PHYSICS 2: HSC COURSE 2

nd
edition (Andriessen et al)

CHAPTER 21 Magnetic resonance imaging as a diagnostic tool
(pages 413-14)
1.
Permanent magnet Electromagnet Superconducting
magnet
Cannot be turned off Can be switched off Can be switched off
Made of alloy of aluminium,
cobalt and nickel
Made of a coil of copper wire
through which a direct current
flows
Made of coil of
superconducting
material, through which
a direct current flows
Weighs over 80 tonnes Weighs about 2 tonnes Weighs about 6 tonnes
Achieves only 0.2 T Maximum 0.5 T field strength Fields up to 2.5 T
No power supply needed Large power supply needed Very little power input
needed
Field does not extend far beyond
magnet
Shielding needed as magnetic
field extends beyond coil
Shielding needed as
magnetic field extends
beyond coil
Magnetic field perpendicular to
patients body
Magnetic field along the
patients body
Magnetic field along the
patients body
No cooling agent needed Circulating water needed to
remove heat
Liquid helium and
liquid nitrogen used as
coolants

2.
(a) (i) Proton spin is the property of a proton whereby it behaves as a small magnet.
Spin is a concept used in quantum mechanics and does not in fact mean that the
proton is spinning.
(ii) When the proton is exposed to an external magnetic field it tries to line up along
the field lines of the external magnetic field. As a result of the force acting on the
proton to make it line up, the protons magnetic field precesses, or wobbles, around
the external field lines. So the proton precesses around the external magnetic field.
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(b) An external magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field associated with the
hydrogen proton. This causes the protons to line up either parallel to or antiparallel
with the external magnetic field. In the process of lining up, the protons precess
around the external magnetic field lines.

3. (a) Hydrogen protons are imaged more than other nuclei because they are abundant
in the body (about one-tenth of our body mass is hydrogen) and they give a stronger
signal than other elements when subjected to the magnetic resonance imaging process.
(b) The energy states correspond to orientations parallel to the external field and anti-
parallel to the field (the higher energy state). The difference between these energy
states is approximately 0.2 eV. Movement from the higher to the lower energy state
results in the release of electromagnetic radiation of frequency about 42.5 MHz.
(c) The process is nuclear because it involves a nucleus of an atom (usually hydrogen)
being subjected to a magnetic field, then radio signals. Return signals from the
nucleus are then collected and analysed to produce an image.

4. (a) A gradient magnetic field in the same direction as the external field is applied.
This will add to or subtract from the external magnetic field and result in the strength
of the magnetic field applied to the patient varying slightly along the length of the
patients body. It is possible to image a slice through the patient because this gradient
field is used, as each slice will have protons precessing with a different Larmor
frequency.
Two additional small gradient fields, perpendicular to one another and in the plane of
the slice, are applied. In one direction the gradient field modifies the phase of the
precessing protons from one proton to the next along one side of the slice. In the other
direction the gradient field alters the frequency of the magnetic field. By the use of
these gradient fields, it is possible to pinpoint from where in a slice the signal is
coming.
(b) Three gradient magnetic fields are used.
(c) At the midpoint of the patient, the magnetic flux density is 1.0 T, as the gradient
field is zero. 1.4 m from her feet is 0.5 m above the midpoint. The gradient field
strength at this point is +8.0 x 0.5 mT or 4.0 mT. Hence the total magnetic flux
density is 1.0 T + 4.0 mT, which is 1.004 T.
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5. A gradient magnetic field along the patients body alters the external magnetic field
slightly and hence alters the Larmor frequency of the precessing protons from one
slice to the next in the patient. Therefore it is possible to tell from what slice the
returning signal from a proton is coming.
The other two gradient fields in the plane of the slice alter the phase and frequency of
precession of the protons slightly. Hence, by a process called Fourier transformation,
the returning signals can be analysed and the exact location of the signal in the slice
can be determined.

6. The gradient magnetic fields in the plane of the slice must be switched on and off
rapidly each time a radio pulse is sent in and the return signal detected. The switching
on and off of the field constitutes a changing magnetic field. If the changing magnetic
field cuts through a metal, eddy currents will be induced in the metal. The metal may
heat up as a result of these eddy currents and cause injury to the patient.

7. (a) The cerebrospinal fluid has a higher density of water than brain tissue. If the
image is weighted (T
2
weighted) so that the signal from watery tissues is stronger than
that from tissues containing less water, the material with more water will be brighter.
(b) On a T
1
weighted image, white matter appears white and grey matter appears
darker. The grey and white matter have different biochemistry and, as a result,
relaxation occurs differently for each. For example, if the external field is of strength
1.5 T, white matter will take 790 milliseconds in relaxation and grey matter will take
920 milliseconds. Matter with the shorter T
1
relaxation time will be brighter.

8. (a) The superconducting magnetic field is up to 2.5 T which is approximately
10 000 times stronger than the Earths magnetic field.
(b) (i) Superconducting magnets are magnets in which the coil is made of
superconducting material. These are used for most scanners because very strong
magnetic fields can be obtained, as huge currents will flow through the
superconducting material when it is cooled below its critical temperature. The current
will flow without the need for high power input.

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(ii) Superconducting magnets are electromagnets because they are made of a coil of
conducting material. The current through this coil can be switched on and off by
changing the temperature of the superconductor. When the current flows, a magnetic
field is produced.

9. The type of material to which the hydrogen is bound can be determined. For
example, the hydrogen may be bound in water or in larger molecules as found in fat.
The abundance of the hydrogen (the proton density) can be found from the strength of
the signal.

10. To evaluate this statement you should say initially whether or not you agree with
it. Then you should give evidence to support the stand you have taken. You should
talk about X-rays and CAT scans and radioisotopes. These do not use invasive
surgery but may be harmful if the exposure or dose is high. You should talk about
ultrasound and MRI for which there are no known harmful effects. Be specific with
the evidence you give. Do not talk in generalities. Back up what you say with
scientific evidence.

11. The damaged discs are darker in colour, suggesting a different chemical
composition from the healthy discs. The damaged discs appear to extend further into
the region at the edge of the spine than the healthy discs.

12. Your explanation should include terms or ideas, such as suggested below for each
part. Cause and effect should be written in your answers.
(a) Cancerous tissues grow rapidly as the cells divide. This will be accompanied by
increased water around the cells and increased blood flow to the cells. Explain how
water can be clearly detected with MRI.
(b) Blood is watery. Higher blood flow means more water can be detected. This will
change the signal received. Explain how water in various concentrations can be
imaged clearly.
(c) The biochemistry of grey and white matter is different. The relaxation of grey
matter and white matter is different. T
1
weighted images will show white matter up as
white.

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13. Use ideas including, resolution, best organ imaged, time of examination, comfort,
safety, mobility of machines, cost, occasions when one method is best. Present your
answer in a table but include your references before you submit your answer.

14. The method of approaching an answer to this question is set out. To assess the
impact means to make a judgement of its value, quality, outcomes, results or size.
Submit your answer to your teacher, complete with bibliography.