Global Health

Davidson, Mary; Escalera, Kimberly; Goodman, Michelle; Krugman,

Clarke.
(WHO, 2013)
World Health Organization
Hepatitis
The word hepatitis is a catch-all term that refers to any inflammation of the
liver -- the irritation or swelling of liver cells from any cause (WebMD
website, 2012, Hepatitis para. 2).
Hepatitis can be acute (inflammation that lasts less than six months) or
chronic (inflammation that lasts more than six months) and has many
different causes. It can be caused by a group of viruses known as the
hepatitis viruses, including A, B, C, D, and E (WebMD website, 2012,
Hepatitis, the basics 1).
Viral hepatitis is among the top 10 infectious disease killers and the leading
cause of liver cancer and cirrhosis. Both chronic hepatitis B and chronic
hepatitis C cause approximately 80% of the world's liver cancer and have
contributed to the increases in rates of liver cancer in recent decades (Perz,
Armstrong, Farrington, Hutin, & Bell, 2006).

Our focus: Hepatitis B (HBV)
It is estimated that 2 billion people world-wide are infected with the virus,
and 650,000 people per year die from it (World Health Organization
website, 2013).
The disease can be life-long, causing chronic debilitating health conditions.
There is a vaccine for it, if a program or programs can be effectively
utilized to immunize the population.

(Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013)
Vulnerable Population: sub-Saharan Africa

The overall hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) carrier rate in the general
population is 5-20%, which is amongst the highest in the world.

Most infections are acquired between 6 months and 5 years of age. All
children in this region are regarded as being at risk.

Hepatitis B-associated hepatocellular carcinoma is probably the most
common tumor affecting males in sub-Saharan Africa, with Mozambique
having the highest incidence rate of 103.8 per 100,000 males (Kiire, 1990).

Africa, the world's poorest continent, has the highest population growth
rate. A woman in sub-Saharan Africa will give birth to an average of 5.2
children in her lifetime ("Africa hunger," 2012, p. 1).

Limited access to healthcare: For every 1000 people there are only 2.5
health care workers available to them. Add to that fact that this relatively
small workforce is dealing with up to 25% of the worlds total disease
("Quality care," 2013, p. 1).




(WHO, 1980-1984)
(WHO, 2013)
Africa
The only region where mortality from communicable diseases
(such as viral hepatitis and HIV/AIDS) exceeds mortality from
non-communicable diseases.
-Viral Hepatitis: Prevention and Control, WHO report,
to be released July 2013

History
Hepatitis B was discovered in 1964 by Nobel laureate Baruch Blumberg,
during his research into blood borne pathogenic disease. ("Barry
Blumberg," 2011) Its origin is unknown, but can be traced by to the late
1800s, where it was not specifically named hepatitis, but exhibited its
known characteristics. Since its discovery, Hepatitis B has been identified
to be an opportunistic virus it is easily transmitted: The hepatitis B virus
can be passed from mother to unborn child, and is highly contagious
through bodily fluids such as blood, semen and possibly saliva. It is often
spread from person to person through intravenous drug use or sexual
contact (WebMD website, 2012).

Symptoms of Hepatitis B include ongoing fever, nausea, vomiting, and
yellow discoloration of the skin, eyes and mucous membranes (jaundice),
chronic pain and fatigue (WebMD website, 2012).

In its most serious form, if left untreated, hepatitis B can become a chronic
infection leading to chronic liver disease and potentially increasing the risk
of developing liver cancer (WebMD website, 2012).

WHO Initiatives
WHO established the Global Hepatitis Programme to address the
prevention & control of viral hepatitis in 2010
Goals:
To reduce the transmission of agents that cause viral hepatitis;
To reduce the morbidity and mortality due to viral hepatitis through
improving the care of patients with viral hepatitis; and
To reduce the socio-economic impact of viral hepatitis at individual,
community and population levels.
(World Hepatitis Alliance, 2013)
Initiatives, cont.
July 28th was established as World Hepatitis Day to increase awareness
91% of WHO member states include HBV vaccine in infant immunization
programs
179 countries have introduced HBV vaccine, preventing over 1 Million
deaths
WHO has provided systematic approach for infection prevention in
healthcare settings
2/3rds of low & middle income countries have implemented safe injection
program
Persons living with chronic HBV now benefitting from new treatment
based on WHO guidelines
(World Health Alliance, 2012)
I mpact on Healthcare Delivery
Effect on Nursing
Health care workers are at risk of acquiring blood-borne viral
infections in high endemic regions
Large numbers of hospital staff have been infected with HBV
HBV is a neglected disease among healthcare workers, with a
vaccination rate of 12.3% (Fritzsche, Beckner, Hemmer, Riebold,
Klammt & Hufert, 2012)

I mpact on Healthcare Delivery,
cont.
How nursing is involved in the problem
The International Council of Nurses and the WHO
launched a project to protect healthcare workers from
needle sticks through education
Teaching healthcare workers the concept of Universal
Precautions to prevent exposure to blood.
Instructing health care workers how to properly clean
areas where a needle stick injury has occurred
Eliminating the hazard- substituting injections by
administering via alternative routes
Establishment of an effective occupational health
program that includes immunizations (Wilburn &
Eijkemans, 2004)

References
Africa Hunger and Poverty Facts . (n.d.). World Hunger Notes Homepage.
Retrieved July 20, 2013, from
http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/africa_hunger_facts.htm
CDC DVH - Viral Hepatitis Populations - Asian & Pacific Islanders. (n.d.).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved July 23, 2013, from
http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/populations/api.htm
Campaign Material. (n.d.). Campaign Material. Retrieved July 23, 2013,
from http://campaign-material.worldhepatitisalliance.org/
Chronicle of the World Health Organization. (1947). New York: World Health
Organization.
Fact Sheets: Hepatitis B. (n.d.). World Health Organization. Retrieved July
21, 2013, from www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs204/en/index.html
Fritzsche, C., Beckner, F., Hemmer, C., Riebold, D., Klammt, S., & Hufert, F.
(2012). Hepatitis b and c: Neglected diseases among health care workers in
Cameroon.. Oxford Journal of Medicine, 107(3), 158-164.
References, cont.
Global findings - Global Report - World Hepatitis Alliance. (n.d.). Home -
Global Report - World Hepatitis Alliance. Retrieved July 23, 2013, from
http://global-report.worldhepatitisalliance.org/en/global-findings.html
Kiire, C. (1996). The epidemiology and prophylaxis of hepatitis b in sub-
Saharan Africa: A view from tropical and subtropical Africa.. Gut, 38, S5-12.
Perz, J., Armstrong, G., Farrington, L., Hutin, Y., & Bell, B. (2006). The
contributions of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections to cirrhosis
and primary liver cancer worldwide.. Journal of Hepatology, 45(4), 529-538.
The Economist (2011, April 30). Baruch (Barry) Blumberg, defeater of
hepatitis B, died on April 5th, aged 85. The Economist . Retrieved July 20,
2013, from http://www.economist.com/node/18617858
The Quality of Health Care in Sub-Sahara Africa: How Bad is It? - The Afro
Central: About African Health Care. (n.d.). The Afro Central - What You
Should Know About Healthcare & Health Issues in Black Africa. Retrieved
July 20, 2013, from http://www.afrocentral.net/the-quality-of-health-care-in-
sub-sahara-africa.php


References, cont.
WebMD - Better information. Better health.. (n.d.). WebMD -
Better information. Better health.. Retrieved July 21, 2013,
from http://webmd.com
Wilburn, S., & Eijkemans, G. (2004). Preventing needle stick
injuries among healthcare workers. Int J Occup Environ
Health, 10(4), 451-456.
World Health Organization. (n.d.). World Health Organization.
Retrieved July 18, 2013, from www.who.int