ZOOLOGY 100 NOTES (2) Continuation

The Human Cell

• bounded by a plasma membrane that encloses a central nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.
– Cytoplasm contains organelles, membranous structures, and a cytoskeleton
• Human cells differ in size, shape and function

CELL SIZE
 • most cells are microscopic 5-100 microns
• length of nerve cell 1 meter (m)
• largest single cell ostrich egg

Junctional complexes of the Cell membrane

1. Zonula adherens
2. Macula adherens
3. Spot desmosomes
Lysosomal activity
1. AUTOPHAGY – digestion of damaged organelles by the lysosomes of the cells
2. AUTOLYSIS – digestion of the its own damaged cells.
- related to aging

PEROXISOMES
• Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase
• For detoxification of toxins such as alcohol, formaldehyde
• Disarm dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals w/ unpaired e- which can
scramble CHON & nucleic acid structures)
• Ex. H2O2- à H2O + O

Differences of organelles and inclusions

ORGANELLES
• Permanent living components of the cell
• Machinery of the cell engineered to carry out their own function
• examples: Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER, lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes
INCLUSIONS
• temporary, non-living accumulation of metabolites
• Stored nutrients and cellular products
• examples: Fat droplets,granules,pigment,crystals and secretory products
Types of Organelles
1. Membranous Organelles
- membrane-bounded structures of the
cell
- Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER,
lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes
2. Non-membranous Organelles
- not bounded by membrane
ex. cytoskeleton, centrioles

Enzymes
- Large protein molecules that act as a catalyst in chemical reactions
• a. enzymes have an active site where they hold reacting molecules in the
correct position for a bond to form or to break a bond
- specific to one reaction
- affected by temperature and pH
- The process of inactivating it is called denaturing
Coenzymes
- Non-protein molecules that aid in the function of enzymes

Step 1: Glycolysis
• Takes place in the cytoplasm
• Glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate
Step 2: Krebs Cycle
• Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
• Requires oxygen
Step 3: Electron transport chain
• Occurs across the membranes (christae) of the mitochondrion of the
Eukaryotes, and plasma membrane of the Prokaryotes
• Produces ATP

Step 1: Synthesising ACETYL COENZYME A:

Step 2: Oxidising Acetyl CoA:

THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC)

• Most ATP is manufactured by oxidative phosphorylation.
• A series of redox reactions using electron acceptor/donor molecules coupled to
glycolysis and the Kreb's cycle.
• The electron acceptors/donors reduce (when receiving electrons) and oxidise
(when losing electrons) one another along an electrochemical gradient. Each
molecule in the series has a lower redox potential than the one before.
• Each redox reaction results in a release of energy.
• If this energy release is > 30.5 kJ mol-1 a mole of ATP can be synthesised from
ADP by a coupled reaction.
The first molecule in the series is NAD (or FAD), a coenzyme of various dehydrogenase enzymes.

NAD (oxidised) NADH + H+ (reduced)

• Next come a series of iron containing proteins called cytochromes
The last electron acceptor in the series is oxygen. Electrons are produced by
splitting hydrogen atoms taken from the food molecules (H H+ + e-) by
dehydrogenases. Thus at the end of the ETC:

2H+ + 2e- + ½O2 H2O