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Gravitation

1. Newton's Iaw of gravitation

Every particIe of matter in the universe attracts every other particIe with a force
that is directIy proportionaI to the product of the masses of the particIes and
inverseIy proportionaI to the square of the distance between them.
!
!
"#
$ % =
, where
G is the universal gravitational constant, M and m are assumed to be two point masses
and r is the distance between the centres of the two masses, assuming the masses are
of uniform density.

Note that the law is an inverse-square law and the forces between the two particles form
an action-reaction pair. A negative sign is sometimes placed in the expression to signify
that the force is attractive.

2. GravitationaI fieId

The gravitationaI fieId is a fieId of force and is a region where a gravitationaI force
is experienced by another mass pIaced in it.

Field lines are used to represent a gravitational field. The stronger the field (e.g. nearer
the point mass), the denser the lines.






3. GravitationaI fieId strength, g

The gravitationaI fieId strength at a point in a gravitationaI fieId is defined as the
gravitationaI force per unit mass acting on a body pIaced at that point. g = F / m =
!
!
"
$ & =
. t is a vector quantity whose direction is along the gravitational force acting on a
mass placed in the field. t has the unit N kg
-1
.
Point mass Spherical mass
Uniform field equally spaced lines
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4. GravitationaI fieId strength and acceIeration of free faII

The gravitationaI fieId strength g near the earth's surface is approximateIy
constant.

Consider a small height h above the surface of earth, which is of radius R.
! !
# $ '
"
$
' (
"
$ & "
+
= , since h << R.
The gravitational field strength near the surface is also known as the acceleration of free
fall. Consider a mass m falling with acceleration a near the surface. By N2LM,
gravitational force = mass acceleration. Therefore mg = ma a = g. You should also
verify that N kg
-1
is equivalent to m s
-2
.

5. GravitationaI potentiaI, O

The gravitationaI potentiaI at a point in a gravitationaI
fieId is defined as the work done per unit mass in
bringing it from infinity to that point. 4 = W
#p
/m. t is a
scalar quantity and its unit is J kg
-1
.

!
"
$ ! = $
Gravitational potential is negative at any r less than infinity.
Gravitational force is attractive. The potential at infinity is
taken to be zero, so any point less than infinity has negative
potential.

Because it is scalar, the potential at a point due to several
masses is simply the algebraic sum of the potentials due to each of the masses, i.e.
%%% # $ # $ # $
&
&
!
!
'
'
+ ! + ! + ! =
!
"
$
!
"
$
!
"
$
)
$

6. GravitationaI potentiaI energy, E
p


The gravitationaI potentiaI energy of a mass at a point in a gravitationaI fieId is
defined as the work done in bringing it from infinity to that point. E
p
= W
#p
. t is a
scalar quantity and its unit is J.
!
"#
$ # *
)
! = = $
When a mass m moves from point 1 to point 2, the change in potential energy is given by
# $ # $
' !
' !
!
"#
$
!
"#
$ # # *
)
! ! ! = ! = % $ $



g
r
Point mass
g
Spherical mass
r
$ & ! 1 / r

$ & ! 1 / r
point
mass
spherical
mass
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7. ReIationship between F, g, O and E
p











8. SateIIites in orbit
Assuming a circular orbit, the centripetal force is equal to the gravitational force.
Taking a satellite of mass m orbiting a larger mass M,
&
!
!
!
$"
#!
!
"#
$ = ' = ( (

Substituting
&
!
$"
= ( into v = r o,
!
$"
+ =

Since o = 2 / T,
&
!
!
&
( !
!
$"
,
!
$"
,
) )
= ' = . (So
& !
! , & - Kepler's 3
rd
law)

9. Energy of sateIIites
A satellite of mass m orbiting the earth has both kinetic energy E
k
and potential energy
E
p
.
!
$"#
!
$"
# #+ *
-
!
'
!
'
!
'
!
!
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
= =

!
$"#
*
)
! =
Total energy
!
$"#
* * *
) - ,
!
'
! = + =
. The negative total energy implies that the
satellite requires energy to be removed from the earth's attraction. t is a bound system.
As the satellite falls to a lower orbit, its total energy decreases; even though its E
k

increases, its E
p
decreases by twice the amount.

10. Geostationary orbits

A sateIIite is in a geostationary orbit when it remains stationary reIative to an
observer on earth.

A geostationary orbit must be in the pIane of the equator so that
(i) the centre of the earth coincides with the centre of the orbit which means that the
gravitational force which provides the centripetal force acts towards the centre of the
orbit,

(ii) the axis of the earth coincides with the axis of the orbit, or else the satellite will
sometimes have over the northern and sometimes over the southern hemisphere.

Also, for a satellite to appear stationary to an observer on earth,

(i) it must move from west to east so that it moves in the same direction as the earth.
F = -
dx
dE
p

r
GMm
E
p
!
=
E
p
= m
r
GM
= $
2
r
GM
g =
2
r
GMm
F =
F = mg
g = -
dx
d$

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(ii) the period of revolution must be 24 hours, equal to the period of rotation of the earth.
This condition implies that all geostationary orbits have the same radius (since
& !
! , & ).

AppIications of geostationary sateIIites incIude:
(i) Telecommunications. They remain at the same relative positions to the stations on
earth, which facilitates signal transmission.

(ii) Meteorology. They could provide a continuous view of a certain area, yielding valuable
information for forecasting or meteorological research.

11. PoIar Orbits

A PoIar orbit is a particuIar type of Low Earth Orbit. The onIy difference is that a
sateIIite in poIar orbit traveIs a north-south direction, rather than the more
common east-west direction.

Why use a PoIar Orbit?
Polar orbits are useful for viewing the planet's surface. As a satellite orbits in a north-
south direction, Earth spins beneath it in an east-west direction. As a result, a satellite in
polar orbit can eventually scan the the entire surface. (ts like pealing an orange in one
piece. Around and around, one strip at a time, and finally you've got it all.)

Another advantage is that polar orbits are closer to the Earth, hence their signals are
received more strongly. For this reason, satellites that monitor the global environment,
like remote sensing satellites and certain weather satellites, are almost always in polar
orbit. Polar orbits are also often used for earth-mapping-, earth observation- and
reconnaissance satellites, as well as some weather satellites. No other orbit gives such
thorough coverage of Earth.
The disadvantage to this orbit is that no one spot on the Earth's surface can be sensed
continuously from a satellite in a polar orbit.











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