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Design of Experiments - An Introduction

Statistical design of experiments can be used very fruitfully in finding empirical solutions to
industrial problems. The areas of application include research, product design, process design,
production troubleshooting, and production optimization. The response or objective in an industrial
study is usually a function of many interrelated factors, so solving these problems is typically not
straightforward. There are two broad categories of approaches to these problems; 1 finding solutions by
invo!ing !nown theory or facts, including experience with similar problems or situations, and " finding
solutions through trial and error or experimentation. Statistical design and analysis methods are very
useful for the second approach, and they are much more effective than any traditional, no statistical
method.
Classical Versus Statistical Approaches to Experimentation:
# typical strategy for an industrial study used by someone unfamiliar with statistical plans is the
one-at-a-time design. $n this approach, a solution is sought by methodically varying one factor at a time
%usually performing numerous experiments at many different values of that factor, while all other
factors are held constant at some reasonable values. This process is then repeated for each of the other
factors, in turn. &ne'at'a'time is a very time consuming strategy, but it has at least two good points.
(irst, it is simple, which is not a virtue )to be sneezed at). #nd second, it lends itself easily to a
graphical display of results. Since people thin! best in terms of pictures, this is also a very important
benefit.
*nfortunately, one'at'a'time usually results in a less than optimal solution to a problem, despite
the extra wor! and conse+uent expense. The reason is that one'at'a'time experimentation is only a good
strategy under what we consider to be unusual circumstances, %1 $t is a good strategy if the response is a
complicated function of the factor, %perhaps multi'modal which re+uires many levels of - to elucidate,
and %" $t is a good strategy only if the effect of the factor being studied %and therefore it.s optimum
value is not changed by the level of any of the other factors. That is, the one'at'a'time strategy wor!s
only if the effects are strictly additive, and there are no interactions. #s was just stated, but worth
repeating, these circumstances do not typically exist in the real world, and so one'at'a'time ends up
being an exceedingly poor approach to problem solving.
# more typical set of circumstances characterize the assumptions made by statistical designs, %1
&ver the experimental region, the response is smooth with, at most, some curvature but no sharp !in!s
or inflection points and %" The effect of one factor can depend on the level of one or more of the other
factors, $n other words, there may be some interactions between the factors. $f these two assumptions
hold, the classical one'at'a'time approach could do very badly. $f the first assumption holds, one'at'a'
time would re+uire many more experiments to do the same job, because a smaller number of levels of a
factor are needed to fit a smooth response than to fit a complicated one. #nd if the second assumption is
true, one'at'a'time could lead to completely wrong conclusions. (or example, if we loo! at the effect of
time and temperature on yield in one'at'a'time fashion, we would get the results shown in (igure /.1
%top and middle. 0e would thin! that the best we can do is about 123 yield. 4ut that is, in fact, very
far from the true optimum shown in (igure /.1 %bottom. The reason for the failure of one'at'a'time
experimentation is the interaction between time and temperature that exists. $n other words, the best
time depends on the temperature %or vice versa. $t can.t be repeated too often, that these interactions are
the rule, not the exception. # statistical strategy %i.e; a factorial design would not have led us astray.
$ncidentally, the potential for failing with a one'at'a'time strategy gets even stronger in the real world
where experimental errors cloud the issue further.
5eeping time constant...
70
75
80
85
90
200 210 220 230 240 250
Temperature
o
6
7
i
e
l
d
Time 8 19 hrs
70
75
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85
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2 4 6 8 10 12
5eeping temperature constant...
Time, hrs
7
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Temperature 8 ""9
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6
200
210
220
230
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250
2 4 6 8 10 12
65
70
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:arying time and temp...
Time, hrs
7ield
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
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e

o
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4ut one'at'a'time is still far better than another common strategy used in industrial research
namely sheer guesswor!. *sing this strategy, researchers assume that they !now the solution to a
problem, as if they had the appropriate theory or experience to guide them. Then they run a few
confirmatory experiments for validation. $f the confirmatory experiments are run. The result is a very
haphazard approach. These poor strategies for studying many factors simultaneously in industrial
research often deplete all research funds before a satisfactory solution can be reached. This, in turn,
leads to less than optimal product designs, inefficient production processes, and the complete
abandonment of many promising ideas.
Studying the effects of many factors simultaneously in an efficient way, while at the same time
allowing valid conclusions to be drawn, is the purpose of experimental design techni+ues.
Some Definitions:
Experiment (also called a Run- an action in which the experimenter changes at least one of the
factors being studied and then observes the effect of his;her action%s. <ote that the passive
collection of historical data is not experimentation.
Experimental !nit- the item under study upon which something is changed. $n a chemical
experiment it could be a batch of material that is made under certain conditions. The conditions
would be changed from one unit %batch to the next. $n a mechanical experiment it could be a
prototype model or a fabricated part.
"actor (also called an Independent Variable and denoted #$ the s$m#ol %- one of the variables
under study, which is being deliberately controlled at or near some target value during any given
experiment. $t.s target value is being changed in some systematic way from run to run in order to
determine what effect it has on the response%s.
&ac'ground Varia#le (also called a Lurking Variable)- a variable of which the experimenter is
unaware or cannot control, and which could have an effect on the outcome of an experiment. The
effects of these lur!ing variables should be given a chance to )balance out) in the experimental
pattern. =ater in this boo! we will discuss techni+ues %specifically randomization and bloc!ing to
help ensure that goal.
Response (also called a Dependent Varia#le and denoted #$ the s$m#ol( )- a characteristic of
the experimental unit, which is measured during and;or after each run. The value of the response
depends on the settings of the independent variables %-.s.
Experimental Design (also called Experimental *attern- the collection of experiments to be run.
0e have also been calling this the experimental strategy.
Experimental Error- the difference between any given observed response, 7, and the long run
average %or .true) value of 7 at those particular experimental conditions. This error is a fact of life.
There is variability %or imprecision in all experiments. The fact that it is called .error) should not be
construed as meaning it is due to a blunder or mista!e. >xperimental errors may be broadly
classified into two types, bias errors and random errors. # bias error tends to remain constant or
follow a consistent pattern over the course of the experimental design. ?andom errors, on the other
hand, change value from one experiment to the next with an average value of zero. The principal
tools for dealing with bias errors are bloc!ing and randomization %of the order of the experimental
runs. The tool to deal with random error is replication. #ll of these will be discussed in detail later.
Some of the terms are illustrated in (igure /.". $t is a study of a chemical reaction %#@4 A
consisting of nine runs to determine the effects of two factors %time B temperature on one response
%yield. &ne run %or experiment consists of setting the temperature, allowing the reaction to go on for
the specified time, and then measuring the yield. The design is the collection of all runs that will be %or
were made.
Time Temperature
Cinutes Degrees 6 7ield.3
/E ""9 21.F
1E9 ""9 /E.G
F99 ""9 11.F
29 "F9 /1.2
1"9 "F9 /H.2
"G9 "F9 12.G
GE "G9 //."
H9 "G9 1E.F
119 "G9 1/.G

"igure +., - Example of an Experimental Stud$ .ith /erminolog$ Illustrated.
DESI01
E%*ERI2E1/
"AC/3RS RES*31SE
4h$ Experiment5 (Anal$sis of 6istorical Data
(re+uently in industrial settings, there is a wealth of data already available about the process of
interest in the form of process logs and more recently, computer databases. $t is tempting, therefore, to
abandon an %expensive experimental study in favor of a %cheap analysis of the historical data on hand.
&n the surface, this loo!s very reasonable. #fter all, there has certainly been variation in all of the
factors of interest over the life of the process. #nd there is certainly much more data available from the
logs than could ever be collected in an experimental program, so the precision should be excellent. 0hy
then ever bother with experiments at the plant levelI
The reasons are many. #$= of them have to do with the inade+uacies inherit inherent in
unplanned data,
Correlation 7 Causation
$f a significant correlation is found between the response and an independent variable %factor, it
may be interesting, but it does not prove causation. (or example, let us say that someone who had
hip surgery years ago noticed that when their hip ached it was sure sign that it would rain within 1"
hours. $t may be a perfect correlation, but it does not mean that they should bruise their hip to ma!e
it ache if their lawn needs rain' <otice that there may be value in the correlation as a predictor of
what will happen. 4ut to use it to try to control the system is very li!ely folly.
Correlated "actors
&vertime, there may have been +uite a bit of variation in the factors of interest, but often they
move up and down together. $t is then impossible to sort out which of the factors, if any, is having
an impact on the response. (or example, in the gasification of coal, it may be useful to !now which
impurities in the coal are deleterious to yield. The amounts of the impurities may change +uite a bit,
but if they stay in roughly the same proportions, it is impossible to sort out which impurity is the
culprit, if any.
1o Randomi8ation- &ias
Since there is no randomization in the variations of the factors with time, the door is wide open for
biases to influence the results. (or example, if a plant switched from one supplier of raw materials is
worse than the old one. Jow ever, another explanation is that normal drifting of the process due to
other things changing gave a worse yield after the switch. So the raw material source had nothing tto
do with the drop in yield. <ote, # valid test would be to randomly switch bac! and for the several
times between suppliers.
/ight Control of "actors
$f an independent variable is !nown %or thought then it will be controlled tightly if possible.
Therefore, there will not be enough variation in that factor to get a measurable effect on the
response. The few data points that may exist in which these factors do vary more widely will have
occurred during plant )upsets). That is not the !ind of data that one wants to use to draw sound
conclusions.
Incomplete Data
Alants are +uite different from laboratories and pilot plants, in that as few variables are measured
and recorded as possible, consistent with being able to control the process. Therefore, even in the
case when all'important variables are !nown, which is unusual, they are not usually recorded. #nd
to ma!e matters worse, in older plants where much of the data was;is recorded by hand, even the
variables to be measured and recorded may be missing or suspect.
Therefore, the analysis of historical data should be done with great care. This does not
mean that it is a totally worthless exercise. Some interesting correlations may emerge. These can be
used for predictive purposes, or they may point to some factors that were previously thought to be
unimportant that should be studied in an experimental program. 4ut, this analysis should be
underta!en with the !nowledge that the chances of gleaning any worthwhile information from the
data are +uite low%K193. #nd it must be !ept in mind that an analysis of historical data is <>:>?
a replacement for an experimental program if one needs to determine causation between the factors
and the responses%s. )To find out what happens to a system when you interfere with it, you have to
interfere with it %not just passively observe it).
"
Diagnosing the Experimental En9ironment
There is no single experimental design that is best in all possible cases. The best design depends
very much on the environment in which the experimental program will be carried out
F.
(igure /.F on the
following page shows different possibilities.
1um#er of "actors
The single most important characteristic of the experimental environment is how many
independent variables are to be studied. $f the number is small %say three or less, then a design
giving fairly complete information on all of them may be reasonable )right off the bat).
Jowever, if there are many variables, it is usually more reasonable to proceed in stages'first
sifting out the variables of major importance, and then following up with more e fort on them.
*rior :no.ledge
The amount of prior !nowledge also shapes the experimental program to a very large degree.
0hen the area to be studied is new, there are generally a large number of potential variables that
may have an effect on the responses. Jowever, when the area has been studied extensively in
the past, the scope of the experiments is generally to further elucidate in detail the effects of a
few of the !ey variables. $f theory is available, a mechanistic model may be desirable and
experiments can be set up for determining the un!nown parameters in the model. The best
experiments to run are specific to the model, but often'experimental designs used for empirical
models are good as a starting point
G
.
Cost of an Experiment
The size of a reasonable experimental program is, of course, dictated by the cost of an
experimental run versus the potential benefits. The cheaper an experiment is, the more
thoroughly we can study the effects of the independent variables for a reasonable total cost.
*recision
Lenerally spea!ing, the reason for experimenting is to be able to ma!e predications about
what will happen if you ma!e similar actions in the future. (or example, the reason for studying
the effect of pJ on the yield of a chemical reaction is to be able to say that the yield is G3 higher
at a pJ of H than it is at a pJ of /. The more precise you want your predictions to be, and the
less precise your individual data are, the greater the number of experiments re+uired
Iteration *ossi#le
$f the duration of an experiment is relatively short, it is usually reasonable to experiment
in small Mbite sizedN and iterate toward your final goal. $f, on the other hand, the time for an
experiment to be completed is long %such as stability testing, it would be necessary to initially
lay out a fairly extensive pattern of experiments. 0hen it is possible to literate, the first stage of
an experimental program should usually be a set of screening experiments. #t this stage, all of
the factors that could conceivably be important are examined. Since the cost of loo!ing at extra
five or ten variables is relatively low with a screening design, it is much cheaper in the long run
to consider some extra variables at this stage than to find out later that you neglected an
important variable. The next stage is generally a constrained optimization design in which the
major variables are examined for interactions and better estimates are obtained of their linear
effects. The minor variables are dropped from consideration after the screening stage. %i.e., they
are held at their most economical values. $f it is necessary for further optimization, a full
unconstrained optimization response surface design may now be run to allow for curvature in
the effects of the factors on the responses.
Lenerally, the constrained optimization design builds up on the screening design and the
unconstrained optimization design just adds more points to the constrained optimization design,
so that no points are wasted going from on stage to the next.
$f it is necessary to go further and use a theoretical model, the full, unconstrained optimization
design is usually a good starting point for the estimation of parameters in the model. #dditional
runs would have to design via computer. This topic is beyond the scope of this text, and so it
will not be discussed any further.
*resent 0oal
;< :no.ledge =;;<
3#>ecti9e: Screening 6onstrained *nconstrained >xtrapolation
&ptimization &ptimization or &ptimization
E'"9 F'2 "'G 1'E
1o of "actors 6ontinuous and;or 6ontinuous and;or 6ontinuous only
Discrete Discrete
2odel: =inear =inear =inear Cechanistic Codel
@ 6ross products @6ross'products
%interactions @ Ouadratics
Information $dentify $mportant Lood predictions of Lood predictions >stimate parameters
:ariables effects and of effects in theoretical model
6rude predictions interactions. $nteractions and
of effects. 6urvature.
Designs: (ractional'(actorial Two =evel (actorial 6entral 6omposite Special
&r %@center points or %computer
Alac!ett'4urman 4ox'4ehn!en generated
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Example of a Complete Experimental *rogram
Chemical *rocess S$stem:
#n example may be useful at this point to illustrate the typical steps involved in solving a
specific industrial problem experimentally. =et us say we have a chemical process under development.
$t consists of a batch reaction to ma!e a product, and the objective is to find the conditions, which give
the best yield. The process involves charging a stirred tan! reactor with solvent, catalyst, and an
expensive reactant %?eactant 1. # second reactant %?eactant.", which is inexpensive, is added slowly.
?eactant " is added in excess to ensure that all of ?eactant 1 is consumed. Some yield is lost due to
the formation of byproducts. #fter all ?eactant " is added, the reaction is +uenched by adding cold
solvent, and then the product is separated by distillation.
Several variables were thought to possibly have an important influence on yield. They are
listed in Table /.1 along with a reasonable range of values for each factor.
/a#le +.= :ariables to be studied for 6hemical ?eaction >xample
Varia#le Definition @a#el Range of Varia#les
@o. @e9el (-= 6igh @e9el (A=
# Temperature,
9
6 -
1
/E
1E
4 ?eactant ", 3 excess -
"
G
1
6 Time to #dd ?eactant ", min -
F
19
"9
D #gitation, rpm of stirrer -
G
199
"99
> Solvent , ?eactant 1 ?atio -
E
1,1
",1
( 6atalyst 6oncentration, mg;$ -
2
"9
G9
Step 3ne: Screening
Since there were six factors to be investigated, the first step in the experimental program was to find
out which variables were the most important and focus the most attention on them. $t is simply too
expensive to study every factor thoroughly, and it is a waste of resources to lavish attention on a
variable that has a minor impact. Therefore, we start with screening experiments, which corresponds
to the first step in increasing our !nowledge. This step is shown in (igure /.F semi'graphically as the
first column in the figure.
$n our example, we used a twelve run Alac!ett'4urman design. The design is shown in Table
/." along with the yield data that was collected for each run. Some details in the analysis of the data
are shown in the table, but will not be discussed here. The main object of the experiments was to find
out which variables were important, which means which variables had the greatest impact on yield
when the variables were changed. The measure of that importance is the effect of the variable, which
is how much the yield changed %on average when the variable was changed from its low value to its
high value. These effects are shown near the bottom of Table /.".
(or example, when the reaction temperature, (actor #, was increased from /E
&
6 to 1E
&
6, the
yield increased by "G.13 on average. 0hen the variability of the measurements was ta!en into
account, only three variables were found to be significant #,4 and (. They are the reaction
temperature, the addition time of ?eactant ", and the catalyst concentration. (urthermore, they all had
positive effects on the yield, which means that the higher the variable value, the higher the yield. The
best yield obtained in this set of experiments can be seen to be at the high values of the three important
factors %?un 19.
/a#le +., >xperiments run to determine which variables are important
Screening Design - *lac'ett-&urman
Run
1o
A
%=
&
%,
C
%?
D
%B
E
%C
"
%D
!nassigned
)ield
%+ %E %F %=; %==
1 1 1 '1 1 1 1 '1 '1 '1 1 '1 2"./
" 1 '1 1 1 1 '1 '1 '1 1 '1 1 /G.H
F '1 1 1 1 '1 '1 '1 1 '1 1 1 GG.H
G 1 1 1 '1 '1 '1 1 '1 1 1 '1 /".1
E 1 1 '1 '1 '1 1 '1 1 1 '1 1 21.F
2 1 '1 '1 '1 1 '1 1 1 1 1 1 EG.1
/ '1 '1 '1 1 '1 1 1 '1 1 1 1 GF."
1 '1 '1 1 '1 1 1 '1 1 1 1 '1 /H.1
H '1 1 '1 1 1 '1 1 1 1 '1 '1 1.2
19 1 '1 1 1 '1 1 1 1 '1 '1 '1 1G."
11 '1 1 1 '1 1 1 1 '1 '1 '1 1 //.G
1" '1 '1 '1 '1 '1 '1 '1 '1 '1 '1 '1 19.1
Effects "G.1 'F.FE F".91 '2.1F 2.1E "F.11 9.1EH '1.F/ 9.H/G 2.2 2."F/
t /.E2 '1.9E 19.91 '1.HF ".1E" /.E9" s
>
8 F.11F
t for unassigned 9."/ '9.GF 9.F92 ".9/F 1.HEH
tG(C H ,.C+=
Important 9aria#les are %=( %? A1D %D (A(C A1D "
The other important conclusion at the end of our screening experiments was that the remaining
factors were not of major importance, and therefore they were set to some reasonable values and
ignored for the rest of the experimental program. This means that factor 4, the excess of ?eactant "
was set to G3 excess factor D, the speed of the agitator, was set to 199rpm,and factor >, the solvent
?eactant 1 ratio, was set to 1,1 . #ll were the low values of the factors, which were pic!ed to
minimize cost.
Step t.o
:
Crude 3ptimi8ation
(ollow'up experiments were then conducted on the three important factors to determine
optimum operating conditions. The strategy used was based upon a constrained optimization design
called a factorial design, which ma!es sue we are in the appropriate region. The factorial design is
outlined in the second column of (igure /.F. #n important feature of this design is that it can be
augmented easily to find an unconstrained optimum, which is our ultimate goal.
/a#le +.? >xperiments ?un to &ptimize $mportant :ariables %(actorial Design
"actorial Design
Run
1o
A C " %
=
%
?
%
D
%
=
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=
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D
%
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Cur9a
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= 19 1E F9 '1 '1 '1 1 1 1 /9."
, H9 1E F9 1 '1 '1 '1 '1 1 /1.1
? 19 "E F9 '1 1 '1 '1 1 '1 /G.2
B H9 "E F9 1 1 '1 1 1 '1 EE.F
C 19 1E E9 '1 '1 1 1 '1 '1 2H.E
D H9 1E E9 1 '1 1 '1 '1 '1 E9.1
+ 19 "E E9 '1 1 1 '1 1 1 /E.E
E H9 "E E9 1 1 1 1 1 1 2".9 "H.1
F 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 9 9 9 /1.1
=; 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 9 9 9 19.F
== 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 9 9 9 19.9 11.9
Effect '"9.1 '2.G" '11.E '11./ '11./ '9./ 11.91
t '"2.G '1.1F '1G.2 '1G.1 '1G.1 '9.1H "F.1"
tG%"8G.F9F S81.11/ S
>
89./H S
6
89./E2
The factorial design used in this study is shown in Table /.F. $t should be noted that the
experiments were centered around the conditions found to be best up to that point, temperature %#
of 1E
9
6 , addition time %6 of "9 minutes, and a catalyst concentration %( of G9mg;$. The resulting
yield data are also given in the table. #n analysis of the data showed that all the variables continued
to be important, and they also had some interactions. Jowever, the main point that was learned
from the data was that the response could not be described by a straight line model P a +uadratic
e+uation was needed. This can be seen directly from the data; the average yield in the center of the
experimental region was 193, while the average response at the corners was only 2"3. This
difference is extremely significant, and it means that the yield is a curved function of the three
important factors. $t also means that we are in the vicinity of the optimum, and can move on to the
final optimization phase.

Step /hree: "inal 3ptimi8ation
6urved %e.g., +uadratic functions cannot be elucidated by data from a factorial design alone, so the data was
augmented by the extra points to form a complete central composite design, which is outlined in the third column of
(igure /.F. These extra points are shown in the bottom half of the design in Table /.G %called 4loc! " along with
the associated yield data. <otice that 4loc! 1 consisted of the factorial design that was already in hand. This
composite set of data was used to complete the optimization.
The procedure used was to fit a full +uadratic e+uation to the twenty data points, and then i,e
the e+uation to predict the best operating conditions. (itting the e+uation is done using regression
analysis, which is a tool included in spreadsheet programs as well as statistical software. Table. /.E
shows the output from C$<$T#4 Q, a common statistical software pac!age.
/a#le +.B Experiment Run to Complete 3ptimi8ation of Important
Varia#les
(Central Composite -Design
Run 1o. A C " %= %? %D &loc' )ield
1 19 1E F9 '1 '1 '1 1 /9."
" H9 1E F9 1 '1 '1 1 /1.1
F 19 "E F9 '1 1 '1 1 /G.2
G H9 "E F9 1 1 '1 1 EE.F
E 19 1E E9 '1 '1 1 1 2H.E
2 H9 1E E9 '1 '1 1 1 E9.1
/ 19 "E E9 '1 1 1 1 /E.E
1 H9 "E E9 1 1 1 1 "H.1
H 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 1 /1.1
19 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 1 19.F
11 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 1 11
1" /2.G "9 G9 '1./F 9 9 " 1".2
1F HF./ "9 G9 1./F 9 9 " GG.2
1G 1E 11.G G9 9 '1./F 9 " 2/
1E 1E "1./ G9 9 1./F 9 " E1."
12 1E "9 ""./ 9 9 '1./F " //."
1/ 1E "9 E/.F 9 9 1./F " E1."
11 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 " 19.H
1H 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 " //./
"9 1E "9 G9 9 9 9 " 1F.E
/a#le+.C C$<$T#4 Regression anal$sis of Data from the Central Composite Design
Response surface Regression
The analysis was done using coded units
>stimated ?egression 6oefficient for 7ield
Term 6oef StDev T A
6onstant 19.F2/9 9.//"2 19G.9" 9.999
4loc! 9.EH"/ 9.G"2F 1.FH 9.1H1
# '19.2/91 9.E929 "1.9H 9.999
6 'F./H"9 9.E929 '/.GH 9.999
( .E.229/ 9.E929 '11.1H 9.999
#R# 'E.1GF/ 9.G/1" '1"."" 9.999
6R6 '/.FG/" 9.G/1" '1E.F/ 9.999
(R( 'G.G/F1 9.G/1" 'H.F2 9.999
#R6 'E.11"E 9.22H1 '1.2/ 9.999
#R( 'E.1F/E 9.22H1 '1./" 9.999
6R( '9.F2"E 9.22H1 '9.EG 9.291
S81.1H" ?'S+8HH."3 ?'S+%adj8H1.G

The +uadratic e+uation can then be used to find the maximum yield analytically, but a more
common approach is to plot the e+uation, since people tend to thin! pictorially. Alots for this example
are shown in (igure /.G. The optimum conditions can be seen to be a reaction temperature %:ariable a
of E;
;
( an addition time for ?eactant " %:ariable 6 of "9 minutes and a catalyst concentration
%:ariable ( of G9 mg;$.
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
84.35
95 85 75
30
20
10
A
C
Yield at F=45mg/l
Hold values F 40.0
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
84.97
95 85 75
30
20
10
A
C
Yield at F=40mg/l
Hold values F 40.0
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
84.35
95 85 75
30
20
10
A
C
Yield at F=35mg/l
Hold values F 40.0
0ood Design ReIuirements
0hat should an ideal experimental design do for usI The following are some attributes of a good
design,
Defined o#>ecti9es
The experimenter should clearly set forth the objectives of the study before deciding on
an experimental design and proceeding with the experiments. Lenerally this ta!es the form of
what model will be fit to the data, a simple linear model. # linear model with interactions, or a
full +uadratic model. $n addition, the desired precision of the conclusions needs to be specified.
# good design must meet all of the objectives. &nce a design is selected, the experimenter can
and should detail % for the sponsor of the wor! not only what information will be obtained
form the experimental data, but what information will not be learned, so that there are no
misunderstandings.
!no#scured Effects
The effects of each of the factors in the experimental program should not be obscured
by the other variables, as far as possible.
"ree of &ias
#s far as possible, the experimental results should be free of bias, conscious or
unconscious. The first step in assuring this is to carefully review the experimental setup and
procedure. Jowever, some statistical tools are helpful in this regard,
4=&65$<L %planned grouping of runs lets us ta!e some lur!ing variables in to
account.
?#<D&C$S#T$&< to the run order within each bloc! enables us to minimize the
confounding %biasing the factor effect with bac!ground variables.
?>A=$6#T$&< aids randomization to do a better job, as well as giving more precision.
Varia#ilit$ Estimated
$n order to be able to decide whether the effects of factors that were found in the
experimental program are real or whether they could just be due to the variability in the data,
the experimental design should provide for estimating the precision of the results. The only
time this is not needed is when there is a well'!nown history of the process or system being
studied, with +uantitative estimates of the process standard deviation, o, from process capability
studies. ?eplication provides the estimate of precision, while randomization assures that the
estimate is valid.
Design *recision
The Arecision of the total experimental program should be sufficient to meet the
objectives. $n other words, enough data should be ta!en so that effects that are large enough to
have practical significance will statistically significant Lreater precision can sometimes be
achieved by refinements in experimental techni+ue. 4loc!ing can also some times help
improve precision a great deal. Jowever, the main tool at our disposal to increase precision is
replication.
Courtes$: John Lawson, & John Erjavec, Modern Statistics for Engineering and Quait!
"mprovement#, $homson %u&'ur!, ())), "ndian E*+ edition ,-.)), .hapter /, pp010-0-2.
Conclusion:
0e have discussed the deficiencies of classical one at a time experiments, and why it is not enough to
analyse historical data. #n example of a 6omplete >xperimental Arogram was given and the
characteristics of a Lood Design were also enumerated. This is only the tip of the iceberg and there is
extensive literature available for perusal. 0ith the increasing availability of 6omputer Software,
application of Design of >xperiments has become just a few mouse clic!s away. $ hope this brief
introduction will motivate you to at least attempt to use this very powerful tool.

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