Memory Fault Models and

Testing Algorithms
Hardik Doshi


Memory Functional Faults
Stuck at Faults (SAF)
Transition Faults (TF)
Coupling Faults (CF)
Neighborhood Pattern Sensitive Faults (NPSF)

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Stuck at Faults (SAF)
The logic value of a cell or line is stuck at always 0 or 1.

Stuck at 0 (SA0) If stuck at always is 0 logic value.

Stuck at 1 (SA1) if stuck at always is 1 logic value.

From each cell, a 0 and 1 must be read.
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Stuck at Fault
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Transition Fault (TF)
A special case of SAF is Transition Fault (TF).

A cell or line which fails to undergo a from 0 to 1 when it is
written is said to contain an up transition fault </0>.

A cell or line which fails to undergo a from 1 to 0 when it is
written is said to contain an down transition fault</1>.

Each cell must undergo a transition and a transition, and
be read after each transition before any further transitions.

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Transition Fault (TF)
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</0> transition fault
Coupling Faults (CF)
Write Operation which transits or in one cell
changes the contents of a second cell.

Ci <:> coupled to Cj means that an transition in
cell j causes or transition in cell i.

Inversion Coupling Faults (Cfin)
Idempotent Coupling Faults (Cfid)
Bridging and State Coupling Faults
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State Transition Diagram of Two Good
Cells, i and j
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Sij represent the state of cell i and j.

Inversion & Idempotent Coupling Faults
An or transition in one cell inverts the
contents of the second cell is called inversion
coupling cell (Cfin).

Ci is <;> coupled to Cj means transition in
Cj inverts the content of the Ci.

Ci <;> Cj coupled to Cj means transition in
Cj inverts the content of the Ci.

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Inversion Coupling Cfin <;>
Sij represent the state of cell i and j

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Coupling Fault (CF)
A CF is called Asymmetric fault when the coupled cell only undergoes from
0 to 1 or a 1 to 0 transition due to fault.

A CF is called Symmetric fault when the coupled cell undergo both from 0 to
1 and from 1 to 0 due to fault.

The Cfid <;0> is asymmetric fault and the Cfin <;> is a symmetric fault.

A CF is called one way CF if the CF is sensitized only upon one transition of
the coupling cell.

A CF is called two way CF if the CF is sensitized upon either transition of the
coupling cell.

Single Cfid <;0> is a one way, asymmetric CF.
Combination of the Cfids <;0> and <;1> is a two way asymmetric CF.

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Idempotent Coupling Fault(Cifd)
An or transition in one cell force the
contents of the second cell to a particular
value 0 or 1 is called inversion coupling cell
(Cfid).

Ci is <;0> coupled to cj means transition
in cell j would make 0 in cell i.

Ci <;1> Cj , Ci <;0> Cj, Ci<;1> Cj

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Idempotent Coupling Fault Cfid <;1>
Sij represent the state of cell i and j








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Neighborhood Pattern Sensitive Faults(NPSF)
The content of a cell is influenced by the contents of all other cells in the
memory. The content consists of a pattern of 0s and 1s, or changes in
these contents.

Its also considered as K-coupling fault.

Active NPSF
Passive NPSF
Static NPSF

Memory Array


b : Base cell
d : Deleted Neighborhood cell
b+d : Neighborhood

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d
d b d
d
Active NPSF
The base cell changes its contents due to a change in the
deleted neighborhood pattern.

This transition is in only one deleted neighbor cell while
other neighbor and bas cell contain a certain pattern.

Example Ci,j <0,,1,1;>
where Ci,j is location of base cell.

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Passive & Static NPSF (PNPSF & SNPSF)
The content of the base cell cant be changed due to
certain deleted neighborhood pattern.(PNPSF)

The content of the base cell is forced to certain state due
to certain deleted neighborhood pattern.(SNPSF)

Ci,j < 0,0,1,1; /x >
Ci,j < 0,1,0,0; -/0 >

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Address Decoder Faults (AF)
Fault 1 Ax
Fault 2 Cx

Fault 3 Cx
Ay Cy
Fault 4 Ax
Ay Cx
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Address Decoder Fault Combinations(AF)
Fault A:- (1+2) Ax Cx
Fault B:- (1+3) Ax Cx
Ay Ay
Fault C:- (2+4) Ax Cx
Ay Cy
Fault D:- (3+4) Ax Cx

Ay Cy
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Condition for detection AF
The in a march element indicates the
presence of read or write operations.

1. (rx,,wx)
2. (rx,,wx)
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Linked and Unlinked Faults
When the fault may influence the behavior of the other
faults is called Linked Faults.

When the fault does not influence the behavior of other
faults called Unlinked Faults.

SAF linked with TFs and CFs
TFs linked with CFs
Afs linked with SAFs/TFs/CFs

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Zero-One
(w0);(r0);(w1);(r1);
This test algorithm has minimum set to detect
the fault
All SAFs are detectable.
TF </1> is not detectable.
CFs <;1>,<;0> and <;> are not detectable.
Not all Afs are detectable.
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Checkerboard
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Cells are divided in two groups cell-1 & cell-2.
0s and 1s are written alternate pattern and make the
checkerboard pattern.
All SAFs are detectable.
Not all Afs ,TFs and CFs are detectable.
Mainly used for sleeping sickness in DRAM chip.



Pattern 1 Pattern 2
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
Walking 1/0
Memory is filled with 0s(or 1s) except for the base-cell, which
contains 1(respectively a 0).
During Test, the base cell walks through the memory.
All cells read with the base cell last.
All Afs, SAF, TFs, Coupling faults are detectable.

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

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GALPAT
Memory is filled with 0s(or 1s) except for the base-cell,
which contains 1(respectively a 0).
During Test, the base cell walks through the memory.
Base cell is read after each cell of memory read.

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

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Sliding Diagonal
Uses diagonal of base cell instead of single base cell because each
cell has a different row and column address so that it checking the
row and column simultaneously.
Writes diagonal 1s to background of 0s. All memory cells are read,
after which diagonal is shifted until all diagonal are not covered.

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
First Diagonal Third Diagonal
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MATS Algorithm
MATS requires total 4*n operations.
(w0); (r0,w1); (r1) ;
M0 M1 M2
M0=(w0); M1=(r0,w1); M2= (r1);
M0:
for :=0 to n-1 do
begin
A[i]:=0;
end;
Same for M1 and M2;
Fault coverage is very poor not capable of detection of
Coupling Faults.
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Moving 1/0 Algorithm
(w0); (r0,w1,r1); (r1,w0,r0); (w1); (r1,w0,r0); (r0,w1,r1);
Here j<i so with write or read Cj cell then Ci cell.
Ci is <;> coupled to Cj coupling cell means transition of in Cj will change
content of Ci by .






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j>i (;) Operation Cj Ci
M5 on Cj r0 0 0
M5 on Cj w1 1 1
M5 on Cj r1 1 1
M5 on Ci r0 1 1
j<i (;) Operation Cj Ci
M1 on Cj r0 0 0
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Cj r1 1 1
M1 on Ci r0 1 1
j<i (;) Operation Cj Ci
M2 on Cj r1 1 1
M2 on Cj w0 0 0
M2 on Cj r0 0 0
M2 on Ci r1 0 0
j>i (;) Operation Cj Ci
M4 on Cj r1 1 1
M4 on Cj w0 0 0
M4 on Cj r0 0 0
M4 on Ci r1 0 0
MATS++ Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0,r0);

SAFs :- (M1) and (M2)
TFs :- (M1 and M2) and (M2)
Afs are detected by given above conditions.
This algorithm cant detect any coupling faults.


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March X Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0)(r0);

All Afs are detected.
SAF :- (M1 or M3) and (M2)
TFs :- (M1 followed by M2) and (M2 followed by M3)
Cfin (j<i) :- Ci <; > Cj detected by M1
Ci <; > Cj detected by M2 followed by M3
Cfin (j>i) :- Ci <; > Cj detected by M1 followed by M2
Ci <; > Cj detected by M2
Idempotent faults <;0>,<;1>(only when j<i) are detectable while
<;1>, <;0> are not detectable.
Not detect linked of TFs with Cfins.


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March C- Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0);(r0);

Unlinked Idempotent Coupling Faults(Cfid), SAF, TFS, Cfin, Afs.
Ci <;0> Cj :- M3 followed by M4 and M1 followed by M2
Ci is <;0> coupled to Cj means transition in j cell causes cell i to 0 logic
value.
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j<i Operation Cj Ci
M3 on Ci r0 0 0
M3 on Ci w1 0 1
M3 on Cj r0 0 1
M3 on Cj w1 1 0
M4 on Ci r1 1 0
j>i Operation Cj Ci
M1 on Ci r0 0 0
M1 on Ci w1 0 1
M1 on Cj r0 0 1
M1 on Cj w1 1 0
M2 on Ci r1 1 0
March C- Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0);(r0);

Ci <;1> Cj :- M1 and M3
Ci <;1> Cj :- M4 followed by M5 and M2 followed by M3
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j<i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M1 on Cj r0 0 0
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Ci r0 1 1
j>i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M3 on Cj r0 0 0
M3 on Cj w1 1 1
M3 on Ci r0 1 1
j<i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M4 on Ci r1 1 1
M4 on Ci w0 1 0
M4 on Cj r1 1 0
M4 on Cj w0 0 1
M5 on Ci r0 0 1
j>i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M2 on Ci r1 1 1
M2 on Ci w0 1 0
M2 on Cj r1 1 0
M2 on Cj w0 0 1
M3 on Ci r0 0 1
March C- Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0);(r0,w1);(r1,w0);(r0);

Ci <;0> Cj :- M2 and M4
Ci <;> Cj :- M1 as well as M3 followed by M4 and M3
Ci <; > Cj:- M2 as well as M4 followed by M5 and M4


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j<i (;) Operation Cj Ci
M3 on Ci r0 0 0
M3 on Ci w1 0 1
M3 on Cj r0 0 1
M3 on Cj w1 1 0
M4 on Ci r1 1 0
j<i (;) Operation Cj Ci
M4 on Ci r1 1 1
M4 on Ci w0 1 0
M4 on Cj r1 1 0
M4 on Cj w0 0 1
M5 on Ci r0 0 1
March A Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1,w0);
(r0,w1,w0);

AFs,SAFs
Unlinked TFs
Unlinked Cfins
Linked Cfids


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March A Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1,w0);(r0,w1,w0);

Ci <;> Cj:- M2 and M1 as well as M4
Ci <; > Cj :- M1 as well as M2 and M4
Ci <; > Cj & Ci <;> Cj:- M1 and M3
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j<i (; &;) Operation Cj Ci
M1 on Cj r0 0 0
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Cj w0 0 0
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Ci r0 0 1
j<i (;) Operation Cj Ci
M2 on Cj r1 1 1
M2 on Cj w0 0 1
M2 on Cj w1 1 0
M2 on Ci r1 1 0
March A Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1,w0);(r0,w1,w0);

Ci is <;0> coupled to Cj means transition in j cell causes cell i to 0 logic
value.
Ci <;0> Cj (possibly Ci <;0> Cj or Ci <;1> Cj) :- M2
Ci <;1> Cj (possibly Ci <;0> Cj or Ci <;1> Cj) :- M1

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j<i (;0) Operation Cj Ci
M2 on Cj r1 1 1
M2 on Cj w0 0 0/1
M2 on Cj w1 1 0
M2 on Ci r1 1 0
j<i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M1 on Cj r0 0 0
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Cj w0 0 0/1
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Ci r0 1 1
March A Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1,w0);(r0,w1,w0);

Ci <;0> Cj (not possibly Ci <;0> Cj or Ci <;1> Cj) :- M2
Ci <;1> Cj (not possibly Ci <;0> Cj or Ci <;1> Cj) :- M1

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j<i (;0) Operation Cj Ci
M2 on Cj r1 1 1
M2 on Cj w0 0 0
M2 on Cj w1 1 0
M2 on Ci r1 1 0
j<i (;0) Operation Cj Ci
M1 on Cj r0 0 0
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Cj w0 0 1
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Ci r0 1 1
March A Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1,w0);(r0,w1,w0);

Ci is <;0> coupled to Cj means transition in j cell causes cell i to 0 logic
value.
Ci <;0> Cj (possibly Ci <;0> Cj or Ci <;1> Cj ) :- M3
Ci <;1> Cj (possibly Ci <;0> Cj or Ci <;1> Cj ) :-M4

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j>i (;0) Operation Cj Ci
M3 on Cj r1 1 1
M3 on Cj w0 0 0
M3 on Cj w1 1 0/1
M3 on Cj w0 0 0
M4 on Ci r1 0 0
j>i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M4 on Cj r0 0 0
M4 on Cj w1 1 0/1
M4 on Cj w0 0 1
M4 on Ci r0 0 1
March A Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1);(r1,w0,w1,w0);(r0,w1,w0);

Ci is <;0> coupled to Cj means transition in j cell causes cell i to 0 logic
value.
Ci <;0> Cj (not possibly Ci <;0> Cj or<;1> Cj) :- M3
Ci <;1> Cj (not possibly Ci <;0> Cj or<;1> Cj) :-M4

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j>i (;0) Operation Cj Ci
M3 on Cj r1 1 1
M3 on Cj w0 0 1
M3 on Cj w1 1 0
M3 on Cj w0 0 0
M4 on Ci r1 0 0
j>i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M4 on Cj r0 0 0
M4 on Cj w1 1 1
M4 on Cj w0 0 1
M4 on Ci r0 1 1
March Y Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,r1);(r1,w0,r0);(r0);

AFs,SAFs are detectable.
TFs,Cfins are detectable.
TFs linked with Cfins.
Ci <;0> Cj, Ci<;1> Cj Idempotent Faults are detectable.
(j>i and j<i respectively)
Ci <;0> Cj , Ci <;1> Cj Idempotent Faults are not
detectable.
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March Y Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,r1);(r1,w0,r0);(r0);

Ci <;0> Cj :- M2 (j>i)
Ci <;1> Cj :- M1 (j<i)
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j<i (;0) Operation Cj Ci
M1 on Cj r0 0 0
M1 on Cj w1 1 1
M1 on Cj r1 1 1
M1 on Ci r0 1 1
j>i (;1) Operation Cj Ci
M2 on Cj r1 1 1
M2 on Cj w0 0 0
M2 on Cj r0 0 0
M2 on Ci r1 0 0
March B Algorithm
(w0);(r0,w1,r1,w0,r0,w1);(r1,w0,w1);
(r1,w0,w1,w0);(r0,w1,w0);

Afs ,SAFs are detectable.
TFs ,CFs are detectable.

TF Linked Cfins & Cfids are detectable due to extra read operation is
performed immediately after the transition.

This extra read is not allowed TFs to masked by CFs because no
other write operations are performed to other cells.


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Comparison Between March Algorithms
Algorithms No. of Operation Fault Coverage
Mats 4n SAF, Some AF
Mats++ 6n SAF,AF
March X 6n SAF, AF, TF, Cfin
March C- 10n SAF, AF, TF,CF
March A 15n SAF, AF, TF, Linked Cfid ,Cfin
March Y 8n SAF, AF, Linked TF with Cfin
March B 17n SAF, AF, Linked TF with CFin &
CFid
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Moving Inversion (MOVI)
(w0);(r0,w1,r1);(r1,w0,r0);(r0,w1,r1);(r1,w0,r0)
MOVI used for functional test as well as the AC Parametric
test.
Any read or write operation in cell j disturb the content of
cell i will detect and also determine best & worst access
time with different address and different data pattern of
the chip.
Memory initialized to contain all 0s then this string of 0s is
inverted successively to become all 1s and vice versa.
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Moving Inversion (MOVI)
Detection of read /write disturbances

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Operation on
bit j
Disturbance of bit i Fault detected by
j>i i>j
r0 M3 M1
M4 M2
r1 M3 M1
M4 M2
w0 M2-M3 M0-M1
M4 M2
w1 M3 M1
M1-M2 M3-M4
Moving Inversion (MOVI)
Determination of the access time
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Current Next Performed by
March
element
Address

Operation

Address

Operation
Ax r0 Ay

r1 M2
Ay r0 Ax r1 M4

Ax r1 Ay r0 M1
Ay r1 Ax r0 M3
Future Work
Test time and test operations are crucial factor for
memory testing.
Develop such algorithm that find the maximum fault
coverage with efficient test time and test operation.
Develop effective algorithm which can find the
dynamic and physical defect fault with functional
faults.
Write recovery, Refresh line stuck-at, Sleeping
sickness, Static data loss.


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Conclusion
Zero-one, Checkerboard are simple algorithms to test only SAFs
and address decoder faults.
GALPAT, Sliding window are used to test for coupling faults.
March algorithms are very well suitable with different patterns
to detect the common memory functional faults.
March B and March Y are covered to detect most of the
functional faults but it requires many operations and too much
time so that trade off requires between time of test, operation
to fault detection.
NPS fault are also crucial in large density memory to test but
these types of faults are complicated, not easy to locate and
requires large time to test them.


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Reference
Testing Semiconductor Memories by Van De
Goor
Design For Testability by wang-wu-wen

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Any Question
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Thank You