draw on sight a trage la vedere
Draw on someone a trage (o trat) asupra cuiva
Drawee tras
Drawer trgtor
Drop, to fall, to come down a scdea, a se micora
Dull inactiv
Duty o tax
Earn an interest a produce o dobnd
Earnings ctiguri, venituri (salariale)
Ease a se relaxa
Encash a ncasa un cec (la banc)
Endorse a andosa
Endorse a cheque a andosa un cec
Endorsement andosare
Enquiry, inquiry cerere de informaii
Equities aciuni ordinare
Erasure tergere, terstur
Exceed a depi
Exchange schimb
Exchange broker agent de schimb
Exchange bureau birou de schimb
Exchange rate rat de schimb
Executive administrator
Expenses cheltuieli, pli
Face value valoarea nominal
Fall back a se replia
Fall due a sosi la scaden
Fall, drop in prices o scdere a preurilor
Federal Reserve Bank (the Fed) (A.E.) banca federal de rezerve,
banca central a S.U.A.
Fee un onorariu
Figure o cifr
File for bankruptcy, to file under chapter 11 (US) a-i depune
bilanul, a cere falimentul
Fill in a form a completa un formular
Finance, to fund a finana, a acorda fonduri
Financial backing (support) susinere financiar, sprijin financiar
Firm ferm
Flat rate rat uniform
Float (a currency) a face/ a lsa s oscileze o moned strin
Float a company a lansa o societate
Flourish a prospera
147
Foot the bill a achita nota de plat
Forecast, an outlook o previziune
Foreign / overseas trade comer exterior
Foreign resident rezident strin
Forge a falsifica, a contraface (bancnote, documente)
Forgery contrafacere, falsificare, falsuri (bancnote, documente)
Free trade liber schimb
Fringe benefit beneficiu suplimentar (n afara salariului)
Futures market piaa tranzaciilor la termen
Gain a ctiga / un ctig, o plus-valoare
Gilt-edged securities valori/titluri fr risc (obligaiuni de stat)
Giro cecuri potale
Giro account cont-cecuri potal
Give notice a da un preaviz
Globalise a se extinde la scar mondial
Go belly up (US) a da faliment
Go into administration a fi supus unei proceduri de lichidare
juridicar
Go into liquidation a intra n lichidare
Go on a welfare a se nscrie la asisten social
Go public a intra la Burs, a fi acceptat la Burs
Go up, to rise a crete, a urca, a se mri
Goods, wares produse, mrfuri
Grant a acorda, a aloca / o alocaie, un ajutor financiar
Grant a loan a acorda un mprumut
Grant credit a acorda un credit
Greenbacks dolari (americanism familiar)
Gross Domestic Product Produsul Intern Brut
Gross National Product Produsul Naional Brut
Hard cash bani ghea
Hedge a se acoperi (risc)
Hike prices (US) a mri, a crete preuri
Historical cost accounting contabilitatea costurilor de achiziie /
istorice
Holder titular (carte de credit)
Holder of an account, account holder deintor al unui cont
Home savings plan plan de economii pt. (construcia de) locuine
Home trade comer intern
Hot money bani fierbini (capital atras din strintate de dobnzi
ridicate sau de un climat politic sigur)
In cash n numerar
In custody n custodie
In real terms n bani constani
In the red, overdrawn epuizat, descoperit (un cont)
Incentive un stimulent
148
Income statement (A.E.)/operating statement (B.E.) cont de
exploatare, cont de profituri i pierderi
Income tax impozit pe venit
Index a indexa
Index-linked indexat
Inflation inflaie
Inflationary inflaionist
Inheritance tax drepturi de succesiune
Interest dobnd
International Monetary Fund (I.M.F.) Fondul Monetar
Internaional (F.M.I.)
Investment (B.E. merchant) bank banc de investiii
Investments investiii
Invoice factur
Issue a emite
Jack up a mri preuri
Jewels bijuterii
Joint account cont comun
Junk bonds obligaiuni fr valoare
Kickstart the economy a impulsiona economia
Leave a deposit a lsa o garanie
Legal tender ofert legal, curs legal
Lend a da cu mprumut
Lending rate rata de mprumut
Level off a se relaxa
Leverage capacitate de influen / raportul dintre creane i capital
/ creterea rentabilitii capitalului unei societi ca urmare a
contractrii de datorii
Leveraged buyout rscumprarea unei societi datorit creterii
rentabilitii capitalului ca urmare a contractrii de datorii
Levy a percepe, a impune (o tax, un impozit) / o tax
Liabilities pasivul
Liquidation lichidare
Listed company societate pe aciuni
Loan shark un cmtar
Loans mprumuturi
Look up, to pick up a se redresa
Loss o pierdere
Loss-making, unprofitable nerentabil
Lump sum settlement plat forfetar, plat global
Make o marc (de fabric), fabricaie
Maturity (of a loan) scadena unui mprumut
Mercantile Exchange Bursa de mrfuri
Merchant bank o banc comercial
Merchant bank / Investment bank banc comercial / de
investiii
149
Mint institut britanic de emisiune monetar/ Monetria Statului
Monetary monetar
Monetary supply mas monetar
Money order mandat potal
Mortgage ipotec
Mutual Fund societate de investiii cu capital variabil
Note bancnot divizionar
Offset a contrabalansa, a compensa
Open up a avea un curs ridicat la deschidere
Opt-out clause o clauz excepional
Order o comand
Outlet un debueu, un punct de desfacere
Outstanding neachitat, ntrziat (la plat)
Overdraft descoperire n cont, sold debitor
Overdraw (an account) a descoperi, a epuiza un cont
Overdue expirat, ntrziat, scadent
Overheads, fixed costs cheltuieli fixe
Overheat a supranclzi
Over-the-counter market pia de titluri fr valoare
Pace beneficiar
Paper money bani de hrtie, bancnote
Pawn a gaja, a amaneta
Pawnbroker cmtar
Pay (in) cash a plti n numerar, a plti cu bani ghea
Pay as you earn (PAYE) plata prin prelevare direct de la surs
Pay back, to repay a rambursa
Pay into an account a vrsa ntr-un cont
Payee beneficiar
Pay-in slip foaie de depunere sau de vrsmnt
Payment by installments plat n rate
Payment in cash plat n numerar
Payment-in virament (ntr-un cont)
Pick up the tab a achita nota de plat
Plough back profits a reinvesti profiturile
Plummet a merge foarte prost, a avea greuti mari
Policy o politic, o strategie
Portfolio un portofoliu (de valori)
Postpone a ntrzia, a amna
Premise locaie
Price index un indice de pre
Prime rate (A.E.) rat de baz
Private limited company societate cu rspundere limitat
Privatise a privatiza
Production, output producie
Profit margin o marj de profit
Promissory note bilet de ordin, cambie, titlu de gaj, obligaiune
150
Pundit un expert
Purchase o achiziie, o cumprare
Qualified majority majoritatea calificat
Quid (B.E.) bancnot sau bancnote de o lir (familiar)
Quota o cot-parte
Quote a cota
Quoted or listed company societate cotat la burs
Rally a se reface, a se ntri
Recover a se restabili, a-i reveni, a se reface
Recurring care se repet, periodic, recurent
Recurring expenses cheltuieli recurente
Reduce, to cut back a reduce
Refund a rambursa
Registrar of companies registrul de comer
Regulation regulament, reglementare
Remittance vrsmnt
Rents chirii
Repay, to pay back a rambursa
Residual value valoare rezidual
Restrict a impune o restricie
Retail price index indicele preurilor cu amnuntul
Revalue a reevalua
Revenue venituri
Rights issue emisiuni rezervate acionarilor
Rise in prices o cretere a preurilor
Running costs cheltuieli variabile
Safe cas de bani
Savings economii, bani economisii
Savings account cont de economii
Savings Bank cas de economii
Security titlu de valoare
Sell at a premium a vinde sub preul pieei
Sell short a vinde la termen, a subevalua
Setback o cdere, o involuie, un regres
Settle a echilibra un cont, a plti
Settlement plat
Share a mpri, a participa mpreun
Share o aciune
Shoot up a crete vertiginos
Short term pe termen scurt
Shortage o penurie
Shortfall o lips, o insuficien
Sight withdrawal retragere la vedere
Single market o pia unic
Slacken, to slow down a ncetini, a frna
Slash a reduce radical
151
Slide a scdea
Slow payer ru platnic
Slump a scdea masiv
Small amount, small sum sum mic
Solvency solvabilitate
Spending cheltuieli
Spin-off o schimbare radical
Spot market piaa tranzaciilor cu plata pe loc
Spread / Margin marj, margine
Squeeze a presa, a constrnge
Stagflation stagflaie, (stagnare economic + inflaie)
Stagnate a stagna
Stake participare, interest
Standard of living standardul de via
Statement of account extras de cont bancar
Steady stabil
Stimulate a sitmula
Stock Exchange Bursa de Valori
Stock market o pia bursier
Stock, securities valori, titluri
Stockbroker un agent de schimb/burs
Stub, counter-foil cotor, talon, matc (de chitan, cec etc.)
Subscribe a subscrie
Subscription abonament
Subside a subveniona
Sue a face un proces, a chema n instan
Sum o sum
Summit o ntlnire de vrf
Supply / provide sb. With sth. ofert, a furniza ceva cuiva
Survey un studiu, o anchet
Swap swap (operaie de schimb ntre dou devize prevzut pentru
o anumit perioad)
Target o int
Tariff un tarif vamal
Tax a impune taxe, a impozita
Tax allowance scutire de taxe
Tax break o reducere/ scdere de impozit
Tax collector un perceptor
Tax haven un paradis fiscal
Tax relief degrevare de impozit
Taxpayer un contribuabil
Telegraphic money order mandat telegrafic
Thrive, to prosper a prospera
Tighten ones belt a strnge cureaua
Trade a face comer
Trade bank banc comercial
152
Trade gap un deficit comercial
Transfer a transfera, a vira
Travellers cheques (A.E. travelers checks) cecuri de cltorie
Treasury tezaurul public
Trend o tendin
Trust a avea ncredere, a ncredina
Turnover volumul afacerilor
Underwrite garantarea subscrierii unei emisiuni
Upturn, an upswing o redresare, o ascensiune
Valuables obiecte de valoare
Valuables / deeds acte, valori
Value added tax tax pe valoarea adugat
Venture capital capital de risc
Veto sth. a-i exprima dreptul de veto fa de ceva
Volatile nervos, febril
Wind up a lichida
Withdraw a retrage
Withdrawal prevelare, retragere
Write out (to make out) a cheque a trage, a ntocmi un cec
Yield a aduce, a produce venit
Yield randament
Yield an interest a produce o dobnd


Cheia exerciiilor

Module 1

Reading Summary B is the best. The other two are, according to
the text, wrong.
Practice 1 a model version of the dialogue
Visitor: Hello, my names Henrik van der Linden from Amtel. I have
an appointment with Sandra Bates.
Receptionist: Oh, yes, Mr Van der Linden. Welcome to Datalink. Ms
Bates will be along in a few minutes. Shes just finishing a meeting.
Can I get you something to drink?
Visitor: No thanks, Im fine. Er, but I wonder if I could use the
phone?
Receptionist: Yes, of course. And anything else if you need to
send a fax or anything
Visitor: No, its okay, just the phone.
Receptionist: Right, well you can use this one.
Visitor: Thanks. (dials) Hallo, (fade)
(a few minutes later)
Visitor: (fade in) Au revoir. (click) Thank you very much.
153
Receptionist: Not at all. If theres anything else you need, please
ask. Anything
Visitor: Yes, I was wondering how far is it to the station?
Receptionist: Its about two miles ten minutes by taxi. Shall I
book one?
Visitor: Er, yes, thank you. that would be good. Can we say four
oclock?
Receptionist: Right, Ill do that. Oh, I think Ms Bates is free now.
Shall I take you to her office?
Visitor: With pleasure. Thanks.
Exercise 1 First words
Visitor: a, d, f, g, i, k // the person receiving the visitor: b, c, e, h, j, l,
m
Exercise 2 Ending the small talk
a) B; b) A; c) B; d) B; e) A


Module 2

Reading find words
1 literal a. direct and clear
2 understatement b. less strong way of talking
3 deduce b. work out
4 vague a. unclear
5 devious b. dishonest
6 pleasantries c. polite remarks
Exercise 1 Making a call
(in order): speak to; through; office; can; hello; bad; speak; speaking;
put; through; hold; office; moment; number; ring; back; on; message;
rang; call
Practice 1 a model answer
Reception: Good morning, Gorliz and Zimmerman.
Lara Camden: Hello, my names Lara Camden from Bulmer Cables
Ltd. Please could I speak to Mr. Conrad Bird?
Reception: Im sorry, but Mr. Bird is not in at the moment.
Lara Camden: I see. Er when do you think I could contact him?
Reception: Well, at the moment hes away. Would you like to leave a
message?
Lara Camden: Yes, perhaps you would ask Mr. Bird to call me? My
names Camden, Lara Camden, on 0181 299 462.
Reception: Right, thats Lara Canden on 0181 299 462. Okay?
Lara Camden: Yes, er Camden. CAMDEN.
Reception: Oh yes, sorry! Ive got that now.
Lara Camden: Thank you. I look forward to hearing from Mr. Bird.
Reception: Its a pleasure. Thanks for calling. Bye for now.
154
Practice 2 a model example of the conversation
Intership: Intership, good morning.
Computech: Hello, my names Alex Hall from Computech Arcos in
Singapore.
Intership: Sorry, did you say Alex Hall from Computech Arcos?
Computech: Yes, thats right.
Intership: Okay, how can I help you, Mr. Hall?
Computech: Well, Id like an appointment with Mr. Dionis.
Intership: Can you tell me whats about?
Computech: Certainly. Id like to discuss the transporting of goods
from Singapore to Athens.
Intership: I see. When would be a good time for you to come here?
Computech: May I suggest next week?
Intership: Im sorry, next weeks not possible Mr. Dionis is away
next week. How about the beginning of the next month?
Computech: Yes, that would be okay. Could we say Monday 3
rd
of
May?
Intership: Er, unfortunately Mr. Dionis is busy all day on that
Monday. He could make it Tuesday 4
th
.
Computech: Thats fine. Shall we say ten a.m.?
Intership: Yes, thats a good time for us. Erm can I ask you to
confirm by fax? And would you like us to book you a hotel?
Computech: Ill fax and thank you but no, the hotel booking isnt
necessary. I think thats everything, for now
Intership: Right, many thanks, we look forward to your fax to
confirm the meeting. Goodbye, Mr. Hall.
Computech: Bye for now.

A model of a fax message of confirmation:

Computech Arcos
Lorong One Toa Payoh
Singapore 1253
Telephone: ++65 350 574
Fax: ++65 250 552

Fax to: Mr. Dionis (Intership S.A.)
Fax Number: 30 1 657677 Page 1 of 1
From: Date: 19 April 19

Re. Meeting with Mr. Dionis

With reference to our phone conversation of this morning I write to
confirm my appointment with Mr. Dionis next month.
Subject: Transport of goods from Singapore to Athens.
Date of Meeting: Tuesday 4
th
May at 10 a.m.
155
I also confirm that I will make my own hotel arrangements.

I look forward to meeting Mr. Dionis next month.
Best regards


Exercise 2 Changing arrangements
See language input.
Practice 3
Tao Loon: Hello, Sales Office here.
Luisa: Hello, my names Luisa Dominguez. Im ringing from Spain
from Berraondo Company.
Tao Loon: How can I help you, Ms Dominguez?
Luisa: The problem concerns a printer order. Let me give you the
order number its HF5618. Its its for twenty printers. The
problem is that only seventeen have arrived.
Tao Loon: Really? Im surprised to hear that.
Luisa: Well, Im afraid its the second time we have received and
incomplete delivery and nobody told us there would only be
seventeen.
Tao Loon: Well, no, I think it was probably an administration
mistake.
Luisa: Yes, Im sure. Now, we need the other three printers
urgently. Delays are causing us problem with our customers. They
are rather unhappy.
Tao Loon: Okay, er, at the moment we have some stock problems.
Luisa: Well, can you give me a delivery date its very urgent.
Tao Loon: Right let me see. We can promise you a despatch next
Monday.
Luisa: No, Im sorry, thats not good enough. We need despatch
now.
Tao Loon: Im sorry thats not possible. But well despatch on
Monday, I assure you.
Luisa: Well, will you please send a fax to confirm that.
Tao Loon: Of course. And I do apologize for the problem.
Luisa: Right, goodbye for now.
Tao Loon: Goodbye.
Reading
a. True; b. True; c. False; d. False; e. True; f. False


Module 3

Practice 1
Tokyo medical congress
156
a. Probably very formal.
b. High expectations in terms of technical support, a fair amount of
detail and clearly a lot of expertise.
c. High level of specialist knowledge audience are experts.
d. Depends on congress organization probably less then an hour.
e. Depends on congress organization probably questions follow.
f. Use of visual supports with key information, plus later publication
of Congress Proceedings
Purchasing and Product Managers of a Taiwanese company
a. Probably semi-formal.
b. High expectations in terms of technical support, a fair amount of
detail and clearly a lot of expertise.
c. High level of specialist knowledge at least the Product Manager
will be very expert, the Purchasing Manager perhaps less so.
d. Depends on objectives and on complexity of equipment. Could be a
very long presentation, even a whole day or a one hour
presentation might be enough.
e. Probably interruption are encouraged to make everything clear as
the presenter goes along.
f. Use of visual support, photographs, diagrams, or the actual
machine itself. Follow-up documentation will also be available.
Internal meeting / administrative staff
a. Informal.
b. Reasonably high expectations in terms of speakers knowledge.
c. The audience will probably have good background knowledge but
have come to learn about a new system.
d. Probably short thought it might be half a day!
e. Interruptions encouraged.
f. Probably illustrations, possibly handouts.
A staff meeting / charity event
a. Informal.
b. Low expectations.
c. The audience have come to hear ideas.
d. Probably short five or ten minutes?
e. Interruptions encouraged.
f. Keep to clear simple structure making one or two important points.
Practice 2
Subject / title of talk. 1
Introduction to oneself, job title, etc. 4
Reference to questions and / or discussion. 2
Reference to the programme for the day. 4
Reference to how long you are going to speak for. 3
Reference to the visual aids you plan to use. 5
The scope of your talk: what is and is not included. 4
An outline of the structure of your talk. 1
A summary of the conclusions. 4
157
Note: There are no hard rules about what should be included. Most
suggestions here are open to discussion and
variation, depending on circumstances.
Reading
a.
Visuals make information more memorable
Help the speaker
Show information which is not easily expressed in words
Highlight information
Cause audience to employ another sense to receive information
Bring variety and therefore increase audiences attention
Save time
Clarify complex information
b.
Presenters sometimes place the major emphasis on visual aids and
relegate themselves to the minor role of narrator or technician
Visuals must support what the speaker says
It is not enough just to read what the visual says
Reading
Find out about the audience.
Find out what they need to know.
Plan what youre going to say.
Say it clearly and concisely.
Introduce information using lists.
Give a link between parts of the presentation.
Provide a logical sequencing of information.
Use careful repetition of key information.
Dont give too much information or too many fact.
Reading
a. The main body of the presentation contains the details of what was
introduced in the introduction.
b. See figure included in the text.
Practice 4 a model of presentation
Good morning, everyone. Id like to talk about the advertising mix for
the new Cheri range of beauty products. We are planing two
categories of advertising, above-the-line and below-the-line. Ill talk
first about above-the-line advertising. There are three kinds: these are
television commercials, secondly, newspapers newspaper
advertising. The third kind is magazines. There are two basic types we
aim at: youth magazines and those aimed specifically at the womens
market. Now, below-the-line advertising: there are three methods here
also: the first is in-store advertising, then theres on-pack promotions
and finally targeted mailing. So, in-store advertising: what does it
mean? Basically, displays in the shop, merchandising, and that sort
158
of thing. The second below-the-line advertising is on-pack promotions
there are many kinds, most obviously things like coupons,
competitions, joint promotions and free samples. The last kind of
below-the-line advertising is targeted mailing, using a mailing list.
That completes the overview of what we can do to launch the product,
so
Reading
a. No response from the audience.
b.
A truly successful and interesting talk will avoid the problem.
The speaker can give an instruction to the audience especially in
sales presentations.
To have question prepared to ask the audience, or identify someone
whom you know will have something to say.
Handling questions
Difficulties may arise because:
1.questions / discussion is relatively unstructured
2. the speaker has less control
3. speaker has to switch into listen and answer mode
4. it may be difficult to hear, to understand, to answer or to
distinguish between an opinion and a question.
Practice 5 model answers
1. So, that concludes what I want to say, so now Id like to ask you for
your comments, opening up discussion, or perhaps you have a
question or two?
2. Er, in fact what I said was this process has been going on for a very
long time. Im sorry if I was not clear on this point.
3. I wonder if anyone can suggest why this has happened or if anzone
has any comments on it?
4. Yes, youre right, but can I suggest one or two other factors? One is
the increasing number of take-overs of smaller companies
5. So are you saying that in the USA or Europe that could not
happen?
6. Yes, I agree, but the situation is changing.
7. Sorry, I dont quite follow you. Can you say that again put it
another way ?
Exercise 1 The new product
Introducing yourself
Good morning ladies and gentlemen; we havent all met before so Id
better introduce myself. Im Luis Lopez from the development
department of Citrus Incorporated I should say before we start that
I hope youll excuse my English. Im a little out of practice
Preparing the audience
Anyway, Im going to be talking this morning about a new product
which we are planning to launch in two months time; its called
159
KOOL-OUT, thats K-O-O-L dash O-U-T, and its a lemon-flavoured
drink
Well, Ill start with the background to the product launch; and then
move on to a description of the product itself, Im going to list some of
the main selling points that we should emphasize in the advertising
and sales campaign. I think if you dont mind, well leave questions to
the end
Delivering the message
Now firstly, as you all know, we had a gap in our soft-drink product
range for the last two years; we have been manufacturing mixed-fruit
drinks and orange drinks for the last ten years, but we stopped
producing lemonade two years ago; I think we all agreed that there
was room on the market for a completely new lemon-flavoured drink
Secondly, the market research indicated that more and more
consumers are using soft drinks as mixers with alcohol, so in other
words, the market itself has expanded.
This brings me to my next point which is that we have rather new
customer-profile in mind; I must emphasize that this product is
aimed at the young-professional, high-income, market and not the
traditional consumer of old-fashioned lemonade. At this point we
must consider the importance of packaging and design, and if you
look at the video in a moment, youll see that we have completely re-
vamped the container itself as well as the label and slogan
Now to digress for just a moment, the more sophisticated packaging
means a high unit cost, and this may be a problem in the selling area,
but well have a chance to discuss that aspect later so to go back
to my earlier point, this is a totally new concept as far as Citrus
Incorporated are concerned; as you see we are using both the new-
size glass bottle and the miniature metal cans.
Finally, lets look at the major attractions of the product. In spite of
the higher price it will compete well with existing brands; the design
is more modern than any of the current rival products, and
incidentally the flavour is more realistic and natural its low calorie,
too.
Winding-up
O.K., so just before closing, Id like to summarize my main points
again We have KOOL-OUT, a new design concept, aimed at a
relatively new age and income group; its designed to be consumed on
its own, as a soft drink, or to be used as a mixer in alcohol-based
drinks and cocktails. It comes in both bottle and can and this will
mean a slightly higher price than we are used to; but the improved
flavour and the package design should give us a real advantage in
todays market well, thats all I have today for the moment, thank
you for listening, now if there are any questions, Ill be happy to
answer them
Exercise 2 The product presentation
160
See the model presentation and use the words in italics.
Exercise 3 Can I interrupt here?
A 2; b 3; c 4; d 5; e 1
Exercise 4 Anticipating questions
(suggestions) a. I can hear you say b. Now you may well ask, what
does he mean by c. An obvious problem is the cost of the
accessories. d. You will have noticed that e. Now you may well ask


Module 4

Practice 1
a. Welcome, everybody. Thank you for coming.
b. We are here today to talk about (and to decide ; to look at)
c. We have an agenda with three points. (Youve all seen the agenda.
Id like to ask if anyone has any comments on it.)
d. I think Mr. Kano is ready to tell us something about (Can I ask
to open with his remarks.)
e. If you dont mind, can we let Mr. Kano finish? (Sorry, , I cant
allow us to consider that question just yet)
f. Thank you for that
g. Now, can I ask Ms Perez de Sanchez to tell us her views
h. Er, can we try to keep to the topic I think we have gone away
from it a little.
i. Id like to sum up the main points. (So let me summarize that. You
say that )
j. Would anyone like to say anything else on this? (Does anyone have
anything to add to that?)
k. I think we ought to move on to the next topic on the agenda.
l. So, before the next meeting, Ill send out a report on this one, Mr
Kano will prepare () and will then fix a new date, some time next
month.
m. Thank you. thats everything. Thats it for today.
Practice 2
1. A model of Agenda

Axis Finance Limited
Marketing Group: Year-end meeting

Time: Finish:
Place:

Participants:
Agenda
1. Apologizes for absence
161
2. Minutes of previous meeting
3. Chairs opening address
4. Personnel changes
5. Review of marketing performance in the current year
6. New products
7. Marketing plans for next year
8. Any other business
9. Date of next meeting

2. The chairs opening statement: a model
Okay I think we should begin. Thanks for coming and as you know
this is we are here for our annual meeting. As you know from the
agenda there are four main issues to discuss. The first to review is the
personnel changes. Secondly, well look at the marketing performances
in the current year. Then well discuss about new products. And
finally, well examine the marketing plans for the next year. So any
comments, any suggestions, or is everyone happy with the agenda?
Okay, then lets start with item one on the agenda. I think Mr. Smith
has prepared a statement on the personnel changes so Ill hand over
to him.
Practice 3 a model conversation
A: The fall in sales is mainly due to the recession affecting world
markets.
B: Er, can you tell us exactly how much sales have gone down?
A: Well, its a general fall of around 5 % in sales for most product
areas. Also, specifically in the oil processing sector, we have much
lower sales, mainly because we sold our UK subsidiary, Anglo Oils.
B: Can we talk about the decision to sell Anglo Oils
A: Well, no, Id rather not go into that. We discussed that in previous
meetings. Id prefer to talk about future prospects. The outlook is very
good just now
B: What? Id say things look quite bad.
A: Im very surprised you say that. In fact, sales forecasts are much
better now. Anyway, let me tell you
B: Sorry, I think Id like to hear more about new markets.
A: New markets? Yes, but can we talk about new markets later? I
have some important information on that. But first
B: Wait, dont you think we should take a short break have a
coffee?
A: Take a break? Weve only just started!
Reading
1.
a. Decision making meetings.
b. The structure of decision making: see the bulleted points in the
second paragraph.
162
c. Communication has to be a two-way process to be successful.
2.
a. Not all meetings are to make decision as implied in the first
sentence of the text. Decisions may already have been made, so a
meting is called to tell people about the decision (an information
giving meeting).
b. An alternative description of the structure of decision making is the
DESC model, which is included in the Skills Checklist.
c. In many instances of communication, a message is given and it is
sufficient that it is comprehended, without even an
acknowledgement (a recorded message, for example). However, this
may be slitting hairs: the point is that in meetings at least an
acknowledgement or agreement is expected. It seems fair to say
that in most cases, communication is a two-way process.
d. It is true that often an agreement, or a consensus, can be arrived
at without a formal vote: it is the leaders responsibility to make
clear what the consensus is and ask if everyone accepts it.
3.
a. consensus
b. time- and cost-effective manner
c. goal
d. set an objective
e. imperatives
f. desirables
g. evaluate alternatives
h. perception
i. awareness / empathy
j. evolve
k. verbalize
Reading
a. a restatement of objectives
- a summary of what has been accomplished
- a summary of what action must be taken after meeting
b. Meetings should be part of a learning experience, so future
meetings can be improved by asking participants to evaluate
meetings.
Practice 4 a model conversation
A: Can we reach a decision on this?
B: Well, I I think er, I think we need more information.
A: Hmm. Can you explain say exactly what sort of detail you think
we need?
B: Well, I feel first of all, we need to know more about the effects of a
price increase.
A: Perhaps we should, er, commission some market research?
163
B: Yes, I agree. Thats right. We could ask Hamid to recommend
someone.
A: Well, I think before that we could look at our own experience of
price rises. Then later we can perhaps ask a marketing consultancy.
Does everyone agree with that proposal?
All: (murmur of agreement)
A: Okay, lets move to the next item on the agenda.
Practice 5 a model example
So, weve almost finished. Does anyone have anything else to say?
Well, we had to decide on action regarding training courses. To
summarize, to confirm our decision, weve agreed a $10,000 budget.
And also that Peter is going to identify three possible training
organizations. Is everyone happy? Is that okay? Now, Peter will
organize a presentation for next week, on the 14
th
at 2 p.m. until
then, thanks everyone for coming. Thats it for today.
Exercise 1 Chairing a meeting
Chairman Id like us to reach a decision today about item 1. The
issue is falling sales in the Italian market. Henry will explain the
background to this, and the present situation.
Henry Thanks. Well, as you know, in Italy weve always so thats
how things are at the moment.
Chairman Thank you, Henry. Now, lets look at possible courses of
action.
Bob Could I just say something ? The Italian market isnt as
important to us as the Russian orders. I was in Moscow last week,
and learnt some pretty interesting things about the way things are
moving out there.
Chairman Lets keep to the immediate subject, which is the Italian
market.
Arnold Sorry to interrupt, but if we launch a new advertising
campaign in Italy it would cost a fortune! You said yourself that we
havent enough money to advertise on every television in Europe!
Chairman Lets not jump too far ahead at this stage.
Bob My own feeling is this : in years of experience, in many different
markets throughout the world, Ive often found that, when and you
know, if I could pass on my experience to the younger people here, Id
say that the only way to sell in Italy is to go there and see the market
for yourself, instead of asking your agents to do it.
Chairman Sorry to interrupt you, Bob, but Id like to know if the
others agree. What do you think about this, Walter?
Walter Im not too sure about this . My own feeling is that if
Bob I dont know why you dont ask me. Ive been to Italy so many
times recently.
Chairman Could you let Walter finish? Id like to have his view on
this .
164
Walter Well, Id like to say that for the last two years we havent had
a stand at the Milan Trade Fair. I understand that the Fair has
produced lots of contracts in the past.
Chairman Thats an interesting point, Walter . Lets summarize what
weve said so far. Bob thinks we depend on the agents too much, and
Walter suggests that the Trade Fair is important.
Exercise 2 Formal meetings
a. address; approve; move; second; carried; casting; on
b. true: 1, 2, 6, 7
false: 3, 4, to second means to give formal support to the motion
for presentation to the board, 5 to abstain means to decide no to
vote
Exercise 3 Could I ask you a question?
You: Im afraid I cant comment at the moment.
You: A statement will be issued shortly.
You: Im sorry, but I cant comment at this stage.
You: Yes, Im pleased to be in your country.
You: I cant tell you anything before the statement is issued.
You: I would rather not answer that question at present.
You: I did not say that at all.


Module 5

Practice 1 a model
a. Well, welcome to Its very good that you could come to see us
here.
b. I hope you had a good trip? Not too long ? Did you get a taxi
when you arrives here?
c. At lunchtime well be able to show you a little bit of the city have
something to eat in a local restaurant.
d. Well, shall we make a start?
e. Okay, well, can I ask Luke Fox, from our Marketing Department, to
begin our discussion with some opening remarks. I think youve
met James already this morning, and a little while ago too?
f. Firstly, we see this meeting as an exploratory session, I think its
best for both of us that we look at some general questions.
g. Wed like to establish the beginnings of a partnership It would be
particularly interesting for us to learn about your supply systems
about price variations and about supply costs.
Practice 2
1.
Identify your minimum requirements. 2
Prepare your opening statement. 7
Decide what concessions you could make. 3
165
Know your own strengths and weaknesses. 4
Know your role as part of a team. 6
Prepare your negotiation position know your aims and objectives.1
Prepare any figures, any calculations and any support materials you
may need. i
2.
a. Knowing your aims and objectives
ii. helps clear thinking and purpose.
b. Knowing your own strengths and weaknesses
iv. helps you to know the market, the context in which you want to
work.
c. Preparing any figures, calculations and other materials
5 means you can support your argument.
d. Preparing an opening statement
iii. creates reasonable expectations.
Reading
1.
a. T
b. F Better not to guess (though privately you might to some extend).
c. T
d. F Issues are best dealt together with other issues, in a package.
e. T One should usually be prepared to make concessions.
f. T
g. F No, one can keep on talking and find a way round the problem.
2.
a. Check what they say without commenting, at least not
immediately.
b. Vary the quantity or the quality, or bring in third parties.
c. Be prepared, think about the whole package, be constructive.

Practice 3
b We can give you free delivery with a larger order.
c We provide free on-site training for only a small price increase.
d. We can give 5 % discount if you agree to payment on delivery.
e. We can offer you an extra 50,000 compensation in exchange for
your agreement not to go to law.
f. We promise to improve safety for staff provided that we reach
agreement on new contracts.
g. The company will introduce better working conditions if the staff
accept shorter breaks.
Practice 4
Ojanpera: Well, were happy to buy a machine if you can give us a
good price.
Beck: Im sure we can. As you know our prices are very competitive.
Ojanpera: Even so, Im sure you can allow us a discount?
166
Beck: Okay, well a discount could be possible if you agree to pay for
the shipping costs.
Ojanpera: That sounds okay, if the discount is a good one.
Beck: How about 4 %?
Ojanpera: 6 % would be better.
Beck: Im sorry, we cant manage that unless you pay for the
installation.
Ojanpera: Okay, our engineers will take care of that.
Beck: Okay then, so to confirm: a 6 % discount but you pay all the
shipping and installation costs.
Ojanpera: That sounds all right.
Practice 5


GIBSON TRUST LIMITED
Units 9-12 East Side Monks Cross Industrial Estate BRISTOL BSI4
6TR
Telephone 01272 547777 Fax 01272 547701



Neil Finch
Ministry of Urban Development
140- 144 Whitehall
London WCI 4RF
May 2 200


Dear Neil,

Re: Meeting in Bristol, April 30 --- Railway Land Sale

I am writing to (a) confirm points (b)agreed in the above meeting, held
to discuss the sale of government owned railway land to Gibson Trust
Limited.

We would like to confirm through this letter and the (c) enclosed
drawings that the property (d) included in the above sale consists of
the land presently occupied by the station buildings and also the
former car parks to the east of the station, the offices to the west and
the warehouse alongside the tracks. The government-owned housing
on the north side of the railway lines is (e) excluded .

We also agree that the station will be renovated by the Transport
Department and that the government will be responsible for running
an eventual museum and paying a rent of 100,000 per year to
167
Gibson Trust. The remaining land will be (f) developed by Gibson
Trust and later sold off separately. The development is intended to be
for commercial and residential use. The eventual use of the land
should be (g) specified in the contract.

Our next meeting will be on May 15 at 10 a.m., at which development
plans will be (h) examined. Soon after this, contracts will be (i) drawn
up. Then we will need time to consider the contracts but hopefully
they will be (j) signed by the end of September.

Do contact us if you have any comments or alterations you would like
to make to this summary. Thank you once again for a very
constructive meeting and we look forward to seeing you again on May
15.


Your sincerely,

Jill Kearne
Chief Negotiator
Encs. (I)

Reading
a. emphasize the benefits available to both sides
b. invent new options for mutual gain
c. change the package
d. adjourn to think and reflect
e. change location
f. change negotiator (personal chemistry?)
g. bring in a third party (mediator?)
h. fix an off-the-record meeting
Practice 6
Situation 1
The problem is that we have never offered the kind of warranty you
are looking for.
Since we have a difficulty here, may I suggest we leave the problem of
the warranty and come back to it later? Perhaps we could talk about
training for our technical staff?
Situation 2
Theres a number of issues on the table. We seem to be a long way
from an agreement.
Can I suggest a lower price, but link this with us paying the shipment
costs or agreeing to different payment terms?
Situation 3
168
The price you are asking is rather high, quite a lot higher than we
were expecting.
Well, if it would help, we could agree to longer payment terms
Situation 4
There are several problems. We think there is quite a lot of negotiation
ahead before we can agree on a common strategy.
The benefits of reaching agreement are considerable. We will have
more global influence and better prospects for the future.
Strategies in dealing with conflict
Strategy 1
I think were not really making much progress. Perhaps it would be
better to leave this point for a while and come back to it later. Could
we talk about a different aspect to the deal, perhaps the question of
delivery?
Strategy 2
I think it is important to think about what could happen if we do not
reach agreement. The most obvious consequence will be that we will
both lose market share. The only winners will be our competitors. It
could be serious for both of us.
Strategy 3
There seem to be a number of problems, but Id like to summarize the
positive elements issues where we have made progress. First, we
agree that we have to settle the dispute between us, we understand
how important this is. Second, we agree that the terms of our original
agreement need to be changed. Third, we also agree that the change
will depend on the different market conditions which affect our
products These are important points of progress.
Strategy 4
Can I suggest we take a short break? I think it will help if we look at
some of the issues that are dividing us. Perhaps we will see areas
where we can make a fresh offer.
Strategy 5
The point at issue, Mr. Cinis, is quite simple. We can offer you an
extra 5 % discount, but only if the order is increased by 20 % over the
next three years.
Practice 7

Situation 1
Let me make a suggestion. If you agree to buy 100 units every month
for the next twelve months, well agree a 10 % discount.
Unfortunately, I cant say how many well need in six months and
certainly not in twelve. I cant take the risk on such a large order at this
stage.
Situation 2
169
The price we are offering excludes installation costs but does include
a twelve months guarantee.
Im afraid thats not really acceptable. You know that other suppliers
offer free installation and two year parts and labour warranty?
Situation 3
I think the absolute minimum investment in advertising must be
$40,000, otherwise we cannot reach enough of our market. Its not
much to ask for.
Its a pity but its still more than our budget. I cant go that high.
Situation 4
Now, some excellent news: wed like to increase our order. Right now
you are sending us 350 boxes a month. We need at least 500, demand
is very high
Well, Im glad youre having a lot of success with our products, but the
bad news is that our order books are full, and the plant is working at
full capacity. Were a bit stuck Im afraid
Practice 8
Situation 1
Its been a long meeting, but finally Im very glad were able to reach
agreement. I think it would be good if we could go on to a restaurant
now, wed be pleased if you can join us.
Situation 2
Im sorry our efforts to reach agreement have not been successful. I
suggest we stop here, but I hope that in the future we might work
together on something.
Situation 3
Unfortunately I feel it would be better if I dont join you on this
project, but no doubt therell be plenty of other things well work on.
Situation 4
Id like to repeat our order, but not on those terms. Im sorry, we cant
agree to this. I think well go elsewhere, but thanks anyway.
Situation 5
Im sorry, but it really is physically impossible. We cannot supply
goods in so short time. Its just impossible. Sorry we cant help you.
Exercise 1 Your turn to negotiate
Suggested replies: Lets see how we get on. Why such a long delivery
period? This is our position. We need delivery of six weeks maximum,
with four weeks for installation. Im sorry, but I cant accept eight
weeks. Youll have to do better than that, Im afraid. Im afraid I cant
increase the delivery period any further. I have my instructions. May I
make a suggestion? If you can promise delivery in six weeks, then we
may be able to talk about further order. Lets go through the terms:
six weeks for delivery and four weeks for installation; and the decision
about the next order to be taken by the 26
th
. Agreed?
Exercise 2 Ten rules for negotiating
170
a 4; b 6; c 1; d 8; e 2; f 5; g 7; h 3.
Exercise 3 When things get difficult
A. Would you like me to go through that again? B. Ill have to come
back to you on this. C. Could you give me a moment to do some
calculations? D. What is the basis of calculation for transport? E. Im
just looking. Could you bear with me a moment? F. The figure for
installation costs? What is the basis for calculation? G. Im sorry,
could you go through it again?
Exercise 4 Vocabulary for contracts
a. agreement; parties; sections; clauses; conditions. b. provides for,
binding; abide by/comply with; breach c. arbitration; litigation;
compromise; court; out of court d. term; terminate.
Exercise 5 Licensing terms
(in order): have the legal rights over; let you have; permission;
country; an immediate payment; 5 % to pay; yearly bottom limit;
period; further years; when it ended; illegal copying; official
manufacturer; ask for a ban; copiers.



Module 6

Discussion
A personal choice of qualities: D, F, H, and J.
Vocabulary
a. 1 resources 2 manageable 3 setting, communicate
4 supervise, performance 5 achieved 6 board of directors
7 innovations
b.Common collocations include: allocate resources (or people);
communicate information or decisions; develop strategies (or people
or subordinates); make decisions; measure performance; motivate
people; perform jobs; set objectives; and supervise subordinates.

Module 7

Vocabulary
1 C; 2 E; 3 B; 4 A; 5 F; 6 G; 7 D
Reading
A functional structure
B matrix structure
C line structure
D staff position


Describing company structure
171
Here is a short description of the organization chart illustrated.
The chief Executive Officer reports to the President and the Board of
Directors. The company is divided into five major departments:
Production, Marketing, Finance, Research & Development, and
Human Resources. The Marketing Department is subdivided into
Market Research, Sales and Advertising & Promotions. The Finance
Department contains both Financial Management and Accounting.
Sales consists of two sections, the Northern and Southern Regions,
whose heads report to the Sales Manager, who is accountable to the
Marketing Manager.
Module 8

Vocabulary
a. 1 subcontractor 2 component
3 outsourcing or contracting out 4 capacity 5 plant
6 location 7 inventory 8 lead time
b. 1 A and E 2 C 3 D 4 A and E 5 A and E 6 D
7 F 8 E 9 F 10 E 11 B 12 E 13 B 14 C and E 15 B and F
Reading
1 component 2 subcontractor 3 inventory 4 outsourcing
5 location 6 plants 7 capacity 8 lead times
Reading
1. What is a product? / The definition of a product.
2. Brand names.
3. Product lines and product mixes.
4. Line-stretching and line-filling.
Vocabulary
1 credit facilities 2 warranty or guarantee 3 shelf
4 brand-switchers 5 (product) life cycle 6 profitability
7 opportunities 8 market share 9 image 10 niche

Module 9
Vocabulary
1 A 2 I 3 F 4 H 5 D 6 J 7 E 8 B 9 C
10 G

Reading
Paragraph 1 the selling and marketing concepts
Paragraph 2 identifying market opportunities
Paragraph 3 the importance of market research
Paragraph 4 the marketing mix
Paragraph 5 company-to-company marketing
Comprehension
1. Customer needs; 2. Market; 3. Coordinated marketing; 4. Profits
through customer satisfaction
172
Vocabulary
1 word-of-mouth advertising 2 institutional or prestige advertising
3 advertising agencies 4 an account 5 an advertising budget
6 a brief 7 advertising campaign
8 target customers or target market 9 media planners
10 the threshold effect 11 the comparative-parity method
12 counter-cyclical advertising
Discussion
The numbers of respodents who agreed with the statements were as
follows:
1. 90% 2. 72% 3. 85% 4. 51% 5. 41% 6. 49% 7. 60%
8. 57%
Reading
1 target 2 awareness 3 medium 4 tactics
5 trial 6 maturity 7 aimed 8 loyalty 9 advertising
10 channel
Summarizing
1 When a new product is launched, the producer has to inform
customers about its existence and develop brand awareness.
2 Promotion is one of the four elements of the marketing mix; sales
promotions are one of the four different promotional tools.
3 The advantages of publicity include the fact that it is much cheaper
than advertising, and can have a better impact, because it seems that
people are more likely to read and believe publicity than advertising.
4 The four stages of the standard product life cycle (excluding the pre-
launched development stage) are introduction, growth, maturity and
decline.
5 Reasons to offer temporary price reductions include attracting
price-conscious brand-switchers, offsetting a promotion by a
competitor, and, for stores, attracting customers by way of loss
leaders.
6. Sales promotions need not only be aimed at customers; they can
also be used with distributors, dealers and retailers, and with a
companys sales force.
7. Apart from selling a companys products, sales representatives
bring information back to a company from its customers, including
ideas for new products.
Vocabulary
1. competitors 2 word-of-mouth advertising 3 brand-switchers
4 points of sale 5 brand name 6 line-stretching 7 packaging
8 product improvement 9 media plan 10 packaging

Module 10

Reading
173
1 Market leaders
2 Expanding markets
3 Market challengers
4 Market followers
5 Establishing a niche / Dangers faced by market followers
Vocabulary
1 market share 2 promotions 3 monopoly
4 competitors 5 slogan 6 market segmentation 7 niche
8 differential advantage 9 turnover 10 recession
Vocabulary
1 to innovate (innovation) 2 to diversify (diversification)
3 to merge (a merger) 4 a raid 5 a takeover bid
6 horizontal integration 7 vertical integration 8 backward
integration 9 forward integration 10 synergy
Summarizing
1 The fact that many large conglomerates assets were worth more
than their stock market valuation demonstrated that they were clearly
not maximizing stockholder value, i.e. giving their stockholders the
maximum possible return on their investment.
2 Raiders bought conglomerates in order to strip them of their assets,
i.e. to restructure them, split them up, and resell the pieces at a
profit.
3 Raiders showed that the stock market did not necessarily value
companies assets correctly, especially land, buildings and pension
funds.
4 Raiders were particularly interested in companies with large cash
reserves, companies with successful subsidiaries that could be sold,
and companies in fields that are not sensitive to a recession.
5 Investors were prepared to lend money to finance LBOs because
they received a high rate of interest which more than compensated for
the risk that the bonds would not be repaid.
2. Raiders argue that the possibility of a buyout forces company
managers and directors to do their jobs well, and to use their
capital productively.
Vocabulary
1 charities 2 legitimacy 3 perfect competition 4 welfare
5 threatening 6 vitality 7 free enterprise 8 conforming
9 embodied 10 proponents

Module 11
Vocabulary
1 B 2 C 3 D 4 G 5 A 6 E 7 F
Vocabulary
1 shareholders or stockholders 2 earnings or income 3 liabilities
4 turnover 5 assets 6 depreciation or amortization
174
7 debtors or accounts receivable 8 creditors or accounts
payable 9 stock or inventory 10 overheads or overhead
Reading
1 assets 2 stock or inventory 3 depreciation or amortization 4
shareholders or stockholders 5 earnings or income
6 turnover 7 overheads or overhead 8 liabilities
9 debtors or accounts receivable 10 creditors or accounts
payable
Vocabulary Financial statements
1. turnover 2. overheads 3. depreciation 4. freehold properties
5. historical cost 6. debtors 7. cash in hand at bank 8. corporation
tax. 9. net assets 10. called up share capital.

Reading
A The period of gold convertibility.
B Floating exchanges rates.
C The abolition of exchange controls.
D Intervention and managed floating exchange rates.
E The power of speculators and the collapse of the EMS.
F Why many business people would prefer a single currency.
G The introduction of the single European currency.
Comprehension
1 False 2 False 3 True 4 False
5 True 6 True 7 True 8 False
Vocabulary
1. 1 B 2 D 3 A 4 C 5 F 6E
2. 1 adjust 2 convert 3 abolish 4 suspend
5 fluctuate 6 diverge

Module 12

Vocabulary
1 overdraft 2 credit card 3 cash dispenser or ATM
4 loan 5 standing order or direct debit 6 mortgage 7 cash card
8 home banking 9 current or checking account 10 deposit
or time or notice account
Reading
1 Commercial banking
2 Investment banking
3 Universal banking
4 Interest rates
5 Eurocurrencies
Vocabulary
1. 1 deposit 2 foreign currencies 3 yield 4 liquidity
5 maturity 6 underwrite 7 takeover 8 merger
175
9 stockbroking 10 portfolio management 11 deregulation
12 conglomerate 13 blue chip 14 solvency 15 collateral
2.Common collocation include: charge interest; do business;
exchange currencies; issue bonds; make loans; make profits; offer
advice; offer loans; pay interest; raise funds; receive deposits;
underwrite security issues
Vocabulary
1B 2 A 3 A 4 B 5 C 6 A 7 B 8 C 9 C
10 B
Reading
A The functions of taxation.
B Advantages and disadvantages of different tax systems.
C Tax evasion.
D Avoiding tax on salaries.
E Avoiding tax on profits.
Comprehension
1True
2True
3True
4False
5False
6 False
7True
Vocabulary
1 depreciation 2 disincentive 3 regressive 4 consumption
5 self-employed 6 national insurance 7 perks
8 tax shelters 9 tax-deductible 10 tax havens

Module 13

Vocabulary
1 liability 2 creditor 3 bankrupt 4 assets
5 to liquidate 6 liabilities 7 to put up capital
8 venture capital 9 founders 10 premises
11 underwrite 12 dividend
Vocabulary
1 mutual fund 2 portfolio 3 stockbroker 4 blue chip
5 defensive stock 6 growth stock 7 market-maker
8 institutional investors 9 inside share-dealing
Vocabulary
1 H 2 B 3 A 4 C 5 I 6 E 7 F 8 D 9 J
10 G
Vocabulary
1 F 2 E 3 A 4 B 5 G 6 C 7 D
Vocabulary
176
1 B 2 A 3 F 4 C 5 E 6 D
Summarizing
1 The difference between futures and forward contracts is that futures
are standardized deals and forwards are individual over-the-counter
agreements between two parties.
2 Producers and buyers often choose to hedge because this allows
them to guarantee prices for several months.
3 Speculators can make money on currency futures if they correctly
anticipate exchange rate appreciations or depreciations or interest
rate changes.
4 If you believe that a share price will rise, possible option strategies
include buying a call, which you will be able to sell at a profit, and
writing (selling) a put, which will never be exercised, so you earn the
premium.
5 On the contrary, if you think a share price will fall, possible option
strategies include buying a put, so you will be able to sell your shares
at above the market price, and writing a call, which will never be
exercised, so you earn the premium.
6 The risk with currency and interest rate swaps is that the exchange
and interest rates may change unfavourably.
Vocabulary
Appreciate depreciate
Call put
Discount premium
Drought flood
Floating fixed
Hedging speculation
Spot market futures market
Strike price market price

The word premium is used twice with two different meanings in the
text. At a premium means above the nominal or market price;
premium also means the price of an option contract.



I. VERBE MODALE I

MAY i CAN
(Permisiune, probabilitate, abilitate)

May i can sunt verbe modale sau ajuttoare: ele sunt verbe defective,
deoarece:
- au numai 3 timpuri: indicativ prezent, indicativ trecut i
condiional prezent
177
- nu primesc s la persoana a III-a singular
- nu primesc do, does, did la interogativ sau negativ
- sunt urmate de infinitivul fr TO

Timpurile care lipsesc sunt nlocuite cu:
- to be able to (abilitatea)
- to be allowed to
- to be permitted to (permisiunea)
- to be likely to (probabilitatea)


May / Might
May se foloseste la prezent. Might la condiional prezent. Ambele
sunt invariabile i sunt urmate de un infinitiv fr To.
Forme contrase: maynt / mightnt

Utilizare:

1. May se folosete cu referire la evenimente sau aciuni posibile
sau probabile n prezent, adesea cu sens de viitor. Might poate
fi folosit pentru a sublinia o foarte redus posibilitate.

Theres a black cloud above us. It may rain.
Alice may get angry if you tell her.
If you try hard enough, you might convince him to come.

Not
Formele alternative sunt:
Maybe it will rain.
It is likely to rain.

2. pentru a cere, a oferi sau a refuza permisiunea politicos

May I open the window? Its very hot in this office.
You may not smoke in my car.

Might indic adesea teama vorbitorului de a nu primi un
rspuns negativ, sau faptul c el cere prea mult:

Might I borrow your Rolls Royce for the weekend?


Not
Forme alternative:
Am I allowed to open the window?
178
You are not permitted to smoke in my car.


3. cu well pentru a indica o foarte mare probabilitate

I think it may well rain today, look at those black clouds.
Put some money in the box, it might well be for a good cause.

Not
Forme alternative:
I think it is very likely to rain today.
Not
May / might as well are alt sens:
There is nothing interesting on TV this evening, I may / might as well
have an early night.

4. cu o construcie perfect pentru a face referire la o
presupunere n trecut

Bill isnt in his office, he may have gone home early. (Its possible
that he went home.)

5. cu o construcie perfect pentru a face referire la ceva care s-
ar fi putut petrece n trecut dar nu s-a petrecut, se poate folosi
numai might

You might have burnt your hand while taking that hot tray out of
the oven (but you didnt).


Can / Could
Can se folosete la prezent, adesea cu sens de viitor. Could se
folosete la trecut i condiional prezent. Ambele sunt invariabile i
sunt urmate de infinitiv fr To.


Forme contrase: cant / couldnt

Utilizare:

1. Can se folosete pentru a cere, a acorda sau a refuza
permisiunea, similar cu may, dar mai puin formal

You can drive at seventeen in the UK.
Can I borrow your pen, please? Ive left mine at home.
179
You cannot go hunting out of season.

Not
Forme alternative:
You are permitted to drive at seventeen in UK.
You are allowed to drive at seventeen in UK.
You may drive at seventeen in UK.

Not
La negativ, could i might au sensuri diferite.
Ken could not be building the house by himself. (Its impossible. It is
too much work.)
Ken might not be building the house by himself. (He isnt building the
house himself. He probably has help.)

2. pentru a face referire la probabilitate, posibilitate sau
imposibilitate n prezent, n trecut sau la condiional

Look, theres plenty of snow, we can go skiing today.
Lets try his office; he could be there.


3. pentru a face referire la abilitate sau ndemnare n prezent, n
trecut sau la condiional

Can you lay bricks?
My old car cannot go over 80 km an hour.
The girl can sing but she cant dance for the life of her.
Could you drink as much?



Not
Pentru alte timpuri se folosete to be able to
She will be able to type 100 words a minute soon.

4. folosii could + infinitiv perfect pentru a v referi la o aciune
care nu a avut loc

I could have driven you to the airport, but I didnt have my car.

Sau cnd nu tim dac aciunea s-a petrecut sau nu

Have you seen my umbrella? Dan could have taken it; it was
raining when he left.
180

Not
Forme alternative:
You might have hurt your back lifting that heavy table.
You would probably have hurt your back lifting that heavy table.

Not
May / might i can / could se repet n ntrebri disjunctive i
rspunsuri scurte.
He cant go, can he?
May Sally come in? Yes, she may.

Not
To be able to exprim abilitatea. Este o alternativ formal pentru
can / could n prezent, n trecut sau la condiional. Pentru toate
celelalte timpuri putem folosi numai to be able to.


Exerciii:
Traducei n limba englez urmtoarele propoziii

1. Aceasta este o mas veche, pe care n-o poate ridica nimeni. 2. Nu
tia s noate, aa c atunci cnd s-a scufundat vasul, s-a inecat. 3.
Nu ai dreptul s naintezi, acest teren e proprietate privat. 4. Nu ai
dreptul s vinzi ce nu-ti aparine. 5. Nu se poate s te fi hotrt s-i
refuzi orice ajutor tocmai cnd are mai mare nevoie de el. 6. Idila lui
cu ea nu poate s fi durat mai mult de o lun. 7. E cu putin s se
joace cnd i-am spus s-i fac mai nti temele? 8. Ai s-i poi face
pe plac, tiind c e aa de sensibil? 9. Niciodat n-am fost n stare s
in minte propoziii ntregi. 10. Savantul a spus c tie de mult s
numere. 11. Zise c-mi poate da sifon dac mi-e sete. 12. Speram s
pot merge pe jos pn la gar, dar m-am oprit la o staie de autobuz.
13. L-ai putea atepta n birou dac ai vrea. 14. Ar fi putut s se
aeze pe un scaun gol, dar a preferat s stea n picioare. 15. Puteai s
te uii pe gaura cheii, dac erai aa de curios.


1. Pot s te ajut cu ceva? 2. mi permii s te ajut? 3. Poate c se
plimb prin grdin, habar n-am unde e. 4. Poate c spune adevrul,
mai bine ai asculta ce are de spus. 5. Poate c-mi voi fi terminat
lucrarea pn vii tu s m ajui. 6. Poate c btrna sufla greu dup
ce a urcat scrile acelea, fiindc liftul era defect. 7. Poate c voi fi
ajuns la gar pn va pleca trenul. 8. M-am gndit c s-ar putea s
plou, aa c mi-am luat umbrela. 9. I-am spus c n-are nimeni voie
s intre-n camera mea cnd dorm. 10. S-ar putea s tueasc dac a
181
rcit. 11. La-i putea ajuta s-i duc geanta, dac-l vezi gfind. 12.
Puteai s-i mprumui nite bani, dac tiai c are greuti.


Cheia exerciiilor:

1. This is an old table which no one can lift. 2. He could not swim, so
when the ship sank he drowned. 3. You cant proceed, this land is
private property. 4. You cant sell what does not belong to you. 5. You
cant have resolved to deny him all help when he most needs it. 6. His
romance with her cant have lasted more than a month. 7. Can he be
playing when I told him to do his homework first? 8. Will you be able
to please him, knowing he is so sensitive? 9. I have never been able to
remember long sentences. 10. The scholar said he had been able to
count for a very long time. 11. He said he could give me soda if I was
thirsty. 12. I hoped I could walk to the station but I stopped at a bus
stop. 13. You could wait for him in the study if you would. 14. He
could have taken a vacant seat, but he preferred standing. 15. You
could have peeped through the keyhole if you were so curious.


1.Can I help you? 2. May I help you? 3. She may be walking in the
garden, I have no idea where she is. 4. She may be telling the truth,
you had better listen to what she has to say. 5. I may have finished
my paper by the time you come to help me. 6. The old lady may have
been breathing hard after she had climed all those stairs, because the
elevator was out of order. 7. I may reached the station before the train
leaves. 8. I thought it might rain, so I have taken my umbrella. 9. I
told him no one might enter my room when I was asleep. 10. He
might cough if he has caught cold. 11. You might help him carry his
bag if you see him gasping for breath. 12. You might have lent him
some money if you knew he was in need.




II. VERBELE MODALE II


MUST, NEED, HAVE TO, SHOULD, OUGHT TO
(Obligaie i necesitate)

Must, need, should i ought to sunt verbe modale; ele sunt
defective, avnd:
- timpuri lips
- persoana a III-a singular fr s
182
- interogativul i negativul prezentului fr do sau does
- sunt urmate de infinitiv fr To


Not
Toate timpurile care lipsesc sunt nlocuite cu verbe normale:
To have to sau to need to

Not
To have to exprim att obligaia ct i necesitatea la timpurile la
care el reprezint singura posibilitate (infinitiv, trecut simplu, perfect
prezent, viitor, forma n ing etc.).

Dar la prezent, formele alternative nu sunt ntotdeauna nlocuibile
reciproc. O form poate exprima obligaia, iar cealalt necesitatea.
John must not shout. (= John are obligaia de a nu striga.)
John doesnt have to shout. (= Nu e necesar ca John s strige.)

To need to exprim ntotdeauna necesitatea.
Harry didnt need to go on a diet. (= Nu era necesar ca Harry s in
regim.)


Must / Have to / Need to

Must este invariabil pentru toate persoanele, n timp ce have to i
need to urmeaz regulile verbelor normale.

Forme contrase: mustnt
Utilizare:

1. Have to se folosete ntotdeauna pentru a face referire la
obligaie sau necesitate la prezent afirmativ i interogativ,
adesea cu sens de viitor. Must se refer la obligaie.
I must phone my husband before he leaves the office.
The builders have to finish the work before winter sets in.


Not
Must se folosete de obicei cnd obligaia vine din partea vorbitorului
care-i exprim propriile sentimente.
Have to se folosete cnd obligaia vine din partea unei a treia
persoane.
You must tidy up your room before you go out. (= i ordon)
You have to drive on the left in Great Britain. (= Aa spune legea)
183

2. La forma negativ must i have to au sensuri complet diferite:
Must not nseamn c eti obligat s nu faci ceva.
Dont have to sau havent got to nseamn c nu este necesar:

You mustnt exceed the speed limit on the motorway. (= Eti obligat
de lege.)
You havent got to go to that meeting if you are too busy. (= Nu e
necesar s te duci.)

Not
n general have to i have got to se folosesc la fel numai la prezent.
Have got to este considerat mai formal.
Have to se folosete pentru aciuni repetate, de obicei ntrit cu un
adverb de frecven.
Chris has to visit her ill mother every day.
Chirs has got to do some shopping for her ill mother today.

3. Have to poate fi folosit la toate celelalte timpuri.
I have never had to work so much before.
The police would have had to open fire if the criminals hadnt
surrendered.


Not
Deducia negativ se poate exprima cu cant sau cant have:
Its only eleven oclock, Tim cant be hungry!
The Smiths are in China. They cant have sent that post-card from
Peru.

4. Must se folosete pentru deducii pozitive n prezent.
Must + construcie perfect se refer la deducii pozitive n
trecut.

The baby is crying. She must be hungry.
There was no reply; he must have been working in the garden.


Utilizare: Need este considerat att verb propriu-zis ct i auxiliar.

1. Need to, ca verb propriu-zis, urmeaz formele verbelor regulate
normale i este folosit pentru a se face referire la necesitate.
You will need flour and water to make bread.
I dont need to see the doctor. I feel fine.

184

Not
Have to exprim necesitatea, poate fi folosit i la negativ i
interogativ.
We didnt have to book the restaurant. There was plenty of room.
Do we have to rush?

2. Need ca auxiliar este un verb modal i are aceeai form pentru
toate persoanele. Poate fi folosit numai la prezent (adesea cu
sens de viitor) mai ales n construcii negative sau
interogative.
Construcie negativ: Need not este similar cu dont have to.
Ambele exprim absena unei obligaii sau necesiti.
We need not rush. Theres plenty of time.

Construcie interogativ:
Need we rush? Theres plenty of time.

3. Need not + infinitiv perfect se refer la o aciune trecut care
s-a petrecut fr a fi fost necesar.
You neednt have told her about the accident. She will only worry.

Not
Need not + infinitiv perfect difer de did not need to.
Jack need not have gone to the dentist. (= Jack s-a dus, dar nu era
necesar.)
Jack did not need to go to the dentist. (= Nu era necesar ca Jack s se
duc, dar nu tim dac s-a dus sau nu.)


Ought to / Should

Ought to i Should au sens identic i pot fi folosite la fel. Ele sunt
invariabile pentu toate persoanele i pot fi urmate de infinitiv fr To.

Forme contrase: oughtnt / shouldnt





Utilizare:

1. Cu referire la o obligaie sau ndatorire.
I ought to mow the lawn this weekend; its overgrown.
185
Little girls shouldnt tell lies.

Poate urma i forma n ing.
Tim oughtnt to be watching TV. He ought to be doing his homework.
We should be standing in that queue, not this one.

2. Pentru a cere i a da sfaturi.
Do you think I should have my hair cut short?
Mike ought to see a doctor if it hurts so much.

3. Cu referire la ceea ce consider c este corect sau incorect din
punct de vedere moral.
We should all help the poor.
People oughtnt to treat animals badly. They belong here, too.

4. Cu referire la o ntmplare probabil.
Ill prepare dinner tonight. I should be home quite early.
I told him several times, so he ought to remember.

5. Cu o construcie perfect pentru a face referire la ceva ce
urma s se petreac n trecut, dar nu s-a petrecut. Sau cu
referire la ceva ce a constituit o greeal.
The plane should have arrived at seven oclock, but it was delayed
because of fog.
Michael Jackson ought to have started his tour last night, but he
was taken ill.


Exerciii:

1. A replicat c trebuie s aib grij de silueta ei. 2. Nu tiam c
trebuie s pltesc amend dac-mi parchez maina aici. 3. Nu se
poate s nu stai la mas! 4. Neaprat s-mi ari rochia ta cea nou!
5. E precis la birou, completnd formulare, cum face zilnic. 6. Nu-l
vd pe aici, trebuie c joac baschet pe undeva. 7. Nu e acas, precis
colind strzile i trguiete cu hrnicie. 8. Se vede c cicatricea a
fost o ran grav mai de mult. 9. Se vede c studia la bibliotec
atunci cnd l cutai. 10. Copiii nu trebuie s vorbeasc cu primarul
cnd e ocupat. 11. A trebuit s ascult de dou ore vorbele lui
suprtoare, dar n-am de gnd s mai tolerez acest lucru. 12.
Funcionarul declar c a trebuit s vorbeasc cu nevasta lui despre
schimbarea slujbei, fiindc ntrziase de prea multe ori. 13. E nevoie
s vin azi la bibliotec, ori poate atepta pn mine? 14. Nu era
nevoie s vin aa de curnd, puteam atepta. 15. Nu era nevoie s
cumpere ea plria, avea el de gnd s i-o cumpere.

186
1. Lectorul medit unde s-i in urmtoarea prelegere. 2.
Pianistului i-ar fi plcut s i se spun ce s cnte. 3. Cntreaa de
oper nu tia a cui ofert s-o accepte. 4. Fotograful vru s tie dac
s fac una sau dou fotografii. 5. De ce l-ai ajuta, dac nu te roag?
6. Dac s-ar ntmpla s se ntlneasc ntr-o cafenea, i-ar vedea toi
mpreun i oamenii ar ncepe s brfeasc. 7. Ar trebui s i spun c
era exact ce merita. 8. Ar fi trebuit s se logodeasc de mult, dar
prinii ei s-au opus cstoriei. 9. Ar fi trebuit s-i mrturiseti n
cele din urm c i-ai furat ceasul, fiindc nu vroiai s plece att de
iute. 10. Studenii ar fi trebuit s asculte expunerea asear.


Cheia exerciiilor:

1. She retorted she must take care of her figure. 2. I did not know I
must pay a fine if I parked my car her. 3. But you must stay for
dinner! 4. You must show me your new dress! 5. He must be at his
office, fiiling in forms, as he does daily. 6. I do not see him around, he
must be playing basketball somewhere. 7. He is not at home, he must
be roaming the streets and shopping with industry. 8. That scar must
have been a bad injury a while ago. 9. He must have been studying at
the library when you were looking for him. 10. Children must not talk
to the mayor when he is busy. 11. I have had to listen to his offensive
words for two hours, but I am not going to put up with it any longer.
12. The officer stated that he had had to talk to his wife about
changing his job because he had been late too many times. 13. Need
he come to the library today or can he wait untill tomorrow? 14. They
neednt have come so soon, I could have wited. 15. She neednt have
bought that hat, he was going to buy it for her.


1. The lecturer meditated where he should deliver his next lecture. 2.
The pianist would have liked to be told what he should play. 3. The
opera singer did not know whose offer she should accept. 4. The
cameraman wanted to know if he should take one or two
photographs. 5. Why should you assist him if he does not ask you? 6.
If they should meet in a caf, everyone would see them together and
people would start gossiping. 7. I ought to tell him it was exactly what
he deserved. 8. They ought to have been engaged long ago, but her
parents objected to their marriage. 9. You ought to have confessed to
him eventually that you had stollen his watch because you did not
want him to leave so soon. 10. The students ought to have been
listening to the exposition last night.



187

III. INFINITIVUL


Form
Formele principale de infinitiv sunt:
Infinitiv prezent to work
Infinitiv prezent continuu to be working
Infinitiv perfect to have worked
Infinitiv perfect continuu to have been working
Infinitiv pasiv to be worked


Utilizare: Infinitivul cu TO

Infinitivul cu to se poate folosi ca:
1. Subiect
To leave the front door unlocked is risky.
Dar este mai folosit propoziia care ncepe cu it:
It is risky to leave the front door unlocked.
2. complement
principalele verbe urmate de infinitiv cu to:
agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, be about, care choose, consent,
decide, do ones best, decline, demand, expect, fail, forget, happen,
hate, hope, hurry, learn, like, love, manage, mean/intend, neglect,
offer, plan, prefer, prepare, pretend, promise, prove, refuse, remember,
seem, tend, try, turn out, volunteer, want, be able to afford, make up
ones mind
The couple appears to be happy.
I cant afford to study abroad.
She refused to go with him.

Not
Unele verbe like, love, hate, prefer, care, mean, intend pot fi
urmate de infinitivul cu to i de forma n ing.
She likes to skate.
She likes skating.
Ori condiionalul
Id love to see Eve.
Would you prefer to do it now?
That should (be) este o construcie care poate urma i dup
agree, arrange, ask, decide, demand.
The girls agreed to organize a party.
The girls agreed that they should organize a party.
The girls agreed that a party should be organized.
188
Infinitivul continuu urmeaz adesea dup appear, happen,
pretend, seem.
It seems to be raining.
The children pretended to be hiding.

3. pentru a exprima scopul:
The dog buried the bone to hide it.
In order i so as pot fi folosite pentru a sublinia scopul:
Matt is memorizing the rules in order to pass the test.
We cut the hedge so as to improve the view.
Pentru a exprima scopul sau funcia unui obiect, folosii
infinitivul cu TO sau for + -ing
He used the scissors to cut the rope.
He used the scissors for cutting the rope.



Not
Cnd dou subiecte diferite fac necesar folosirea unei subordonate,
folosii so that pentru a introduce subordonata i a exprima scopul.
I deposited the money in the bank so that my son can use it in later
years.

Not
Pentru a exprima negaia punei not naintea infinitivului cu TO.
He ran in order not to be late.

Not
Folosii and (n loc de TO) pentru a exprima scopul dup go sau
come.
We should go and buy some milk.
Come and visit us!

4. dup un verb urmat de how, what, when, where, why.
Principalele verbe sunt: ask, decide, discover, find out, forget, know,
see, learn, remember, understand, think, wonder
We wondered how to do it.
I couldnt decide what to wear.

Not
Whether + infinitiv cu to poate fi folosit:
Dup wonder i know.
Alex wondered whether to knock or wait outside.
Dup formele interogative i negative ale verbelor decide, know,
remember.
189
Did you finally decide whether to go camping or not?

5. dup un verb urmat de complement
verbele principale sunt: advise, allow, command, enable, encourage,
forbid, expect, force, invite, oblige, order, permit, persuade, remind,
request, teach, tell, like, help, want
Tony advised me to finish the job quickly.
We invited our friends to ski with us.

Not
Infinitivul cu to poate nlocui o propoziie relativ:
Dup the only, the last, the first, the second etc.
Joe was the first to board the submarine. (= Joe a fost primul care s-a
mbarcat pe submarin.)

Dup substantive / pronume, pentru a arta care le este utilizarea.
I need a pot to make a tea. (= Am nevoie de un ibric n care s pot face
ceai.)

Not
Remind, teach i tell pot fi i ele urmate de that:
He reminded Sue to come on time.
He reminded Sue that she had to /should come on time.

Dar tell i schimb sensul n funcie de construcie:
Tod told her to stop. = Tod ordered her to stop.
Tod told her that the water was boiling. = Tod informed her that the
water was boiling.

6. dup pasivul verbelor assume, believe, consider, feel, know,
understand, suppose
They are assumed to be fair players.
Aceste verbe pot fi urmate de complement + infinitiv cu TO i de
that:
He assumes them to be fair players.
He assumes that they are fair players.


Not
Suppose ii poate schimba sensul la pasiv:
You are supposed to nseamn Este datoria ta s

7. dup anumite substantive
190
principalele verbe sunt: ability/inability, ambition, decision,
demand, desire, determination, effort, failure, offer, plan, promise,
refusal, wish
We made our wish to help them quite obvious.
Hillarys failure to pass the exam disappointed them.




8. dup anumite adjective
principalele adjective sunt: cruel, good, rude, anxious, glad, kind,
nice, pleased, surprised, easy, difficult, likely, prepared, ready, late,
early
She was pleased to hear from us.
You are likely to meet them.

Not
n construciile cu it, of + pronume/substantiv, urmeaz adesea
dup adjectiv.
It was nice of you to come.
It was rude of the man to slam the door.

9. dup too + adjectiv/adverb i dup adjectiv/adverb + enough i
dup have + enough + substantiv
The soup was too hot to eat.
The water wasnt warm enough to swim in.
We didnt have enough time to finish the test.

Not
For + substantiv/pronume pot fi introduse n faa infinitivului:
He ran too fast for us to follow.


Infinitivul fr TO

Infinitivul fr TO poate fi folosit dup:

1. verbe modale
may, can, must, shall, should, will, would
We may come tomorrow.
2. feel, see, hear, watch, let la forma activ
Claire heard him cough.

Not
191
Forma n ing se folosete adesea dup feel, see, hear, watch (att
forme active ct i pasive)
Claire heard him coughing. / He was heard coughing.


3. had better i would rather
Dan had better study harder.

4. make
The teacher made Ellen correct her errors.

Not
La forma pasiv make este urmat de infinitiv cu TO:
Ellen was made to correct her errors (by the teacher).

5. but sau except
Jack and Karen do nothing but argue.
Ive done it all except do the calculations.

6. why sau why not
Why waste your energy on such a hopeless cause?
Why not go and ask him now?

7. folosii infinitivul perfect fr to:
Cu must pentru a exprima deducii pozitive n trecut:
Theres Als cap. He must have come home.

Cu cant/couldnt pentru a exprima deducii negative n trecut:
I can hear noise. They cant have gone to bed yet.

Exerciii:

1. A fost vzut cum fur batista unei btrne. 2. Se tie c a mblnzit
o cprioar. 3. Se pare c i s-a terminat zahrul. 4. S-a dovedit c
houl a spus adevrul. 5. N-a vrea s fi plecat singur de acas. 6. i
ordon s pleci chiar acum. 7. Cred c s-a mritat de mult. 8. Atept
s pleci. 9. Se zice c s-a ntors din strintate. 10. I s-a ordonat s
uite tot ce a vzut. 11. Din ntmplare nc n-a sosit. 12. Cu cine se
zice c seamn? 13. De ce se zice c e ho?

Cheia exerciiilor:

1. He was seen to steal an old ladys handkerchief. 2. She is known to
have tamed a deer. 3. He seems to have run out of sugar. 4. The thief
turned out to have told the truth. 5. I should not like him to have left
192
alone. 6. I order you to leave right now. 7. I think her to have got
married long ago. 8. I am waiting for you to leave. 9. He is said to
have returned from abroad. 10. He was ordered to forget everything
he had seen. 11. He happens not to have arrived yet. 12. Whom is she
said to look like? 13. Why is he said to be a thief?





IV. FORMELE N ING (Participiul i Gerund-ul)


Din punct de vedere gramatical, forma n ing poate fi sau un gerund
sau un participiu. n ambele cazuri, forma este aceeai.

Form: forma n ing regulat se obine adugnd ing infinitivului
fr TO. (go going)
GERUND

Gerund-ul poate fi folosit ca:
1. subiect
Smoking is dangerous for your health.
2. complement
Emily loves teaching.
3. interdicii scurte
No fishing.
4. dup prepoziii
Verbele care urmeaz dup prepoziii trebuie s fie la forma n
ing
Francis is interested in learning Polish.
I am sorry for hurting your feelings.
Verbele care urmeaz dup verbele complexe cu prepoziie sunt
de obicei la forma n -ing
My father has just given up smoking.
I am looking forward to seeing you soon.
Dar
unele verbe complexe cu prepoziie pot fi urmate de infinitiv
The researcher set out to prove his theory.

Not
Cuvntul TO este o surs de confuzii. Uneori to este o prepoziie
urmat de ing. Alteori to intoduce un infinitiv complet.
Kevin looked forward to seeing her.
Kevin wanted to see her.
193
I am used to studying until late. = I am accustomed to studying late.
I used to study until late. = I always studied until late.


5. dup anumite verbe i expresii
Principalele verbe i expresii sunt: admit, avoid, delay, detest, enjoy,
finish, imagine, mind, miss, postpone, practise, remember, resist, stop,
cant stand, cant help, be worth, be busy, be no good, be no use, deny,
keep, risk
Did you mind selling your house?
I missed listening to her play the piano.
We stopped studying in the summer.

Not
Notai diferena dintre:
He remembered writing to us. = i amintea c ne-a scris.
They remembered to write to us. = Nu au uitat s ne scrie.
He stopped eating. = El a terminat de mncat.
He stopped to eat. = S-a oprit din alte treburi ca s mnnce.

Not
Admit, deny, remember primesc i pe that:
They remembered that they had sent us the bill.

Not
Hate, like, love, prefer pot primi infinitiv + to.
I love dancing. = I love to dance.
Dar la condiional ele primesc de obicei infinitiv cu to:
Id love to dance.

6. dup anumite verbe + adjectiv posesiv/ complement
pronominal
Principalele verbe sunt: dislike, dread, mind, remember, resent, stop,
understand, object to, appreciate, excuse, forgive, prevent, (dis)approve
of
I dont mind his/him staying with us.
I truly appreciate their/them being so hospitable.

Utilizarea adjectivului posesiv este mai formal:
The committee resented his being so frank.

Utilizarea complementului pronominal este mai rspndit n engleza
vorbit:
I certainly understand him getting upset.

194
Not
Iat cteva modificri ortografice:
1. Dispare e final.
Live living
Give giving
Dar nu pentru:
Be being
Age ageing
Dye dyeing
Glue glueing
2. Finala n ie se schimb n y.
Die dying
Lie lying
3. Se dubleaz consoana final.
Stop stopping
Travel travelling
Begin beginning
Dar nu i pentru:
Read reading
Peel peeling
Suffer suffering



PARTICIPIUL

Participiul poate fi folosit:
1. la timpurile continue.
He is working.
You were singing.
2. ca adjective.
annoying, frightening, depressing, embarrassing, relaxing, exciting,
shocking, charming, interesting, boring
3. n substantive compuse.
a washing machine, a diving board, a sewing kit, a walking stick, a
fishing rod, a gardening tool
4. dup spend i waste (timp, bani, effort, energie).
They spent a fortune building that house.
He wasted all his energy getting that contract.
5. dup go i come (activitate fizic).
Im coming shopping with you.
Eileen and Paul are going swimming.
6. dup see, hear, feel, listen to , notice, watch + complement.
The entire family watched Tim skating.

195

Not
Aceleai verbe pot fi urmate i de complement + infinitiv fr TO.
He heard the baby cry.

7. dup catch, find, leave + complement.
The baker caught the boy stealing rolls.

8. n locul subordonatelor:
A. n locul unei subordonate relative
We watched the boy working. (= We watched the boy who was
working.)

B. n locul subordonatelor.
cnd dou aciuni se petrec la acelai moment n timp.
Smiling warmly, she shook Hectors hand. (= She smiled warmly as
she shook Hectors hand.)
Learning to ski, Sam broke his leg. (= While Sam was learning to ski,
he broke his leg.)
pentru a nlocui o propoziie care ncepe cu since sau because.
Thinking Joan was honest, he lent her the money. (= Because he
thought Joan was honest, he lent her the money.)
Being curious, he looked through the keyhole. (= Since he was
curious, he looked through the keyhole.)
cnd aciunea unei subordonate se petrece n mod clar nainte de
aciunea celeilalte subordonate se folosete participiul perfect.
Having got divorced once, Al decided not to marry again. (= After he
had got divorced once, Al decided not to marry again.)




V. VERBE CARE PRIMESC INFINITIVE SAU
FORMA N ING


Form: Verbele care urmeaz altor verbe au una din formele:
infinitiv + to sau forma n ing.

Verbele se mpart n patru categorii principale:
1. Verbe care pot fi urmate numai de infinitiv + TO.
We agreed to meet at noon.
2. Verbe care pot fi urmate numai de forma n ing.
You risk being late.
196
3. Verbe care pot fi urmate fie de un infinitiv + TO fie de forma n
ing fr a nregistra o modificare de sens.
I see Harry has started to play golf again. (= n general)
I see Harry has started playing golf again. (= n general sau numai
n momentul de fa)
4. verbe care pot fi urmate de infinitiv + to fie de forma n ing
dar cu o schimbare major de sens.
I forgot to go to the bank yesterday. (= Nu m-am dus)
I have forgotten going to the bank yesterday. (= Nu-mi amintesc s
fi fost)


Utilizare:
1. Infinitivul + to se folosete de obicei dup: afford, agree, appear,
arrange, ask, attempt, decide, expect, fail, help, hope, learn,
manage, mean, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem,
tend, threaten, want, wish
I cant afford to buy a new car now.
I fail to see the point you are making.


Not
Forma negativ este not to + infinitiv.
Clive Waston decided not to accept the new job offer.

Not
Dup help, TO este opional.
Emmas mother always helps her (to) do her homework.

Dar cant help nseamn a nu putea evita i aici se folosete forma
n ing.
I cant help thinking about what she said last night.

Seem, appear i pretend pot primi i un infinitiv continuu (to be
doing) sau un infinitiv perfect (to have done).
Bill seems to be sleeping a lot lately.
The criminal pretended to have lost his memory.

Dup ask, decide, explain, know, remember, forget, understand
urmate de cuvinte interogative: how, what, when, which, where,
whether etc.
I dont know how to get to the cathedral from here.
The teacher will explain what to do tomorrow.

197
Dup ask, enable, force, get, invite, order, persuade, remind, teach, tell,
warn + complement.
Can you ask them to leave, please?
I persuaded Jane to come hiking with me tomorrow.
Dup make n propoziii pasive.
When I was at school, I was made to wear a uniform.


2. Forma n ing este de obicei folosit dup: admit, avoid, consider,
delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, fancy, feel like, finish, give up, imagine,
involve, keep on, mind, miss, postpone, practise, risk, stand (=bear),
suggest, mention, recall, regret
He admitted stealing the jewels.
Have you considered moving abroad?


Not
Forma negativ este: not + -ing
I enjoy not having to work.

Not
Forma pasiv este posibil i cu being + participiu trecut.
Helen enjoys being involved in the local comunity.
Verbe ca: admit, deny, mention, recall, regret pot primi: having +
participiu trecut cu referire la aciuni finalizate n trecut.
Tom now regrets having moved to Paris.

Not
Dup: admit, deny, regret, suggest se poate folosi i that.
Sam denied that he had shot his wife.
Sau
Sam denied shooting his wife.
Dup verbe complexe: carry on, end up, give up, go round, keep on, put
off, set about
You carry on thinking while I eat my lunch.
Frank is always trying hard to give up smoking.

3. Se pot folosi att infinitivul + TO ct i forma n ing fr
diferene de sens dup verbele: begin, continue, hate, like, love,
prefer, start
I began to play squash three years ago.
I began playing squash three years ago.

Morris loves to drive fast cars.
Morris loves driving fast cars.
198

4. Infinitivul + to sau forma n ing au sensuri foarte diferite dup:
remember, forget, try, stop, go on, regret

Have you forgotten posting that letter? (= Ai trimis-o dar nu-i
aminteti)
Have you forgotten to post that letter? (= Nu ai trimis-o?)

I stopped smoking cigarettes because they were bad for me. (= Nu
mai fumez)
I stopped to smoke a cigarette. (= M-am oprit i am fumat o igar)

Exerciii:

Punei verbele din parantez fie la infinitiv fie la gerund:

1. He used (dance) a lot but he hasnt had any opportunity of (do) is
since he began (prepare) for the entrance examination. 2. They were
used to (live) alone, so they didnt really mind the lonely life they led
on the moon. 3. I like (skate) and (ski), but it is very difficult for me
(say) which I like better. 4. We got tired of (wait) for him (come) and
eventually decided (go) out without (leave) any notice to him. 5. I
remember (hear) her (say) the flowers needed (water). 6. We highly
appreciate (you, want) (help) our son, but its time he began (do) his
homwork by himself. 7. We dont remember (you, say) before that
John wanted (buy) our car. 8. I wonder why he hated (I, smoke) at the
office since he often enjoys (smoke) a cigarette himself. 9. It is no use
(you, ask) me (insist) on (Mike, come) in time as he cant get rid of his
bad habit; he often tried (be) punctual but he always failed. 10.
Wherever I set to work, I recollect (my father, say) that if a job is
worth (do) at all it is worth (do) well.




Traducei n limba englez urmtoarele propoziii folosind
Gerund-ul:

1. Vara florile au nevoie de ap (de a fi udate) n fiecare zi. 2. mi face
mult plcere s-i accept invitaia deoarece ea ntotdeauna reuete
s gteasc mncruri foarte gustoase. 3. Iertai-m c v deranjez,
avei cumva un chibrit? 4. mi place s mnnc ngheat chiar cnd
e frig. 5. V deranjeaz dac deschid fereastra pentru cteva minute?
E un aer foarte inchis aici. 6. N-are nici un rost s pleci miercuri, se
ateapt ca tu s fii acolo smbt. 7. Au insistat s le scriu n fiecare
zi, dar asta m exaspereaz deoarece mie nu-mi place s scriu
199
scrisori. 8. Ei au refuzat s ne permit s intrm fr a cumpra
bilete, dei fusesem invitai la premier. 9. A trebuit s ne amnm
plecarea pentru c Jane era bolnav. 10. Nu-mi place ca cineva s se
uite la mine cnd ncerc s nv a merge pe biciclet.


Cheia exerciiilor:

1. To dance, doing, to prepare 2. Living 3. Skating, skiing, to say 4.
Waiting, to come, to go, leaving 5. Hearing, say (saying), watering 6.
Your / you wanting, to help, doing 7. Your / you having said, to buy
8. My / me smoking, smoking 9. Your / you asking, to insist, Mikes /
Mike coming, to be 10. My father saying, doing, doing

1. In summer flowers need watering every day. 2. I am very pleased to
accept her invitation as he always succeeds in cooking very tasty
dishes. 3. Forgive my bothering you, do you happen to have a match?
4. I enjoy eating ice-cream even when it is cold. 5. Do you mind my
opening the window for a few minutes? Its very stuffy in here. 6.
There is no need for your leaving on Wednesday, you are expected
there (on) Saturday. 7. They insisted on my writing to them every day,
but it puts me beside myself because I hate writing letters. 8. They
refused to let us in without buying tickets although we had been
invited to the first night. 9. We had to delay our departure because of
Janes being ill. 10. I dislike being looked at while attempting to learn
how to ride a bicycle.



VI. VERBE COMPLEXE


Un verb complex este o combinaie ntre un verb + prepoziie /
particul adverbial.
Sensul unui verb complex fie nu are legtur cu elementele
componente luate separat, fie este rezultatul elementelor componente
(verb + prepoziie/adverb) luate ca ntreg.

Verbele complexe pot fi mpite n:
1. Verb + prepoziie

Verb + prepoziie + complement prepoziional
We apologise for any inconvenience caused by the delay.
Verb + prepoziie + V ing
They succeeded in boosting pre-tax profits.

200
Not
Cnd verbele complexe sunt urmate de un verb, acest verb este de
obicei la forma n ing.

Not
Nu folosim prepoziii dup urmtoarele verbe:
answer, ask, call, phone, ring, discuss, enter, meet, reach, suit, tell

Not
Exemple de verbe + prepoziie:
agree to something; agree with somebody/something; allow for
something; amount for something; apologise for something; apply
for something; approve of somebody/something; attend to
somebody/something; complain (to somebody) about
somebody/something; conform to something; consent to something;
consist of something; depend on something; hear about something;
hear from somebody; hope for something; insist on something; look
at somebody/something; look for somebody/something; look
forward to something; pay (somebody) for something; refer to
something; rely on somebody/something; succeed in something;
think about something (= concentrate on); think of something (=
consider); wait for somebody/something
2. Verb + complement + prepoziie

Verb + complement + prepoziie + complement prepoziional
Protect us from unfair competition
Verb + complement + prepoziie + V ing
Prevent us from entering the Japanese market.


Not
Prepoziia from se folosete dup verbe care exprim refuzul: prohibit,
restrain, forbid, prevent, ban, veto, stop
They prevented us from exporting the goods.

Not
Dup verbe care exprim acceptul se folosete complement +
infinitiv: allow, authorise, help, permit, enable, encourage
They helped us to export the goods.

Not
Exemple de verbe + complement + prepoziie:
accuse somebody of something; advise somebody of/about
something; compare somebody/something with
somebody/something; congratulate somebody on something;
201
convince somebody of something; describe something to somebody;
divide/cut/split something into something; do something about
somebody/something; explain something to somebody; interest
somebody in something; prefer somebody/something to
somebody/something; prevent somebody/something from
somebody/something; protect somebody/something from
somebody/something; provide somebody with something; remind
somebody of something; spend money on something; tell somebody
about something


3. Verb + adverb (phrasal verb)

Verb + adverb + complement + restul propoziiei
Fill in this form in duplicate
Turn up early at the stand


Not
Cele mai frecvente adverbe folosite sunt: about, along, away, back,
down, forward, in, off, on, out, over, round, through, up

Not
Unele dintre phrasal verbs i pstreaz sensul individual al verbului
+ cel al adverbului:
Ive brought back the plans. Would you like to see them?

Alte phrasal verbs au un sens diferit de cel al elementelor
componente:
He made up a wonderful story about his adventures in Rotaronga.
(make up = invent)




Not
Exemple de Phrasal verbs:
Break down (stop working); bring about (cause); call off (cancel);
call round (visit); close down (stop the operations of); come along
(come); fill in (complete by writing in relevant information); find out
(discover); look over (examine quickly); make up (invent); move in
(take possesssion of new premises); put on (turn on); send back
(return); speak up (speak louder); speed up (make faster); throw
away; turn down (reject); turn up (arrive); walk through; write
down
202



Exerciii:
Traducei n limba englez folosind get ca phrasal verb:
1. Tom promise c se va apuca serios de treab dar numai ncepnd
de lunea viitoare. 2. terge-o. Degeaba ncerci s m cucereti. 3. De
cnd i s-a publicat lucrarea nu i mai ncape n piele de mndrie. 4.
i-a dat seama c nu poi rmne nedescoperit cnd faci o crim. 5. Ai
scpat ieftin! 6. tie cum s-o ia pe mtua ei i s-o fac s-i cumpere
tot ce-i dorete.

Traducei n limba englez folosind give i carry ca phrasal verb:
1. Talentatul scriitor a luat premiul pentru literatur. 2. tie s
vorbeasc fr s se trdeze cu nimic. 3. A fost scos din fire de
obrznicia cu care i replica putiul. 4. Fusese prea sigur c norocul
nu-l va prsi. 5. Aceast fereastr d spre malul mrii.

Traducei n limba englez folosind look ca phrasal verb:
1. Va trebui s te descurci fr s te ngrijeasc Mary. 2. Atept cu
nerbdare s-mi spui c ai examinat chestiunea cu grij. 3. Acum
treburile lui promit s mearg mai bine. 4. Treci s m vezi mine
dup ora cinci.

Traducei n limba englez folosind make i be ca phrasal verb:
1. Cei doi veri nu se mpac deloc bine. 2. tiu c nu e perfect, dar
calitile lui i compenseaz lipsurile. 3. Nu i pot descrifa scrisul, e
prea necite. 4. Lucrm numai cu materialul clientului. 5. Filmul
acesta ruleaz de o lun, trebuie s fie bun. 6. Hai s ne mpcam!


Cheia exerciiilor:
* 1. Tom promised to get down to work but only beginning with next
Monday. 2. Get along with you! You are trying in vain to get round
me. 3. Since he had his work published he has simply got above
himself. 4. He realized one cant get away with crime. 5. You got off
cheaply! 6. She knows how to get round her aunt and make her buy
her whatever she wishes.

* 1. The gifted writer carried off the Prize for Literature. 2. He knows
how to talk without giving himself away at all. 3. He was carried away
by the impudence of the urchins retorts. 4. He had been too sure his
luck would not give out. 5. This window gives on (to) the seashore.

* 1. Youll have to manage without Mary looking after you. 2. Im
looking forward to your telling me youve looked into the matter
203
carefully. 3. His affairs seem to be looking up. 4. Look me up
tomorrow after five oclock.

* 1. The two cousins dont get on well at all. 2. I know he is not perfect
but his qualities make up for his defects. 3. I cannot make out your
hand writing, it is really illegible. 4. Only customers materials made
up here. 5. This film has been on for a month; it must be a good one.
6. Lets make it up!



VII. VORBIREA INDIRECT

Vorbirea indirect se folosete pentru a relata cuvintele unei alte
persoane. Principalele categorii ale vorbirii indirecte sunt: afirmaii,
interogaii, comenzi.

Vorbirea indirect poate avea dou forme:
1. O propoziie principal cu un verb al relatrii + o propoziie
subordonat
They say that we will receive the confirmation next week.
2. o propoziie principal cu un verb al relatrii + un infinitiv cu
To
They asked us to send confirmation as soon as possible.


Regula de baz pentru a determina timpul verbal din subordonat
este dup cum urmeaz:


Dac verbul relatrii este la: n vorbirea indirect:
Prezent
Viitor nici o schimbare
Prezent perfect
Dac verbul relatrii este la: n Vorbirea indirect:
Trecut present . past
Trecut perfect past ... past / past perfect
present perfect.past perfect
will .. would


Not
Condiionalele de tipul II i III nu se modific n vorbirea indirect.
Condiionala de tipul I se modific ntr-una de tipul II.
Jo said: If I listen, I will learn.
204
Jo said that if he listened, he would learn.

Verbele modale se modific astfel:
Can could; may might; will would; shall should; must
must/had to; could could; might might; should should; ought to
ought to; would would; used to used to
Pronumele i adjectivele se modific astfel:

Vorbirea direct Vorbirea indirect
I / you he / she
We / you they
Me / you him / her
Us / you them
My / mine his her / his hers
Your my his her our their
Yours mine his hers ours theirs
Our / ours their / theirs
This / these that / those


Not
Cnd vorbitorul i relateaz propriul discurs, pronumele i
adjectivele rmn neschimbate.
I said: I am angry. I said that I was angry.


Adverbele i expresiile adverbiale se modific astfel:

Vorbirea direct Vorbirea indirect
Here there, in that place
Now then, at that time
Today that day
Yesterday the day before
The day before yesterday two days before
Tomorrow the day after
The day after tomorrow in two days
An hour/week/month ago an hour/week/month before
Next week/year the following week/year
Last week/month a week/month before


Not
Principalele verbe ale vorbirii indirecte sunt say i tell.
Tell cere persoana cu care se vorbete
205
Say poate funciona singur sau poate primi to + persoana cu care se
vorbete:
Tom told us that he was leaving.
Tom said that he was leaving.
Tom said to us that he was leaving.

Alte verbe ale vorbirii indirecte pot fi:
accept, add, admit, affirm, agree, allege, announce, answer,
apologieze, argue, assert, claim, comment, communicate, convey,
declare, demonstrate, disclose, divulge, emphasise, explain, highlight,
imply, indicate, inform, maintain, notify, object, offer, promise, protest,
prove, recount, refuse, remark, reply, report, restate, reveal, show,
state, stress, suggest, transmit


Interogaii

Topica verbelor interogative n interogaia direct se modific n
interogaia indirect devenind topica verbelor afirmative
I asked: Who did she go with?
I asked who she had gone with.
Exist dou tipuri de ntrebri directe: Wh-questions i yes/no
questions.
n vorbirea indirect se menin cuvintele interogative cu Wh-
When exactly will you be in Poland?
He asked when exactly I would be in Poland.

Pentru ntrebrile cu yes/no, folosim if i whether:
Does your company provide investment advice?
She asked if/whether our company provided investment advice.

Not
Verbe ale relatrii utilizate pentru ntrebri: ask, demand, examine,
inquire, investigate, query, question


Comenzi, cerine, sfaturi

n vorbirea indirect verbul de la imperativ se tranform n verb
urmat de complement + infinitivul cu TO
He said: Claire, stand up!
He told Claire to stand up.

Pentru o comand negativ, forma indirect primete pe NOT naintea
infinitivului
206
Barbara said: Dont touch!
Barbara asked me/us not to touch.

Chiar dac n comanda direct nu este menionat complementul, la
forma indirect este necesar un complement pronominal!
He said: Stand up! He told her/him/us to stand up.




Not
Verbele relatrii folosite pentru comenzi, cerine, sfaturi sunt: ask,
beg, brief, call for, command, direct, implore, instruct, invite, press,
request, require, tell, urge


Not
Alte verbe folosite n vorbirea indirect. Unele dintre aceste verbe cer
o propoziie subordonat (1), altele un infinitiv cu To (2), iar altele cer
ambele variante(1,2):
convince (1,2), encourage (1,2), entreat (2), indoctrinate (2), invite (2),
motivate (2), persuade (1,2), threaten (2), urge (1,2), warn (1,2)



Exerciii:

Urmtoarele propoziii sunt n vorbirea direct:
Dont wait for me if Im late.
Will you marry me?
Hurry up!
Can you open your bag, please?
Please slow down!
Dont worry, Sue.
Mind your own business.
Could you repeat what you said, please?
Do you think you could give me a hand, Tom?

Alegei una dintre aceste propoziii pentu a completa propoziiile
de mai jos. Folosii vorbirea indirect:
1. Bill was talking a long time to get ready, so .
2. Sarah was driving too fast, so I asked .
3. Sue was very pessimistic about the situation. I told
4. I couldnt move the piano alone, so I
5. The customs officer looked at me suspiciously and
207
6. I had difficulty understanding him, so I
7. I didnt want to delay Ann, so I
8. John was very much in love with Mary, so he
9. He started asking me personal questions, so


Cheia exerciiilor:
So I told him to hurry up.
So I asked her to slow down.
I told her not to worry.
So I asked Tom to give me a hand.
And asked me to open my bag.
So I asked him to repeat what he had said.
So I told her not to wait for me if I was late.
So he asked her to marry him.
So I told him to mind his own business.




VIII. PREPOZIII I CONJUNCII


Prepoziiile sunt n mod normal aezate n faa substantivelor sau
pronumelor i dup verbe. Ele pot de asemenea preceda verbele n
ing.
Exist puine reguli referitoare la prepoziiile limbii engleze. Foarte
adesea utilizarea lor trebuie nvat pe dinafar. Prepoziiile creeaz
probleme considerabile celor care nva engleza deoarece o anume
propoziie care n propria sa limb va cere o anumit prepoziie va
avea n englez o alt prepoziie.

Prepoziii de micare

1. Micare n sus/n jos
Down (to) up (to) on (to) off

Down: o micare n jos sau scdere a respectului statutului.
Sam broke his arm when he fell down the slope.
The Conservative Government went down at the last elections

Down to: o micare ctre sud.
I was staying in Paris but I went down to Nice to visit an old
friend of mine.

Up: o micare n sus sau a dobndi respect social.
208
Next doors cat always climbs up a tree to hide whenever it hears
our dog bark.
Dr. Barnard went up in peoples estimation when he performed
the first heart operation.
Up to: o micare ctre nord sau o micare n sus a statutului social.
John works in Rome now but he is being moved up to Milan next
week.
Joe has done well in his career; hes been promoted up to
managing director in just four years.

On(to): o micare spre o suprafa mai nalt.
I had to move the books on(to) the top shelf so my child couldnt
reach them.

Off: o micare spre o suprafa mai joas.
When the cat saw a mouse running across the floor it jumped off
the sofa to chase it.


Not
Utilizare special. Este destul de comun folosirea structurilor-tip,
precum:
Up/down the street
Up to/down to the supermarket
On/off a bus, bicycle, plane, ship, sau orice alt mijloc de transport.
(dar: into/out of a car)
2. Deplasare printr-un spaiu
Across along by past through over

Across: o micare dintr-o parte spre cealalt, pe sau aproape de
suprafa.
It takes a long time to sail across the Atlantic.

Along: a parcurge lungimea a ceva
If you walk along the Champs Elysees you will eventually reach
the Eiffel Tower.

By: a se mica de-a lungul sau n apropierea a ceva.
If you pass by the shops today, will you get me a litre of milk?

Past: a se mica de pe o parte a ceva pe cealalt.
I am sure I saw a thief move past the window.

Through: a se mica printre lucruri.
209
The gateway was so narrow that the truck driver had problems
getting through it.

Over: a se mica pe deasupra unei suprafee dintr-o parte n alta a
ceva.
Its quicker to fly over the Atlantic than to sail across it.



3. Direcii
Around at away from for into onto out of to towards

Around: micri pe o traiectorie circular.
I went all around the house to find an open window, but I
couldnt.

At: ctre ceva sau cineva.
He looked at me as if I were a criminal.

Away from: a prsi, a pleca de la cineva sau ceva.
When I was a boy I ran away from school because I didnt like it.
Away from poate fi folosit i n sens abstract: = free from everything.
I cant wait to get away from it all.

For: a se mica cu o destinaie precis.
Sherlock Holmes left for Glasgow as soon as he received the
news of the murder.

Into: a se deplasa ctre interiorul a ceva.
The last they saw of the explorer was when he went into the
jungle to hunt for tigers.



Onto: a aeza ceva peste altceva.
The professor put his papers onto the lectern and began his
lesson.

Out of: a iei din ceva.
The prisoner was let out of prison after a ten year sentence.

To: a se delpasa n direcia unei anumite persoane sau a unui lucru.
Can you give me a lift to work tomorrow morning, please?

Towards: a se delpasa ctre ceva sau cineva
210
I think we should head towards the mountain; its much coller
there at this time of the year.

Not
You shout at somebody (cnd eti nervos)
But you shout to somebody (cnd vrei s atragi atenia)
You throw something to somebody (cnd vrei s prind ce arunci)
But you throw something at somebody or something (cnd vrei s
loveti pe cineva sau ceva)


4. Micri comparative
After ahead of / in front of behind

After: a urma sau urmri
The shop-keeper ran after the boy who smashed his window.

Ahead of / in front of: a preceda pe cineva sau ceva
Ill go on ahead of / in front of you and find a place to camp for
the night.

Behind: a urmri pe cineva sau ceva, a urma cuiva
The old lady drove so close behind me that, when I braked, she
crashed into me.





Prepoziii de poziie

1. Poziii pe vertical
Above after below down in on over to under(neath) up

Above: mult mai sus dect altceva, chiar i figurativ
I am above his insults.

After: ceva puin inferior unui alt lucru
Carl Lewis came in second in the 100 meters after Linford
Christie.

Below: ceva imediat inferior unui alt lucru, sau mai puin important
In a company structure a sales representative comes below a
sales manager.

211
Down: a fi partea inferioar a ceva, i a avea mai puin respect pentru
cineva
She went down in my estimation when she said those things.

On: similar cu above, dar n contact cu ceva
Theres a telephone on the wall over there.

Over: similar cu above, dar obiectul este mai aproape de ceva
The horse jumped over the obstacles beautifully.

To: estimri relative
The Marketing Manager of I.B.U. reports to the General
Manager.

Under: similar cu below, dar obiectul este mai aproape de ceva
That bridge is too low for that truck to go under.
Underneath: la fel ca under dar mai formal
The tunnel underneath the English Channel was opened in the
summer of 1994.

Up: contrarul lui down
Is this the shop? No, its further up the street.


In: un spaiu nchis
My little boy closed himself in the bathroom and couldnt get
out.



2. Poziii relative
Against along alongside around at beside by on the
right / on the left of near next to towards

Against: n contact cu altceva sau altcineva
Dont lean against that post. Its just been painted.

Along: de-a lungul a ceva
An Avenue usually has trees along it.

Alongside: aezat alturi de ceva sau cineva
The newly weds walked alongside each other down the aisle.

Around: vecintate
He must be around here somewhere; I can see his footprints.

212
At: o poziie precis
If you dont wait at the bus stop, the bus wont stop.

Beside: similar cu alongside
The anxious mother sat beside her ill baby all night.

By: n vecintatea
Bills very lucky; he has a summer house by the sea.

On the right of / on the left of: aezat la dreapta / stnga a ceva
sau a cuiva
Theres a suspicious looking man standing on the left of the
president.

Near: aproape de ceva sau cineva
I live near my office, so I can walk to work.


Next to: n direcia a ceva sau a cuiva
Nights get darker as we get towards Christmas.


3. Poziii opuse
Across after before behind facing in front of opposite
over
Across: trecut de o anumit limit
If you look across the field youll see the church.

After: o poziie consecutiv
My best friend had five children, one after the other.

Before: a se desfura nainte de altceva
You must learn to walk before you run.
A se desfura n prezena cuiva
Stand before the Judge and swear to tell the truth.

Behind: aezat n spatele a ceva sau al cuiva
Dont turn round, Jack. Theres a snake behind you.

Facing: privind n direcia a ceva sau a cuiva
Turn your seat facing me so I can see you properly.

In front of: aezat naintea a ceva sau cuiva
Theres a long queue in front of me. I cant possibly wait.

Opposite: similar cu facing
213
They built a warehouse opposite my house and blocked out my
view of Monte Vecchia.

Over: ceva aflat de cealalt parte a altceva
Dover is over the Channel from Calais.


Prepoziii de timp


1. Timpul pe ceas
About around at in on

About: un timp aproximativ
My appointment at the dentists is at 10.00 oclock, but hes
always about half an hour late.

Around: la fel ca about
My dentis is never punctual; hes always around half an hour
late.

At: timpul exact
The film starts at 8 oclock.

Not
At se folosete i pentru a face referiri la perioada din preajma
srbtorilor:
I always go skiing for a week at Christmas.

In: o parte a zilei, luni, anotimpuri i ani
I like to have a big breakfast in the morning.
It doesnt rain much in Greece in summer.

On: cu zile ale sptmnii / date / zile anumte
The road works will start on Monday and finish on Wednesday.
I last saw him on July 4
th
.


Not
Se spune:
In the morning/ afternoon / evening
Dar
At night


214

2. timpul de dinainte i de dup
after before by past to

After: mai trziu dect un timp sau eveniment dat
As my first appointment is after nine, I can catch a later train.

Before: naintea unui timp sau eveniment dat
Before we start, Id just like to introduce myself.

By: ceva care se petrece nainte sau nu mai trziu de un moment dat
Applications must be sumitted by June 5
th
.

Past: similar cu after dar mai colocvial, folosit i pentru a exprima
ora
Im tired. Its past my bed time.

To: folosit de asemenea pentru a exprima ora
Its a quarter to midnight: only 15 minutes to go before the New
Year.



3. Durata n timp
About between during for in since until


About: durata estimat
The play will probably last about two and a half hours.

Between: de la un punct dat n timp la un altul
The period between leaving school and going to university was a
stressful one.

During: o perioad stabilit n timp
I managed not to do any work during my holiday, though I
should have.

For: durata unei perioada date de timp
World War II went on for six years.

In: o anumit durat
Im going to the shops. Ill be back in an hour.

Since: de la punctul de nceput din trecut pn n prezent
Italy has been a republic since 1945.
215

Until: durata pn la un punct dat n timp
Hong Kong will belong to England until 1997, when it goes back
to China.


Diverse

Because of: cauza
The UK is suffering because of the economic crisis.

For: similar cu because of dar legat n general de credine
Nadir Tylon lived and died for his country.
Scop
A knife is used for cutting things.

In: parte a unui proces
Nowadays a lot of aluminium is used in the car industry.

Of: cauza unei aciuni
Lots of people in India are dying of hunger.

With: un sentiment care determin o aciune
Susana cried with joy when she read her exam results.
folosirea unui instrument
Dont put that screw in with a hammer. Do it with a screwdriver.

By: prin aciunea sau creaia cuiva / a ceva
John Lennon was killed by an assassins bullet.

Like: un anumit comportament
My husband acts like a child when he cant get his own way.
pentru a compara fiine/lucruri similare
Even though they are twins they dont look like each other.

As: profesia cuiva
She works as a nurse in Guys Hospital London.

But: cu excepia a ceva sau cineva
He took everything but the kitchen sink. (Expresie)

At: abiliti ntr-o anume activitate
My daughter, Emma, has always been good at drawing.

In: similar cu at, dar nu se poate folosi cu good sau bad
My daughter, Emma, has always been interested in drawing.
216

From: originea
My family come from Warrington in Cheshire.

With: legtur, ataament
The little girl always goes to sleep with her cuddly teddy.

Without: opusul lui with
I always drink coffee without sugar.

For: ceva sau cineva potrivit sau destinat
This grammar book is for foreign students of English.




Conjunciile sau cuvintele de legtur se folosesc pentru a lega
propoziii.
Acest capitol se ocup cu perechi de cuvinte de legtur care ar putea
provoca anumite confuzii pentru cei ce studiaz engleza.

Utilizare:

Conjuncii de timp

1. as, when, while se folosesc cu referire la o aciune care se petrece
n acelai timp cu alta.
When my alarm clock rings at 7 oclock I get up.
As I was looking out of the window, I saw him arriving.
While you were out shopping, John rang.

2. after, as soon as, before, when se folosesc cu referire la o aciune
care se petrece imediat dup o alta.
After I left university, I went to work abroad.
As soon as I heard him speak on TV, I changed the channel.
When I finished typing those letters, I posted them.
The client put the phone down before I could give an explanation.
3. until / till se refer la durata n timp a unei situaii.
I cant go out until my mother comes back.
I cant change my car till I have finished paying for it.

Not
Just poate fi folosit n faa acestor conjuncii pentru a sublinia
apropierea n timp a acelor dou aciuni
Just as he noticed he was being watched, he ran off.
217


Conjuncii contrastive

1. although, even though, though se folosesc cu referire la afirmaii
opuse sau contraste, naintea subiectului sau verbului.
Although he is a good writer, he has never published a book.
Even though theres a speed limit he always exceds it.

Not
Though este o alternativ mai puin formal pentru although i even
though. n engleza vorbit apare de obicei la sfritul propoziiei.
George studied hard. He didnt manage to pass his exam though.

2. in spite of sau despite se folosesc cu referire la afirmaii opuse
sau contrastante, n faa unui substantiv, pronume sau gerunziu.
In spite of the traffic, he still managed to get here in time.
Despite the weather, we decided to go anyway.


Not
In spite of i despite pot fi folosite i cu the fact that.
In spite of the fact that he was very busy, he took time off work.


3. while, whereas se folosesc cu referire la contrastul dintre dou
afirmaii.
Brian eats a lot, while Henry hardly eats at all.
My old car was very slow, whereas my new one is much faster.

4. however se folosete cu referire la contradicia dintre dou
propoziii.
The secret agent was told to be at the meeting point at 6 oclock
sharp. However, when he arrived, his contact wasnt there.


Conjuncii de cauz i efect

1. because, because of, as, since se folosesc cu referire la motivele
de a face o aciune.
The baby cried because it was hungry.
Dad is not going to work today because of the strike.
As its raining, you had better take an umbrella.
Since the president is abroad, the vice-president will take his place
today at the presentation.
218

Not
Because, because of, as i since au acelai sens dar folosesc
construcii diferite.
Because se folosete nainte de subiect i verb.
Because of se folosete nainte de substantiv.
As i since se folosesc amndou la nceputul propoziiei.


2. so, therefore se refer la rezultatul unei aciuni.
Joe has exams all next week, so he cant go out in the evenings.
The Mayor has attend an urgent meeting. Therefore hell have to
cancel the lunch engagement.

Not
So i therefore au acelai sens. So este mai frecvent n engleza
vorbit.







IX. SUBSTANTIVUL


Substantivele au diferite funcii ntr-o propoziie.
Ele pot fi:
Subiectul sau complementul direct sau indirect al unui verb
Numele predicativ al verbelor be, become i seem
Complement prepoziional
n cazul genitiv (Genitivul saxon sau sintetic)
n englez substantivele au n toate aceste cazuri aceeai form cu
excepia genitivului sintetic.


Not
n englez toate propoziiile trebuie s aib subiect. Subiectul poate fi
un substantiv sau un pronume.


Substantivele n limba englez se pot mpri n patru tipuri:
Substantive proprii: Ann, China, Paris, Dr Moody
Substantive comune: doll, apple, plate, tree
219
Substantive abstracte: happiness, love, honesty, fear
Substantive colective: family, group, herd, staff


Not
Substantivele proprii se scriu ntotdeauna cu iniial majuscul.

Substantivele limbii engleze pot varia dup gen i numr.

GENUL

1. Cele mai multe substantive au aceeai form pentru toate genurile.
friend child doctor cousin baby teenager artist cook
dancer driver teacher

genul poate fi indicat de un pronume nsoitor.
My friend sent her son a present.
The doctor opened his bag.

Child i baby pot fi considerate neutre.
The baby closed its eyes and fell asleep.

Numele de ri sunt i ele considerate neutre.
Lately, Kenya has greatly improved its economy.

2. Multe substantive care denumesc oameni i animale au o form
feminin i una masculin
Son, daughter nephew, niece uncle, aunt
Actor, actress waiter, waitress gentleman, lady
Father, mother husband, wife man, woman
Bachelor, spinster heir, heirwss hero, heroine
Male, female bull, cow rooster, hen

Genul poate fi indicat combinnd substantive fr gen cu: boy, girl,
male, female, man, woman
Boyfriend, girlfriend male pilot, female pilot
Man dentist, woman dentist policeman, policewoman


Not
Recent, n ncercarea de a elimina discriminarea de gen, exist o
tendin de a nlocui terminaiile man i woman cu person sau de
a le elimina complet. n alte cazuri au fost create alte expresii sau
alte cuvinte lipsite de gen.

220
Vechea folosire Noua folosire

Salesman, saleswoman salesperson
Chairman, chairwoman chairperson, chair
Steward, stewardess flight attendant


NUMRUL

n enlgez substantivele se mpart n dou categorii: numrabile i
nenumrabile.

Substantivele numrabile se pot numra, adic au numr. Pot avea
att forme de singular ct i de plural. La singular pot fi precedate de
a(n) sau one.


Plural

Forme regulate:
1. La majoritatea substantivelor se adaug s formei de singular.
Book, books day, days house, houses
Donkey, donkeys safe, safes girl, girls

2. Substantivele terminate n o, ch, sh, s sau x primesc es.
Potato, potatoes church, churches brush, brushes
Bus, buses box, boxes kiss, kisses

3. Substantivele terminate n consoan + y pierd pe y i primesc
ies.
Baby, babies factory, factories fly, flies


Not
Exist excepii: kilo, kilos photo, photos piano, pianos radio,
radios soprano, sopranos


Forme neregulate
1. Unele substantive elimin f / fe de la final i primesc ves.
Calf, calves wife, wives wolf, wolves
Loaf, loaves leaf, leaves life, lives
Shelf, shelves thief, thieves knife, knives self, selves

2. Unele substantive i modific vocalele.
221
Foot, feet tooth, teeth goose, geese man, men
Woman, women mouse, mice louse, lice

Not
Atenie! Child, children person, people


3. Unele substantive au aceeai form la singular i la plural:
Sheep,deer, aircraft, trout, series, species, salmon, means, fish,
headquarters

4. Unele substantive exist numai la forma de plural.
Clothes, pants, pyjamas, scissors, glasses, scales, stairs, savings,
outskirts, grounds, goods, earnings, valuables, surroundings, arms
(weapons), archives, belongings, proceeds, wages, premises, the
Middle Ages, braces, customs, trousers

Not
Police este considerat a fi la plural.
The police are inspecting their house.

Not
Aceste substantive nu sunt Niciodat precedate de numere (one, two,
three etc.). pentru a indica numrul, folosii some, a little, etc. sau
pair/set, group etc. + of.
Ten pairs of pants, three sets of archives, a roomful of belongings etc.

5. Unele substantive mprumutate pstreaz pluralul greces, italian
sau latin.
Crisis, crises cactus, cacti phenomenon, phenomena
Datum, data libretto, libretti fungus, fungi
Nucleus, nuclei stimulus, stimuli criterion, criteria
Basis, bases thesis, theses oasis, oases
Axis, axes medium, media bacterium, bacteria



Not
Engleza modern folosete adesea data, media i bacteria cu sens
plural dar cu un verb la singular
The latest data is highly encouraging.

6. Numele de familie se pot folosi la plural pentru a indica ntreaga
familie. Numelui i se adaug un s. Nu au loc schimbri de
ortografie.
222
The Kennedys are world-famous.

7. Substantivele colective se refer la un grup de oameni sau lucruri.
Sunt n mod normal folosite la singular. n engleza britanic se pot
folosi att verbe la singular ct i la plural. n engleza american
au ntotdeauna un verb la singular.
Family aristocracy enemy company council
Nobility gouvernment group proletariat press
Opposition gang jury community army public
Audience crew navy staff team committee

The jury are about to give their verdict. (engleza britanic)
The public is opposed to the new tax.

Not
Spre deosebire de substantivele numrabile normale, substantivele
colective nu pot fi direct precedate de numere sau some.
Five OF THE group stayed past midnight.
Some OF THE opposition switched sides.

Not
Ocazional substantivele colective sunt folosite la plural i sunt
numrabile.
Romeo and Juliet came from two feuding families.
Only two teams can get to the finals.



Substantivele nenumrabile nu pot fi numrate, adic nu au
numr. De obicei au numai form de singular. Nu pot fi precedate de
a(n) sau de numere.

Substantivele nenumrabile se mpart n urmtoarele grupuri:

1. substantive concrete
water wood metal paper grass glass oil
silver gold sand snow rain bread milk
coffee butter wine fire food salt

2. substantive abstracte
love beauty hope relief experience advice
purity joy freedom information courage
design duty capacity education evil
time patience reality intelligence

223
Not
Work este nenumrabil dar job este numrabil:
Harriet is looking for work. John has found two jobs.

Works nseamn: fabric, parte mecanic, producie literar, fapte
sau acte.
Mother Theresa of Calcutta is known for her good works.

Not
Iat cteva substantive nenumrabile care n alte limbi se pot deseori
numra:
Advice baggage luggage furniture
Damage hair shopping homework information
Knowledge money weather research progress
Business spaghetti news equipment

3. Substantive verbale (gerunzii sau verbe n ing).
Camping dancing shopping jogging singing
Smoking is bad for your health.

4. Nume de limbi
German English Chinese Italian Spanish

5. Unele nume de boli, tiine i jocuri au form de plural dar n mod
normal primesc un verb la singular. Sunt considerate
nenumrabile.
Measles mumps billiards dominoes
Physics politics ethics acoustics
Statistics mathematics news electronics
Mathematics is an important subiect.

Not
Unele substantive sunt att numrabile ct i nenumrabile. Dar
sensul lor e diferit n fiecare caz.
numrabile nenumrabile
a paper paper
a light light
a wood wood
a glass glass
an iron iron
a hair hair
He buys a paper everyday. The student had written an interesting
paper on Keats. Paper is made of wood pulp.


224
Not
Substantivele nenumrabile nu sunt niciodat precedate de numere
(a, an, one, two, three etc). Iat cteva expresii folosite pentru a indica
numrul/cantitatea:
A piece of
information/furniture/advice/equipment/glass/paper/news
A type of atmosphere/behaviour/violence
An item of luggage/news/baggage
A case of mumps/measles/flu
A ray of hope/sunshine
A lot of strenght/security

Adjective folosite ca substantive

Folosii the + adjectiv pentru:

1. grupuri de persoane cu aceleai caracteristici. Urmeaz un verb la
plural.
The rich are not always as happy as we imagine.
2. calitate impersonal. Urmeaz un verb la singular.
The impossible has strong attraction for some people.
3. naionalitate (dac exist un cuvnt separat).
The French the Chinese the English the Japanese
Dar
The Poles the Germans the Scots the Finns


Substantive compuse

Substantivele compuse sunt formate din dou sau mai multe cuvinte
care, mpreun, creeaz un nou substantiv cu un nou sens
Babysitter chec-kup swimming pool mother-in-law
Substantivele compuse pot fi:

1. scrise ca un singur cuvnt, cuvinte separate sau cu cratim. Dac
avei ndoieli cel mai bine e s consultai ntotdeauna dicionarul.
Armchair can opener cover-up one-way street
2. numrabile sau nenumrabile
alarm clock fast food
compact disc human race
toothbrush drinking water
waiting room welfare state
yellow pages pocket money
3. compuse din dou substantive. Primul substantiv este folosit ca
adjectiv i este la singular.
225
Chain factory (a factory for chains)
Cotton skirt (a skirt made of coton)
A ten-year-old girl (a girl who is ten years old)
Car accident (accident involving cars)
A two-week cruise (a cruise lasting two weeks)
4. substantivele compuse numrabile formeaz pluralul aplicnd
regulile normale de plural ultimului substantiv.
Mail boxes dish washers sleeping bags T-shirts

Not
Uneori (dar rar) substantivele la plural pot fi folosite ca adjective:
Sports car customs department clothes store
Sales divison savings bank news item

5. substantivele compuse formate din verbe complexe sau substantive
legate cu of i in au plurale neregulate.
Passers-by runners-up sisters-in-law
Lilies of the valley


Posesia: of i genitivul sintetic

Posesia se poate exprima folosind:

1. OF
n multe cazuri folosim of pentru a exprima posesia. Substantivele,
folosite ca adjective, pot i ele uneori indica posesia.
Door of the car car door
Frame of the picture picture frame
Headquarters of the company company headquarters
The color of the wall the wall color
Needles of the pine tree pine tree needles
Engine of the car car engine


Not
Adjectivele nu au numr. Substantivele care devin adjective sunt la
singular.
The tops of the boxes. The box tops

2. Genitivul sintetic
n cazul persoanelor i animalelor folosim genitivul sintetic pentru
a exprima posesia.


226
Form: formai genitivul saxon adugnd s sau substantivelor

s
toate substantivele singulare substantivele plurale terminate
substantivele plurale care n s
NU se termin n s
Nancys the teachers
Jamess the Gallaghers
His mothers the Waleses
My childrens his sisters'


Utilizare: folosii genitivul sintetic:

1. pentru a exprima posesia cu referire la persoane i animale
Helens mother is ill.
The old horses mane is still very beautiful.

2. n expresii temporale
one weeks pay todays news a years leave
two hours wait a months holiday yesterdays partythe The
plane had an hours delay.
In two weeks time Ill be lying on the beach in Bali.

3. cu pronume nehotrte ca: everybody, someone, anybody, anyone,
nobody, no one mai ales dac sunt nsoite de else.
Its nobodys fault.
That must be somebody elses bag.

4. cu anumite instituii, grupuri, expresii geografice
The governments decision will be made public tomorrow.
The worlds lakes and rivers are in a disastruous condition.

5. singur, cnd al doilea substantiv nseamn: store, shop, studio,
office, restaurant, church sau cathedral.
Go and buy a loaf of bread at the bakers (shop).
Their weeding was at St.Patricks (cathedral).

6. cu OF (posesiv dublu).
Mandy is a friend of Anns. = Mandy is one of Anns friends.


Not
Obiectul posedat pierde articolele i pronumele care l preced cnd
este folosit cu un genitiv sintetic.
227
His child owns THAT bicycle. It is broken. His childs bicycle is
broken.
Not
NU folosim genitivul sintetic:
Cu adjective folosite ca substantive:
He intends to improve the condition of the poor.

Cnd posesorul este determinat de propoziii subordonate sau
expresii lungi.
Id like you to meet the mother of the boy who won first prize.







Exerciii:
Alegei forma potrivit a verbelor. Observai diferena de sens a
substantivelor care primesc att verbe la singular ct i la plural.
1. His phonetics is/are much better than hers. 2. My trousers is/are
flared. 3. The scissors is/are lost for ever, I guess. 4. Statistics is/are
his favourite study. 5. Cod eats/eat a variety of food. 6. Acoustics
is/are a branch of physics. 7. The new statistics shows/show a great
increase in manufactured goods. 8. Youth today is/are turning away
from the church. 9. What is/are the most efficient means of dealing
with this problem? 10. The pliers is/are on the table. 11. The
acoustics of the National Theatre Hall is/are excellent. 12. Politics
is/are the art of the possible. 13. Poultry was/were expensive that
winter. 14. What is/are your politics? 15. The people of the country
lives/live beyond their means. 16. He had no time for visitors while
the poultry was/were being fed. 17. Everybodys means is/are being
tested. 18. Mathematics is/are given top priority nowadays. 19. What
is/are cattle good for? 20. The police has/have made no arrest yet.
21. Fresh-water fish includes/include salmon, trout, carp and eels.
22. Gymnastics is/are not given enough attention in our school. 23.
The Italian clergy was/were opposed to divorce. 24. Advice is/are
readily given on all the technical aspects.

Combinai expresiile partitive din coloana A cu substantivele
nenumrabile din coloana B. Traducei-le n limba romn.
A B
An article of sugar
A bar of meat
A cake of bread
A grain of paper
228
A heap of soap
An item of chocolate
A loaf of land
A lump of rice
A pice of rubbish
A pile of evidence
A sheet of information
A slice of advice
A strip of luggage
A word of furniture
News
Cheia exerciiilor:

1. Are 2. Are 3. Are 4. Is 5. Eat 6. Is 7. Show 8. Are 9. Is 10. Are 11.
Are 12. Is 13. Was 14. Are 15. Live 16. Were 17. Are 18. Is 19. Are
20. Have 21. Include 22. Are 23. Were 24. Is

a lump / a piece of sugar (o bucat de zahr)
a piece of meat (o bucat de carne)
a slice / loaf of bread (o felie de pine / o franzel, o pine)
a sheet / piece of paper (o foaie / bucat de hrtie)
a cake / bar of soap (un spun)
a bar / piece of chocolate (un baton de ciocolat)
a piece / strip of land (o bucat, o fie de pmnt)
a grain of rice (un bob de orez)
a pile / heap of rubbish (o grmad de gunoi)
a piece of evidence (o prob)
a piece / an item of information (o informaie)
a piece / word of advice (un sfat)
a piece of luggage (un bagaj)
a piece / an article of furniture (o pies de mobilier)
a piece / an item of news (o tire)




X. ARTICOLUL


Form: n englez articolele au dou forme: nehotrt A sau AN i
hotrt THE. Articolele sunt invariabile i nu au gen.

1. A se folosete n faa cuvintelor care ncep cu un sunet consonantic
chiar dac prima liter e o vocal. An se folosete n faa cuvintelor
229
care ncep cu vocal sau h mut. Ambele se pot folosi numai cu
substantive numrabile la singular.

A dog a computer
A desk a university (sunet consonantic)
A man a house
An orange a son
An umbrella an hour (h mut)
An idea an honour (h mut)
A building an example

Not
The se pronun () cnd st n faa unui substantiv care ncepe cu
un sunet consonantic i (i:) naintea unui substantiv care ncepe cu
un sunet vocalic.


2. The se folosete n faa oricrui substantiv numrabil sau
nenumrabil, att la singular ct i la plural.

The dog the dogs
The atmosphere the wine
The house the time
The eggs the information
The rice the apple

Not
Cnd ne referim la acelai lucru sau aceeai persoan pentru a doua
oar, folosim de obicei pe the.
There is an apple and an orange for the dessert. Ill eat the apple.

Utilizare: A sau AN se folosesc:

1. naintea unui substantiv pentru a ne referi la ceva sau cineva
pentru prima dat.
Ive received a postcard from a friend of mine in the US.

2. pentru a exprima ce este ceva sau cineva, inclusiv slujbe sau
profesii.
My next-door neighbour is a dentist and his wife an architect.
Jenny doesnt eat meat; shes a vegetarian.
That was a kind thing to say.

3. dup verbul be sau verbe copulative urmate de un adjectiv sau
substantiv sau cnd este urmat de locuiuni prepoziionale sau
230
propoziii relative care ofer mai mult informaie despre cineva
sau ceva:
Jacks son is a talented artist.
I bought a painting that reminded me of my childhood home.

4. cu unele expresii numerice nsemnnd unu sau cu expresii ale
preului, vitezei, raportului i cantitii.
A hundred guests were invited.
Petrol costs 1.50 a litre in England.
Hes crazy driving at 190 kilometres an hour.


Not
A / An i one sunt uneori interschimbabile dar nu n toate cazurile.
Spunem:
A hundred pounds sau one hundred pounds
Dar
a lot of / a great deal of

5. cu substantive numrabile la singular pentru a da definiii, a face
afirmaii generale, exclamaii sau cnd exprimm dorine.
A dog is more company than a cat.
Id like a nice cool glass of beer.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.


Utilizare: THE se folosete:

1. naintea unui substantiv singular numrabil sau nenumrabil sau
a unui substantiv plural numrabil pentru a face o nou referire la
ceva ce a fost deja menionat sau la care s-a fcut deja aluzie.
He wanted to go to a bank to change some money, but all the
banks were on strike.
Do you remember the fun we had when we were at school together?

2. pentru a face referire la cineva sau ceva anume.
I like the painting above the fire place.
The American economy is suffering at the moment.

3. n faa unui substantiv reprezentnd o anume persoan sau un
lucru sau un grup de persoane sau lucruri.
Shall I drive the car? (aceast main)
Will you make the tea, please? (ceaiul pe care ne pregtim s-l bem)

4. cu referire la ceva unic n mod absolut.
231
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
The President of the United States visited the Pope last May.

5. n faa adjectivelor pentru a face referire la un anumit grup sau
clas de oameni. n acest caz nu este nevoie de substantiv.
Only the strong survive.
Robin Hood stole from the rich to give to the poor.

6. n faa unui substantiv la singular pentru a se referi la un anume
grup de oameni, animale sau obiecte.
The Indian elephant is smaller than the African elephant.
The customer is always right.

Not
Exist excepii.
Omaha is in North America.
The branch manager was sent to South-East Asia on a reconnaissance
trip.

7. naintea unor substantive proprii pentru a denumi zone geografice,
nume de mri i ruri, lanuri muntoase, grupuri de insule, nume
la plural de ri i deerturi.
The Atlantic, the Bay of Biscay, the Middle East, the north of
England, the West of Ireland, the Ivory Coast, the Black Country
The Mediterranean Sea, the English Channel, the River thames, the
Rhein, the Straits of Gibraltar
The Himalayas, the Pennines
The Channel Islands, the Hawaiian Islands, the Falklands
The United States of America, the Netherlands
The Arizona Desert, the Gibbon Desert


Not
The nu se folosete cu nume de muni izolai:
Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Scotland.

Not
Nu se folosete the cu nume de lacuri.
Lake Windermere, Lake Superior, Lake Victoria

8. n faa numelor de instrumente muzicale.
The guitar has always been my favourite instrument.
Do you think your father will let us play the drums in his garage?
9. n faa unor adjective naionaliti cu referire la oameni dintr-o
anumit ar- aici se folosete un verb la plural.
232
The French and the British have worked together to build the
Channel.
The Dutch are said to be hard workers.


Not
n anumite cazuri se pot folosi numai substantive la plural.
The Germans were upset about losing the semi-finals.
The Americans hosted the 1994 World Football Championship.

10. naintea adjectivelor superlative i a numeralelor ordinale.
Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon.
That is the silliest thing I have ever heard.

Not
Uneori numeralele ordinale pot fi folosite fr the atunci cnd se face
referire la ordinea n care se petrec evenimentele.
Brendan came first and Collin second in the 100 meters.
We went to Manhattan first, then on to Brooklyn.


Utilizare: Nu se folosete articolul:

1. n faa substantivelor nenumrabile sau numrabile la plural cnd
se face o afirmaie general.
Pollution in big cities is very worrying.
Dogs make good companions.

Aceste cuvinte sunt adesea precedate de determinani ca: some,
any, a piece of, a lot of
Is there any bread in the kitchen?
Are there any apples in the bowl?

Not
Iat o list de substantive care sunt de obicei la singular i
nenumrabile n englez, dar uneori nu i n alte limbi:
Luggage, baggage, furniture, news, information, advice, behaviour,
damage, permission, traffic, weather, work, accommodation, bread,
luck, progresss, hair
2. n faa substantivelor abstracte cnd sunt folosite n mod generic:
beauty, happiness, fear, hope, knowledge, intelligence; cu excepia
cazurilor cnd sunt folosite cu sens mai bine specificat.
Knowledge comes to us through our senses.
She got the job because she has a knowledge of English.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
233
What a beauty!

3. n faa substantivelor proprii, nume de persoane i numele unei
companii, cu excepia situaiilor cnd se vorbete de familie ca de
un tot.
He works for Unimotor Ltd.
Helene and Geoff Parker are coming to dinner tonight.
Dar The Parkers are coming to dinner tonight.

4. pentru a vorbi despre sporturi, n faa numelor de echipe
He loves football but she isnt keen of golf.
She supports Manchester United.

5. naintea numelor meselor zilei: breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper.
Where did you have breakfast?

6. naintea cuvintelor home, church, university, prison, hospital,
market, atunci cnd ele reprezint o instituie sau o idee general.
The se folosete totui atunci cnd se face o referire special la
locul respectiv.
John Bragg was arrested and put into prison for corruption.
His wife can go to the prison once a week to visit him.

Emma and Sam are at school.
Their mother often goes to the school to talk to their teacher.




Exerciii:

Alegei articolele: a, an, the,
1. Nearly all furniture had been taken out of dining-room. 2.
big piano was put in corner and then there came row of flower
pots and then there came goldy chairs. 3. That was for concert.
4. When Sun looked in white-faced man sat at piano not
playing, but banging at it. 5. He had bag of tools on piano and
he had stuck his hat on statue against wall. 6. So they went into
the dining-room; red ribbons and bunches of roses tied up
table at corners. 7. In middle was lake with rose-petals
floating on it. 8. Thats where ice-pudding is to be said Cook. 9.
Two silver lions with wings had fruit on their backs. 10. And all
winking glasses and shining plates, and all food! 11. Are
people going to eat food? asked Sun. 12. While they were being
unbuttoned Mother looked in with white thing over her
234
shoulders; she was rubbing stuff on her face. 13. Ill ring for them
when I want them, Nurse.


Alegei articolele: a, an, the,
1. Out of ignorance he made mistake after mistake. 2. They
sailed through Straits of Magellan. 3. school and home were
far away. 4. Ill start as deck boy at pound month. 5.
children of lane used to play together in field: Browns,
Pages, little Tom cripple. 6. They walked along North Strand
Road till they came to Finlandia House and then turned to right
along Wharf Road. 7. I went from room to room singing. 8. At
Victoria Station crowd of people pressed to carriage doors.
9. Thats an order, said Major Dunn. 10. police officer Dan
Taylor stood guard over her outside St. Francis Hotel. 11. judge
James Taylor was not lenient. 12. Chinese language is totally
unlike Japanese. 13. Japanese have transcribed their language
into Roman alphabet as well. 14. I thought about it day and
night. 15. They transmitted television pictures back to earth. 16.
earth shone brilliant blue green, curved at horizon, against
blackness of space, below the two ships as Soyuz trailed
Apollo. 17. She settled down to sip tea from paper cup. 18.
crocodiles can be bred commercially just like cows or pigs. 19.
lava and ash from Merapi Volcano, Central Jawa have
forced 170 families to flee their homes. 20. female crocodile lays
about 40 eggs year. 21. farm life doesnt agree with them. 22.
She was training for Swan Lake. 23. lack of parking space
forces motorists to double-park reducing wide streets to
narrow lanes. 24. They discovered fossils of bony fishes on
field trip to Ellesmore Island in Artic. 25. The fire broke out near
Lake Hemet, south of mountain resort of Idyllwild, and
burned to southeast.


Cheia exerciiilor:
1. The, the 2. The, a, a, the 3. The 4. a, the 5. A, , the, a, the 6. ,
, , the, the 7. The, a, 8. The, 9. , 10. The, the 11. , the
12. , a, 13.

1. , , 2. The 3. , 4.a, a, a 5. The, the, the, the, the, the 6.
The, , the, the 7. , 8. , a, , the 9. 10. The, 11. 12. The,
13. The, the 14. , 15. 16. The, a, the, the, , the, the 17. , a
18. , , 19. , , , 20. A, a 21. 22. 23. The, , , ,
24. , , a, , the 25. , the, , the


235
XI. ADJECTIVUL

Form: adjectivele limbii engleze sunt invariabile. Ele nu au gen sau
numr.

Not
Adjectivele demonstrative sunt SINGURA excepie. Aceste adjective
sunt variabile. This, that se folosesc su substantive la singular.
These, those se folosesc cu substantive la plural.
This shirt has been ironed. That blouse looks dirty.
These flowers are beautiful. Those bushes need cutting.
Poziie: adjectivele sunt aezate:

1. n faa substantivelor.
Im reading an interesting book.
2. dup verbele: be, become, seem, appear, feel, sound, taste, make,
keep, look (= appear), get/turn/grow (= become)
I feel sad.
The weather grew cool.
He makes Janice happy.

3. dup un complement direct
Jane found the programme boring.
She painted her nails bright red.

Not
Unele dintre aceste verbe pot avea alte sensuri atunci cnd sunt
determinate de adverbe:
Gladys looked (= appeared) attractive.
Gladys looked (= examined) carefully the price tag.


Tipuri: adjectivele se mpart n ase tipuri: calificative, posesive,
interogative, cantitative, demonstrative i distributive.


1. Adjectivele calificative

Form: exemple de astfel de adjective sunt: young, empty, small,
spacious, black, elegant, ugly, strong, lonely, intelligent, round, happy
The old man was sitting in the sun.


Not
Adjectivele pot fi folosite ca substantive. Ele cer un verb la plural.
236
The young are often impacient.

Not
Facei diferena ntre little (= mic), little (= nu mult) i a little (= o
cantitate mic).
She babysits for a little girl.
Fish eat little food.
He lent me a little money.

Participiile prezente (formele n ing) i participiile trecute (formele de
tipul ed) sunt folosite ca adjective calificative. Participiile prezente au
sens activ, iar participiile trecute au sens pasiv.

Participiu prezent Participiu trecut
Boring bored
Amusing amused
Interesting interested
Tiring tired
Frightening frightened

The student grew bored during the lecture.
Spielbergs new film is frightening.

Not
Pretty este att adejectiv ct i adverb.
Ellie is a pretty girl. (= attractive)
Arnold is pretty rich. (= rather)

Not
Adjectivele sunt determinate de adverbe.
Those boots are very tight.
I feel totally exhausted.


Utilizare: adjectivele i prepoziiile

Adjectivele sunt adesea urmate de prepoziii.

At to about of
Bad married sad rude
Expert cruel sincere stupid
Good kind sorry kind
Slow loyal sure nice
Quick polite thrilled polite
Excited faithful worried sure
237
Shocked sensitive curious generous
Surprised rude enthusiastic
Amused anxious

With on in
Delighted dependent interested
Disgusted expert
Pleased successful
Satisfied
Generous

Not
Unele adjective i schimb sensul cnd primesc o alt prepoziie.
Todd is good at algebra. /Todd is good to his sister.
They are always kind to us. / Its kind of Helen to help.


Topica

Cnd dou sau mai multe adjective sunt folosite mpreun:
1. adjectivele subiective sau de opinie (boring, lovely, lazy) sunt
aezate n faa adjectivelor obiective sau concrete (old, red, square).
Ann is an active young lady.

2. adjectivele obiective sau concrete stau n umrtoarea ordine:
dimensiune vrst form culoare origine material scop
a small oval plate / an antique French table / a black metal walking
stick / an enormous black steel lifting device

3. dup un verb ultimele dou adjective sunt legate cu AND.
Sam grew bitter and aggressive.
The bread smelled fresh, fragrant, and appetizing.

Comparaia adjectivelor

A. Comparativul i superlativul adjectivelor se formeaz:

1. adugnd er i est la sfritul:
adjectivelor monosilabice
adjectivelor terminate n y, -er, -ly

Not
Adjectivele de o silab terminate ntr-o consoan, dubleaz consoana:
fat, fatter, fattest
238
Adjectivele terminate n consoan + y: transfomr pe y n i: pretty,
prettier, prettiest

2. adugnd more i most naintea adjectivelor de dou sau mai
multe silabe


Comparaia regulat
Adjectiv comparativ superlativ
Warm warmer the warmest
Happy happier the happiest
Clever cleverer the cleverest
Boring more boring the most boring
Excited more excited the most excited

Comparaia neregulat
Adjectiv comparativ superlativ
Good, well better the best
Bad worse the worst
Little less the least
Much, many more the most
Far farther the farthest
further the furthest
old older the oldest
elder the eldest
late later the latest
the last
near nearer the nearest
the next

Not
Good i well au sensuri diferite:
Beth is good. (= behaves well)
Beth is well. (= she is in good health)
Farther i further se refer ambele la distan, dar further mai poate
nsemna i n plus / extra
Boston is farther / further than Plymouth.
Further testing will be necessary.
Older i elder se refer ambele la vrst, dar elder se folosete pentru
relaii de familie
The cathedral is the oldest building in town.
Jason is the eldest brother.
The latest nseamn cel mai recent, the last nseamn cel final,
ultimul
The latest news was broadcast five minutes ago.
239
The last news report is at midnight.
The nearest se refer la distan, the next la timp / cronologie
The nearest hotel is ten miles away.
The next train is leaving in half an hour.


B. pentru a face comparaii, folosii:

1. as + adjectiv + as n propoziii afirmative pentru a exprima
egalitatea
as/so + adjectiv + as n propoziii negative
Your eyesight is as good as mine.
Peter isnt as/so short as his brother.

2. adjectivul la comparativ + than pentru a exprima diferena
That watch is more expensive than this Timex.
Not
Pentru a forma comparaii cu substantive, pronume i verbe n ing,
folosii prepoziia like
He works like a dog.
Try to behave like him.
Its like talking to a brick wall.


Comparai

Comparaiile pot fi fcute cu more ct i cu less
Paris is more interesting than Houston.
Houston is less interesting than Paris.


Not
Exist o diferen ntre engleza formal i cea familiar.
Formal: than/as + i/he/she/we/they + verb
Familiar: than/as + me/him/her/us/them

Formal Familiar
You are as tall as I am. You are as tall as me.
Bill is older than she is. Bill is older than her.

Not
Cnd acelai verb se repet n aceeai propoziie, folosii un auxiliar
pentru al doilea verb.
This CD sounds better than that CD sounds. = This CD sounds better
than that CD does.
240

3. comparativ + and + comparativ
pentru a exprima creterea sau descreterea gradat a calitii
The baby is growing bigger and bigger.
Im feeling more and more irritated with Eric.

4. the + adjectiv la superlativ + of/in
pentru a exprima superioritatea sau inferioritatea
OF se folosete pentru a indica un grup de oameni sau obiecte.
IN se folosete pentru a indica un loc.
This is the oldest book in the library.
This book is the best of/in the series.
3. Adjectivele posesive

Form: adjectivele posesive sunt:
My your his/her/its our your their

Not
Its este adjectiv posesiv.
Its este forma contras a lui it + is.


Utilizare: adjectivele se folosesc:
1. pentru a face referire la posesor.
I took off my coat.
We drove our car.

2. cu pri ale corpului i haine.
The children washed their hands before dinner.
Jim puts on his new hiking boots.

3. cu own, pentru a ntri ideea de posesie.
She cleaned her own room.

Not
Adjectivele posesive sunt invariabile. Ele au aceeai form pentru
substantive la singular i la plural.
My book, my books his pen, his pens


3. Adjectivele interogative

Form: Exist trei adjective interogative: what, which i whose

Utilizare: Adjectivele interogative se folosesc astfel:
241

1. what se folosete pentru lucuri:
What book are you reading?
which se folosete pentru persoane sau lucuri n cazul unei alegeri
limitate:
Which book do you prefer?
whose se folosete pentru persoane i exprim posesia:
Whose car have they borrowed?


Not
Adjectivele interogative sunt invariabile. Ele au aceeali form pentru
substantive la singular i la plural.
What photo,what photos / which pen,which pens / whose coat,whose
coats
2. whose preced substantivul pe care l determin.
Whose cat is this?
Whose bags are over there?

3. cnd what/which/whose + substantiv joac rolul de subiect al
unei propoziii, verbul este la forma afirmativ.
cnd what/which/whose + substantiv joac rolul de
complement al unei propoziii, verbul este la forma interogativ.

Subiect Complement
What team won? What team did you applaud?
Which train arrived late? Which train did Mary take?
Whose coat lost a button? Whose coat did Ben borrow?


4. Adjective cantitative

Form: adjectivele cantitative sunt: much, many, little, few, some,
any, no i toate numerele.

Utilizare: A. much, many, little, few

1. many i few se folosesc cu substantive numrabile.
much i little se folosec cu substantive nenumrabile.
Many magazines, few inhabitants
Much money, little happines
2. much i many se folosesc de obicei n propoziii negative i
interogative. n propoziii afirmative folosii a lot of, plenty of, a
great deal of, a large number of.
Neagativ i interogativ
242
There isnt much ice in the freezer.
Do you have many friends?
Afirmativ
The plum tree has pleanty of plums this year.
3. much i many se pot combina cu how.
How much money do you need?
How many birds live in that nest?

Not
Much i many se folosesc uneori n propoziii afirmative.
Many guests complained.
Much time has been wasted.

Not
How much / many + substantiv poate fi subiect sau complement.
Verbul din propoziie se modific n mod corespunztor.
How much money did he take?
How much is missing?

B. some, any, no sunt adesea denumite partitive.

1. some i any indic o anumit cantitate
no nseamn nici unele, nici unii, deloc
Se folosesc cu: substantive la plural.
substantive nenumrabile la singular.
There is some bread but no milk in the kitchen.
Have you bought any biscuits?

2. some se folosete n:
propoziii afirmative
We earned some money picking strawberries.

ntrebri, cnd se ateapt un rspuns afirmativ
Havent you lost some buttons on that jacket?

Oferte i cereri
Would you like some coffee?

3. any se folosete n:
propoziii negative
I cant lend you any flour.

Propoziii interogative
Does Sarah have any talent?

243
Propoziii subordonate cu if/whether
We dont know if there are any survivors.
Dup without
He left for London without any baggage.

Propoziii afirmative cu un substantiv la singular, cu sensul de tot,
oricare, indiferent care
Any advice is welcome.
Buy any brand of toothpaste.


4. no se folosete n:
propoziii afirmative pentru a exprima negaia
My husband speaks no Spanish.
No drinks were offered during the flight.

Dup with
He left for London with no baggage.


Not
Some, any, no se combin cu one, -body, - thing formnd cuvintele
compuse: someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything,
no one, nobody, nothing

Aceste pronume urmeaz aceleai reguli.
Does anyone want to accompany me?
They saw something strange that night.
No one answered the phone.
The test flight took place without anybody on board.



5. Adjectivele demonstrative: this, that, these, those

1. Demonstrativele sunt singurele adjective variabile din limba
englez. Se acord n numr cu substantivul determinat.
Singular plural
This rug these rugs
That tree those trees

2. This, these se refer la persoane i lucruri din apropierea
vorbitorului.
That, those se refer la persoane i lucruri aflate mai departe de
vorbitor.
244
These pastries are delicious.
This chair is rather uncomfortable.
That airplane is flying too low.
Those clouds look fluffy.


6. Adjective distributive: each, every, all, both, either, neither

Utilizare: A: each, all, every

1. each nseamn considerat separat sau individual. E urmat de
substantiv la singular.
Each child received a prize.

2. all nseamn considerai mpreun, ca grup. Substantivele
numrabile care urmeaz sunt la plural.
All men are created equal.

3. every poate nsemna considerai mpreun sau considerai
separat. Urmeaz un substantiv la singular.
Every girl had a red hair ribbon.

C. both
both nseamn amndoi, amndou
Ive read both books.

D. either, neither
either nseamn oricare din cei/cele doi/dou. Urmeaz un
substantiv la singular.
Either dress is suitable for the party.

neither nseamn nici unul/una din cei/cele doi/dou. Urmeaz
un substantiv la singular. Verbul trebuie s fie afirmativ.
Neither dress is suitable for the party.

Not
Either or implic o alegere:
You can have either eggs or bacon for breakfast.

Neither nor subliniaz cele dou negaii:
Neither women nor children were admitted.

n acest timp de expresie substantivele numrabile sunt la plural.

Not
245
Adjectivele sunt adesea urmate de construcii infinitivale.
Thats nice to know!
It was foolish to do that!
We found it easy to memorize.
It is dangerous to ski there.



Exerciii:

Alegei forma corect a adjectivului din parantez:
1. This is the book I have read for a long time (good). 2. He has one
of the cars on the road (fast). 3. The work you are doing today is
than the work you did yesterday (easy). 4. Ann often wears dresses
then her mother (expensive). 5. Which is the play you have lately
read? (interesting). 6. The actress on the stage was the girl I have
ever seen (striking). 7. Tom is than his friend (tall). 8. They have a
garden than ours (lovely). 9. He said this was the day in his life
(important). 10. He was than his wife when the child broke the
window (angry). 11. He was the man in the world to do that (late).
12. A: Which was your subject at school and which was your
(good, bad)? B: Physics was my and history my (good, bad). 13.
Is Bucharest or Prague the from London (far)? 14. Tom is 17 years
old, his brother Jack is 19 and his sister Jane is 15. Therefore Jane is
the and Jack is the (young, old).

Alegei forma corect a adjectivelor din parantez:
1. What is the (late) information youve got? 2. Her (old) brother is
called Jim. 3. We were in a hurry to catch the (late) bus. 4. Which is
(old) of the two? 5. Who is the (old) member of the students club? 6.
They got down to business without (far) delay. 7. Ive got a still (old)
edition of the dictionary. 8. The (old) sister was twenty years (old) then
the youngest. 9. The (late) half of May was quite rainy. 10. I was told
to wait until (far) notice. 11. I wish I had bought it at the (near) shop.
12. He provided them with (far) information as agreed. 13. The (near)
station is Calea Victoriei. 14. Johns (late) novel was a (good) seller
and for sure it wont be his (late) one. 15. He is the (little) writer of the
two. 16. I saw him meet her at the (far) end of the street. 17. I shall
need (far) help with this.


Cheia exerciiilor:

1. Best 2. Fastest 3. Easier 4. More expensive 5. Most interesting 6.
Most striking 7. Taller 8. More lovely 9. Most important 10. Angrier
11. Last 12. Best, worst, best, worst 13. Farther 14. Youngest, oldest
246

1. Latest 2. Elder 3. Last 4. Older 5. Oldest 6. Further 7. Older 8.
Eldest, older 9. Latter 10. Further 11. Nearest 12. Further 13. Next
14. Latest, best, last 15. Lesser 16. Farthest 17. Further



XII. PRONUMELE

Pronumele nlocuiesc substantive. Cele ase tipuri de adjective
(calitativ, posesiv, interogativ, cantitativ, demonstrativ, distributiv) au
forme pronominale. Ele urmeaz n general reguli identice. Exist de
asemenea i pronume personale i reflexive.

1. Adjective Calificative + one/ones = Pronume

1. adjectiv calificativ + one/ones nlocuiete un substantiv care a
fost menionat mai devreme.
I wont lend you my new pen. You can borrow my old one.
2. superlativele i culorile pot fi folosite singure.
Sandra is the best (dancer).
Dont wear your blue shoes. The black (ones) look better.


2. Pronume Posesive

Form: pronumele posesive sunt:
Mine ours
Yours yours
His/hers theirs

Utilizare: pronumele posesive nlocuiesc adjectivele posesive.
Substantivul care lipsete a fost menionat nainte.
This is my book. This book is mine.
Come to my house, not his.

Not
Of yours nseamn one of your + substantiv
Of mine nseamn one of my + substantiv
John is a friend of ours. = John is one of our friends.


3. Pronume Interogative

Pronumele interogative sunt: who, whom, whose, what, which
247

Utilizare: pronumele interogative se folosesc astfel:
Persoane Lucruri
Subiect who what
Which which
Complement whom, who what
Which which
Posesiv whose

Not
Pronumele interogative sunt invariabile. Ele au o singur form.
Who is that girl?
Who are those men?

Not
Which se folosete ntr-un context cu alegere limitat. n rest se
folosete what.
What do you see? (poi vedea orice)
Which (one) is singing? (care persoan, din grupul respectiv, este cea
care cnt?)

1. pronumele interogative ca SUBIECT
cnd who, what, whose i which sunt subiectul unei propoziii,
verbul este afirmativ.
Who is calling me?
What happened?

2. pronumele interogative ca i COMPLEMENT
cnd who, whom, what, whose, which sunt complementul unei
propoziii, verbul este la interogativ.
Whom did you call?
What has he done?


Not
n engleza formal whom este folosit ca i complement obiect direct.
Engleza vorbit l folosete pe who.
Formal: Whom did you see?
Vorbit: Who did you see?

3. pronume interogative ca i COMPLEMENT PREPOZIIONAL
Whom, what, which ca i complemente prepoziionale.
With whom did Meg speak?
In what are you interested?
To which of the two addresses did they send it?
248


Not
Engleza modern prefer s transfere prepoziiile la SFRITUL
propoziiei. n acest caz whom devine who.
Who did Meg speak with?
What are you interested in?
Which of the two addresses did they send it to?
Not
What + be? i what + be like? Sunt ntrebri diferite.
What is Mr. Parker? He is a lawyer.
What is Mr. Parker like? He is short and arrogant.

4. Pronume Cantitative
Pronumele cantitative sunt: much, many, little, few, some, any,
none.

Utilizare: much, many, little, few

1. many i few nlocuiesc substantive numrabile
much i little nlocuiesc substantive nenumrabile
Many are called but few are chosen.
He didnt spend much money. n fact he spent very little.

2. much i many se folosesc n mod normal n propoziii negative i
interogative. n propoziii afirmative folosii a lot/lots sau a great
deal.
The baby isnt eating much. It usually eats a great deal.
Did you buy many books? Yes, I bought lots.

Not
Much i many se pot combina cu how.
How much did it cost?
How many came?


Some, any, none

1. some, any i none nlocuiesc substantive la plural sau
nenumrabile la singular.
2. some se folosete n:
a. propoziii afirmative
b. ntrebri cnd se ateapt ca rspunsul s fie afirmativ
c. oferte i cereri
There are deer in the park. We saw some today.
249
You need some medicine. Did the doctor prescribe you some?
Ive just lost all my money. Could you lend me some?

3. any se folosete n:
a. propoziii negative
b. propoziii interogative
c. subordonate cu if/whether
d. dup without
I meant to buy a dozen eggs but they hadnt got any.
Arent there any in the fridge?
If you see any, let me know.
What about money? He left without any.

4. none se folosete n:
a. propoziii afirmative pentru a exprima negaia
b. dup with
If all friends were like Harry, Id rather have none.
Sam hates carrying suitcases. He travels with none.

Not
Pronumele somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone,
anything, no one, nobody, nothing urmeaz aceleai reguli.



5. Pronumele Demonstrative
Pronumele demonstrative sunt: this, that, these i those

Utilizare:

1. Pronumele demonstrative se acord n numr cu substantivul pe
care l nlocuiesc.
This (umbrella) is mine. That is his.

2. this, these se refer la obiecte din preajma vorbitorului.
that, those se refer la obiecte aflate mai departe de vorbitor.
This (one) is here, that (one) is there.

3. this se folosete pentru a face prezentrile sau la telefon.
Mrs Jones, this is my friend, Alison Hughes.



6. Pronumele Distributive:

250
Each, all, everyone/everybody, everything, both, either, neither

Utilizare: each, all

1. each nseamn considerai individual. Urmeaz un verb la
singular.
Each chose the colour he preferred.

2. all nseamn considerai mpreun. Urmeaz un verb la plural.
All are welcome.

3. each i all pot fi urmate de OF + substantiv / pronume.
Each of the boys felt ashamed.
All of the trees are dying.


Everyone, everybody, everything

1. everyone i everybody nseamn toat lumea
Everybody in the room applauded.

2. everything nseamn toate lucrurile
Everything ended well.


Both

1. both nseamn cei doi/cele dou
Both refused the invitation.

2. both poate fi urmat de OF + substantiv / pronume
Both of his grandparents are still living.
Not
All i both se pot folosi pentru a ntri subiectul pronominal. n acest
caz ele sunt plasate n faa verbului principal.
You have all been very kind to me.
We both came.

Either, neither

1. either nseamn unul dintre cei doi.
neither nseamn nici unul dintre cei doi.

2. either, neither pot fi urmate de OF + substantiv / pronume
Either of you can go.
251
Neither of the men wanted to do it.


7. Pronume Personale

Form: subiect complement
I me
You you
He him
She her
It it
We us
They them

Utilizare:

1. toate verbele limbii engleze (cu excepia imperativelor) trebuie s
aib un subiect pronominal.
They dislike inefficiency.
dar
Come here!

2. complementele pronominale (directe sau indirecte) urmeaz o
prepoziie sau verbul (cu funcie de complemente directe sau
indirecte.)
I spoke to her yesterday.
We saw them on the beach.


Not
De obicei complementul indirect preced complementul direct.
She sent me a long letter.
Dar
Dup verbe ca: explain, introduce, translate, describe, say, suggest,
recommend
Dar
Dac ambele complemente sunt pronume:
Complementul direct este primul iar complementul indirect e introdus
printr-o prepoziie.
She sent it to me.
I explained it to them.


252
3. you i one sunt folosite impersonal cu sensul de everyone, no one
sau anyone. One are aspect formal. You este frecvent folosit n
engleza vorbit.
You/one should always tell the truth.


4. they este folosit impersonal cu sensul de lumea spune, se zice
They say hes dishonest. (= People say hes dishonest.)

5. it + be se folosete:

pentru lucruri sau fiine cu genul necunoscut.
Wheres my book? It is on the shelf.

Cu un substantiv / complement pronominal pentru a se referi la
persoane.
Whos at the door? Its Olivia.

n expresii despre vreme, temperatur, timp, date, distane
Its cold outside.
What time is it? Its nine oclock.
Its the fourth of July.
How far is it to Chicago? Its ten miles.

Cu un adjectiv pentru a introduce o subordonat infinitival
It is difficult to understand her.




8. Pronume Reflexive

Form: singular plural
Myself ourselves
Yourself yourselves
Himself themselves
Herself
Itself

Not
Exist o diferen ntre yourself i yourselves.
Did you enjoy yourself at the party?
Did John and you enjoy yourselves at the party?


253

Utilizare: Pronumele reflexive se folosesc:

1. cu verbe reflexive.

Cele mai frecvente verbe reflexive sunt:
To enjoy oneself, to amuse oneself, to help oneself, to hurt oneself, to
trouble oneself, to cut oneself, to wash oneself
The little boy hurt himself during the game.

Multe verbe care sunt n mod normal reflexive n alte limbi NU sunt
reflexive n englez. Astfel de verbe sunt: to wash, dress, comb,
shave, meet, etc.
Sue and Brian met last year.

2. cu funcie de complemente prepoziionale
She looked at herself in the mirror.
Why are you so angry with yourself?

3. pentru ntrire
The president himself attended the meeting.


Not
By + pronume reflexiv nseamn singur
Un pronume reflexiv folosit cu un verb nereflexiv nseamn fr
ajutorul nimnui.
I live by myself. = I live alone.
I fixed it myself. = I fixed it without any help.

Not
Each other nseamn reciprocitate ntre dou persoane.


Exerciii:

Folosii it sau there, acolo unde e necesar:
1. is time to go to bed. 2. is three miles to the Zoo. 3. is a long
time since I gave up smoking. 4. is so much work to do that I
havent time to think about my own problems. 5. is time to finish
the cleaning before we go. 6. is very strange that they should have
arrived at the same time. 7. is no place like home. 8. is two years
since they married. 9. is only a short way now. 10. Dont eat that
is a poisonous mushroom. are many of them in these parts. 11.
is a shame that even today are so many unkempt gardens around.
254
12. is no time to stop and talk. is a bus to catch, is a fair
distance to the stop.

Completai spaiile cu much, many, (a) little, (a) few:
1. The people involved are only as as half a dozen. 2. Ask to have
. 3. have no record at all. 4. The workers were quite upset;
threatened to down tools; chose to go on working. 5. They dont
give you for this kind of work, do they? 6. is being done to lay
their suspicions. 7. What about buses? are broken down, are in
good repair. 8. Some go for crisps but quite go for popcorn in a big
way. 9. A: Anything to drink? The pineapple squash is very nice
indeed. B: Yes, please, Ill have . 10. It was quite a shock for all of
them, but were seriously injured.

Folosii either, neither sau none:
1. a. I like of the two. b. I dont like of the two, they are both too
fanciful for my taste. 2. was worth mentioning. 3. A: Which of the
two paintings did you buy? B:. 4. It doesnt matter which you
choose. a. I dont like b. I like 5. A: Which of her friends do you
like best? B: I like of them. 6. A: Have you seen my husband or
my son? B: Ive seen of them. 8. A: Have you read the English of
the Romanian version? B: I havent read of them.

Completai spaiile goale cu who, whose, whom, which, that:
1. The girl umbrella you took is raging against you. 2. The apples
he saw on the table were not big at all. 3. The play we saw last
week was rather dull. 4. The girl with you saw me yesterday
studies Spanish. 5. The student to you were talking looked very
clever. 6. The boys are playing football under your windows are
brothers. 7. The raft on he was standing was caught in a whirl. 8.
They have cut down the tree used to stand here. 9. The only
opponent can defeat him is Joe Bugner. 10. The only opponent
he is afraid of is Joe Bugner. 11. The most unusual book has
appeared this winter is a book on caterpillars. 12. Frank is no the
man he was. 13. Heres the man car was stolen. 14. Is this the
box you took it out of? 15. Its library object is to serve the
neighbouring villages. 16. Everybody one asks says he is innocent.
17. This is the funniest story he has written. 18. She is the sort of
girl will do her best to persuade him. 19. All they can do is
pacify him. 20. Youre the only man Ive ever met can really play
bridge.


Cheia exerciiilor:
1. It 2. It 3. It 4. There 5. There 6. It 7. There 8. It 9. It 10. It, there
11. It, there 12. There, there, it
255

1. Few 2. Much, a little 3. Many 4. Many, few 5. Much 6. Little 7.
Few, many 8. Few 9. A little 10. Few

1. Neither, either 2. None 3. Neither 4. Either, neither 5. None 6.
Neither 7. None 8. Either

1. Whose 2. That/which 3. Which/that 4. Whom 5. Whom 6. Who 7.
Which 8. That 9. Who 10. Whom/that 11. That 12. That 13. Whose
14. Which/that 15. Whose 16. (That) 17. (That) 18. That 19. (That)
20. (That), who



XIII. ADVERBUL


Form: Adverbele se formeaz n diferite feluri:

1. unele adverbe sunt cuvinte independente:
often, when?, now, very, soon, always

2. unele adverbe au aceeai form ca adjectivele: daily, early, fast,
low, straight, well, back, enough, far, ill, little, long, pretty, near,
wrong, still, short, late, high, left, right, hard





Not
Dintre aceste adverbe, unele au i o form n LY dar sensul este
altul:
HardLY = very little They were highly impatient.
LateLY = recently It hasnt rained lately.
NearLY = almost Dinner is nearly ready.
ShortLY = soon, briefly Mr. Smith will be here shortly.
PrettiLY = attractively The baby was prettily dressed.


Not
Dup be, become, feel, get, look, seem, folosii un adjectiv (nu un
adverb).
She felt happy.
Mrs. Poole looks tired.
256

3. unel adverbe (n special cele de mod i grad) se formeaz adugnd
adjectivelor terminaia LY:
kind, kindly automatic, automatically slow, slowly
simple, simply happy, happily careful, carefully

Not
Adverbul corespunztor lui Good este Well.

Not
Unel cuvinte terminate n LY sunt adjective (nu adverbe)!
Lonely, lovely, likely, friendly, ugly, silly

Ortografie:

y final se schimb n i: merry, merrily (dar shy, shyly)
-e final se pstreaz: wise, wisely (dar true, truly)
dac se termin n consoan
+ -le, e dispare i se adaug -y: gentle, gently
cuvintelor terminate n ic scientific, scientifically
li se adaug ally: (dar public, publicly)


Topica:

Topica adverbelor variaz. Ea depinde n primul rnd de tipul de
adverbe folosit. ntrirea poate i ea afecta topica.

Exist trei poziii de baz pentru adverbe:

1. la nceput:
Adverbul e plasat nainte de subiect.
Unfortunately, I couldnt identify the thief.

2. la sfrit:
Adverbul este plasat dup complement sau, dac nu exist
complement, imediat dup verb.
That young man likes Melanie very much.


Not
Nu plasai niciodat un adverb ntre verb i complement!
I drink coffee slowly. (Nu I drink slowly coffee.)

3. la mijloc:
257
Adverbul este plasat:
nainte de verbul principal.
He usually comes for tea.

dup verbul be.
She is always smiling.

dup primul verb auxiliar sau modal.
They have rarely come to visit.

nainte de used to, have to, ought to.
We certainly ought to be more careful.


Tipuri de adverbe

Adverbele se mpart n apte tipuri diferite: de mod, loc, timp,
frecven, opinie, grad i interogative.


1. Adverbe de mod

Kindly, easily, well, happily, fast, carefully, secretly,
beautifully, reluctantly, foolishly, badly etc.
Adverbele de mod arat CUM se petrece o aciune.
Poziia lor este:
de obicei la sfrit, adic dup verb i complement.
Pavarotti sang beautifully.


Not
n propoziii cu pasivul, WELL i BADLY sunt plasate nainte de
participiul trecut:
The book was well written.


nainte de verb, DAC exist un complement lung.
The teacher carefully picked up all the exam papers scattered over
the floor.

Adverbele referitoare la caracter sau inteligen (foolish, generously,
sweetly, kindly, stupidly etc.) i schimb sensul n funcie de
poziie.
I stupidly replied. (= It was stupid of me to reply.)
I replied stupidly. (= I gave a stupid reply.)
258


2. Adverbe de loc

Here, up, abroad, out, outside, in, away, everywhere,
somewhere, nowhere, there etc.

Adverbele de loc arat UNDE se petrece aciunea.
Poziia lor este:
de obicei la sfrit, adic dup verb i complement.
They went everywhere.

Not
Adverbele de loc funcioneaz adesea i ca prepoziii.
Joe ran down the stairs.

Not
HERE / THERE + be / come / go + subiect substantiv:
Theres Henry! Here comes the train!
Dar
HERE / THERE + subiect pronume + be / come / go:
There he is! Here it comes!


3. Adverbe de timp
Yesterday, now, afterwards, still, soon, eventually, then, today,
at once, till, tomorrow, since then etc.

Adverbele de timp arat CND se petrece aciunea.
Poziia lor este:
de obicei la nceput (naintea subiectului) sau la sfrit (dup verb
i complement).
Tomorrow will begin the next lesson.

cu imperative: la sfrit
Do it now!

Cu YET: la sfrit
YET se folosete mai ales la negativ i interogativ. nseamn pn
acum.
Mr Jones hasnt finished yet.
Have you asked him yet?

Cu STILL: dup BE i naintea tuturor celorlalte verbe.
259
STILL se folosete la afirmativ, negativ, i interogativ. El subliniaz
continuarea unei situaii / stri de fapt.
Stephanie is still unwell.

Cu ALREADY: dup BE sau primul auxiliar i nainte de verbul
principal.
ALREADY se folosete mai ales la afirmativ. nseamn deja.
He is already fifteen years old.



Not
Since then se folosete cu timpurile perfecte.
We havent seen the Nelsons since then.

Not
De obicei adverbele au urmtoarea ordine:
MOD LOC TIMP
The baby slept well yesterday.
Mark worked hard at school last year.


4. Adverbe de frecven

Always, usually, never, ever, hardly ever, often, twice, once,
continually, seldom, rarely, periodically etc.

Adverbele de frecven arat CT DE DES se petrece o aciune.
Poziia lor este:
de obicei la mijloc, adic:
nainte de verbul principal i have to, used to, ought to
dup verbul BE i primul auxiliar.
You can sometimes park over there.
The little girls are always playing dolls.

Continually, frequently, occasionally, once, twice, often, sometimes,
normally i repeatedly pot fi plasate i la sfrit (dup verb i
complement) sau la nceput (nainte de subiect):
He comes to see us often.
Repeatedly, the pupils made the same mistake.

Expresiile adverbiale de frecven (every day, once a month) sunt
plasate la sfrit sau nceput:
Our children walk to school every morning.

260

Not
NEVER se folosete cu verbe afirmative. nseamn niciodat.
I have never been to Japan.


EVER se folosete n special n propoziii interogative sau
superlative. nseamn oricnd / vreodat.
Has Ted ever studied statistics?
Jack Gallagher is the best player we have ever had.

NOT + EVER = NEVER
I havent ever read Pinter. = I have never read Pinter.


5. Adverbele de opinie
Personally, obviously, frankly, certainly, luckily, actually,
probably, definitely, surely etc.

Adverbele de opinie exprim opinia vorbitorului.
Aceste adverbe se pot mpri n dou grupuri:

a. actually, certainly, apparently, clearly, obviously, probably,
definitely, undoubtedly.

Poziia adverbelor din grupul A este la mijloc:
The child is actually very bright.

b. perhaps, maybe, possibly, frankly, naturally, luckily, unluckily,
honestly, fortunately, unfortunately.

Poziia adverbelor din grupul B este de obicei la nceput:
Perhaps we can go out tonight.

6. Adverbe de grad

Fairly, quite, hardly, too, almost, pretty, rather, barely,
completely, enough, nearly, really, just, so, even, very etc.

Adverbele de grad determin n general adjective sau adverbe care
indic extinderea sau intensitatea (gradul).

Poziia lor este:
n mod normal chiar naintea adjectivului sau adverbului.
He is entirely right.
261
The shoes are too wide.

ENOUGH urmeaz dup adjectiv sau adverb.
My steak isnt big enough.

Not
ENOUGH st naintea unui substantiv:
We dont have enough money.

Adverbele de grad determin uneori verbe. O list parial include:
almost, barely, enough, hardly, just, only, much, a lot, nearly, quite,
rather, really, scarcely.

Poziia lor este nainte de verbul principal.
MUCH i ENOUGH sunt excepii i urmeaz dup verb.
JUST i ONLY se afl exact naintea verbului determinat.
They could barely hear the speaker.
Dar
The pianist hasnt practiced enough.
I liked him a lot.
I have just deposited the money. (= I deposited it a little while ago.)
I deposited just the money. (= I deposited the money and nothing
else.)

Not
VERY se folosete cu adjective i adverbe.
VERY MUCH se folosete cu verbe.
We are very happy to be here.
Dar
Thank you very much.

Not
QUITE poate nsemna i complet.
Youre quite right! (= Youre completely right.)


Comparai sensurile a cinci adverbe de grad folosite cu
adjective i adverbe.


Slab Puternic
fairly rather/pretty quite very

The boxer is fairly strong. (= he is moderately strong.)
Your cake is pretty good. (= it is certainly not bad.)
262
That music is quite loud. (= it is considerably loud.)
Your result is very good. (= it is close to excellent.)


7. Adverbe interogative

When?, where?, why?, how?

Adverbele interogative se folosesc n ntrebri.
Poziia lor este la nceput, naintea auxiliarului, subiectului i
verbului principal.
Why is Cindy crying?
Where does she teach?
When did they send the letter?
How do you spell your name?


Not
HOW poate fi folosit cu:
Adjective:
How tall is he?
Much / many:
How much milk does she drink?
Adverbe:
How often does Chris go dancing?


Comparaia adverbelor

Form: comparativul i superlativul adverbelor se formeaz:

1. adugnd er i est adverbelor de o silab
2. punnd, more i most n faa adverbelor de dou sau mai multe
silabe

pozitiv comparativ superlativ
fast faster the fastest
slowly more slowly the most slowly

Not
Early earlier the earliest

Comparative neregulate
Well better the best
Badly worse the worst
263
Little less the least
Much more the most
Far farther/further the farthest/furthest

Not
Farther / farthest se refer numai la distan
He ran farther than planned.
Further / furthest se folosete mai mult n general.
He inquired further into the matter.

Utilizare: pentru a construi comparaii adverbiale, folosii:

1. AS + adverb + AS n propoziii afirmative pentru a exprima
egalitatea,
AS/SO + adverb + AS n propoziii negative.
Pam Hardy ran as fast as she could.
The puppy doesnt eat as/so well as I hopped.
2. adverbul COMPARATIV + THAN pentru a exprima diferena.
Eric writes better than Brian.
3. THE + adverb SUPERLATIV pentru a exprima superioritatea (sau
inferioritatea). THE este adesea omis. Superlativul poate fi urmat
de OF + substantiv / pronume.
He plays tennis (the) best of all.
Dan skied (the) fastest (of all the racers).

Not
Cnd acelai verb apare n ambele pri ale propoziiei, folosii un
auxiliar pentru cel de-al doilea verb. Astfel evitai repetiia.
I dont think as much as you do.


Inversiunea

Anumite adverbe sau expresii adverbiale pot fi plasate la nceput
pentru ntrire. Subiectul i verbul care umeaz se inverseaz.

Iat o list parial a adverbelor i expresiilor adverbiale care se pot
folosi astfel: in/under no circumstances, neither/nor, never, no sooner
then, not only, only by, only in this way, only lately, only then, little,
so, seldom, on no account.

Only in this way can you master the language.
On no account is Jody to turn on the gas.
Seldom have I met such a fascinating woman.

264

Exerciii:

Alegei cuvntul potrivit:
1. You are an excellent cook. The food tastes (good, well). 2. It was a
lovely day with birds singing and the sun shining (bright, brightly)
and girls wearing (bright, brightly)- coloured dresses. 3. I hate taking
medicine. It tastes (bitter, bitterly). 4. I dont think he is ill. His voice
sounds (merry, merrily). 5. It rains (heavy, heavily). 6. It is (near,
nearly) five oclock. 7. You must work (hard, hardly) for your exams.
8. He spoke so (quick, quickly) that we could (hard, hardly) follow
him. 9. When did you (last, lastly) see him? 10. I am (direct, directly)
interested in what you think. 11. He couldnt move as he was (dead,
deadly) tired. 12. His eyes hurt him (bad, badly). 13. Mr Jones held it
(tight, tightly). 14. It was six oclock as (near, nearly) as he could
guess. 15. (last, lastly) I must account for my sisters behaviour.

Punei adverbele n ordinea corect:
1. Tim and Becky had been wandering (for many hours, about the
cave). 2. Jim was to recite his poem (that very morning, in the centre
of the examination hall). 3. Though I was very busy I snatched a
minute to answer his letter (yesterday, at the office). 4. Tom, Huck
and Joe decided to run away (at daybreak, from home). 5. I wish I
were (now, over there). 6. They returned (in the evening, to the camp,
late). 7. I had the pleasure of meeting a fine woman of about fifty (the
other day, in New York, here). 8. My brothers and my husband will be
(soon, home) from the shooting. 9. Bathing is very good, when the sea
is mostly calm (here, in summer). 10. The great fire broke out, and
aided by the east wind, burnt down the wooden houses of which a
large proportion of the town was built (in 1666, in London, in a
bakers shop, in September).


Cheia exerciiilor:

1. Good. 2. Bright, brightly-coloured 3. Bitter 4. Merry 5. Heavily 6.
Nearly 7. Hard 8. Quickly, hardly 9. Last 10. Directly 11. Dead 12.
Badly 13. Tight / tightly 14. Near 15. Lastly

1. Tim and Becky had been wandering about the cave for many hours
2. Jim was to recite a poem in the centre of the examination hall that
very morning 3. Though I was very busy at the office yesterday, I
snatched a minute to answer his letter 4. Tom, Huck and Joe decided
to run away from home at daybreak 5. I wish I were over there now 6.
They returned to the camp late in the evening 7. The other day, here
in New York, I had the pleasure of meeting a fine woman of about
265
fifty. 8. My brothers and my husband will be home soon from the
shooting. 9. Bathing is very good here, in summer, when the sea is
mostly calm. 10. The great fire broke out in a bakers shop in London
in September 1666 and aided by the east wind, burnt down the
wooden houses of which a large proportion of the town was built.