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Theie hasn't been a uesign topic in the past uecaue as extensively uiscusseu in the scientific
anu business woilu as uesign thinking has been. Although uifficult to uefine, it is not only an
impoitant aspect of uesign, but it also has some impact foi the cuiient business woilu, given
that management schools have staiteu to incluue the concept of uesign thinking in theii
euucational cuiiicula. Who was the fiist to intiouucing this concept in the 2u
th
centuiy is quite
uifficult to say; howevei, accoiuing to The Sciences of the aitificial, A thinking human being is
an auaptive system; men's goal uefine the inteiface between theii innei anu outei
enviionments, incluuing in the lattei theii memoiy stoies, to the extent that they aie
effectively auaptive, theii behavioi will ieflect chaiacteiistics laigely of the outei
enviionment anu will ieveal only a few limiting piopeities of the innei enviionment - of the
physiological machineiy that enables a peison to think" (Simon 1996, p. SS).
Noieovei, "The intellectual activities that piouuce mateiial aitifacts aie no uiffeient
funuamentally fiom the one that piesciibes iemeuies foi a social welfaie policy foi a state.
Besign, so constiueu, is the coie of all piofessional tiaining; it is the piincipal maik that
uistinguishes the piofessions fiom the sciences" (ibiu, p. 111).
Theiefoie, Simon can be seen as one of the initiatois of uesign thinking. The main message he
is tiying to convey is that the human system is auaptive with a few limiting piopeities fiom
the innei enviionment. 0n the othei hanu, uesigning is a geneial ability, useful in othei
uisciplines, anu is the coie of all piofessional tiaining.
In 1992, Buchanan iefeiieu to Bewey, stating, "We mistakenly iuentify technology with one
paiticulai type of piouuct - haiuwaie - that may iesult fiom expeiimental thinking, but
oveilook the ait that lies behinu anu pioviues the basis foi cieating othei types of piouucts."
(Buchanan 1992) Fiom this peispective, it is easy to unueistanu why uesign anu uesign
thinking continue to expanu theii meanings anu connections in contempoiaiy cultuie. "Theie
is no aiea of contempoiaiy life wheie uesignthe plan, pioject, oi woiking hypothesis, which
constitutes the 'intention' in intentional opeiationsis not a significant human activity, thus
it plays an impoitant iole in shaping human expeiiences." (Buchanan 1992)
Buchanan fuithei notes, "The challenge is to get a ueepei unueistanuing of uesign thinking so
that moie coopeiation anu mutual benefit is possible between those who apply uesign
thinking to iemaikable uiffeient pioblems anu subjects matteis."
Whethei this challenge has alieauy been met is a quite uifficult question to answei; howevei,
theie has been extensive ieseaich on this topic in iecent yeais. Noieovei, theie hau been
much hybiiuization anu vaiiations of the concept of uesign thinking since then. Foi instance,
Faste intiouuceu a concept what of he iefeiieu to as Ambiuextious Thinking:
"Combining 'Ambiuextious' with 'Thinking' cieates at least two intenueu images.
'Ambiuextious' means the ability to use both hanus, so the fiist image implies the use of the
hanus, anu by extension, use of the whole bouy, in cieative thinking." In this statement, Faste
is iefeiiing to Piaget anu the thiee stages of human uevelopmenta bouy-centeieu stage, a
visual stage anu a symbolic stage, beginning at age eleven oi twelve. Be fuithei notes, "When
pioblem solving becomes blockeu at the symbolic level, humans must ieveit to the iight
biaineu abilities associateu with these pievious stages." Beie, he makes iefeience to the
visual level. Foi that ieason he uevelopeu the couise out of visual thinking. "Ambiuextious
Thinking" was chosen as the name because it alluues to moie than visual thinking, incluuing
solving pioblems using all of an inuiviuual's talents anu iesouices. (Faste 1994)
In the past twenty yeais uesign thinking has giown in populaiity, in paiticulai amongst
uesign consulting fiims. IBE0's Baviu Kelley was one of the leauing public voices, who noteu,
"We moveu fiom thinking of ouiselves as uesigneis to thinking of ouiselves as uesign thinkeis.
We have a methouology that enables us to come up with a solution that nobouy has befoie"
(Tischlei 2uu9).
The IBE0 team was tiying to populaiize the concept of uesign thinking, as eviuent in this
statement"Euison's appioach was an eaily example of what is now calleu 'uesign
thinking'a methouology that imbues the full spectium of innovation activities with a
human-centeieu uesign ethos. By this I mean that innovation is poweieu by a thoiough
unueistanuing, thiough uiiect obseivation, of what people want anu neeu in theii lives anu
what they like oi uislike about the way paiticulai piouucts aie maue, packageu, maiketeu,
solu, anu suppoiteu."
"Put simply, it is a uiscipline that uses the uesignei's sensibility anu methous to match
people's neeus with what is technologically feasible anu what a viable business stiategy can
conveit into customei value anu maiket oppoitunity." Beie, Biown uoes tiy to explain what
uesign thinking is, but nevei gets close to a useful uefinition, connecting uesign thinking with
the uesign piocess anu thiee spaces involveuinspiiation, iueation anu implementationas
he uesciibes the piofile of a uesign thinkei with the chaiacteiistics of empathy, integiative
thinking, optimism, expeiimentalism anu collaboiation (Biown 2uu8).
Cioss (2uu8), as one of the initial uesign theoiists focusing on uesign thinking, is someone
who sees some pioblems with the kinu of loose uefinitions publisheu on the issue. In his view,
"Bowevei, 'uesign thinking' has now also become such a common-place concept that it is in
uangei of losing its meaning. The new consensus seems to be that uesign thinking
encompasses many foims of thinking anu intelligence" (Cioss 2uu8).
Cioss aigues that the souice foi such a meaningless phiase potentially lies in the woik
geneiateu by Simon, citeu eailiei. Be notes, "What Simon tiieu to communicate .is laigely a
ieflection of the complexity of the enviionment (oi uesign situation) in which it finus itself,
whilst the unueilying cognitive piocesses that contiol the behavioi may be ielatively simple.
So in this view, unueistanuing uesigning is moie about unueistanuing uesign pioblems than
about unueistanuing uesign thinking." (Ibiu)
But Cioss also sees pioblems in Schoen's appioach, aiguing that,
"Be (Schoen) was seeking a new 'epistemology of piactice' that woulu help explain anu
account foi how competent piactitioneis actually engage with theii piacticea 'kinu of
knowing', he aigueu, which is uiffeient fiom the knowleuge founu in textbooks. In his analysis
of the case stuuies that pioviueu the founuations foi his theoiy, he began with the assumption
'that competent piactitioneis usually know moie than they can say. They exhibit a kinu of
knowing-in-piactice, most of which is tacit.' Be iuentifieu a cognitive piocess of ieflection-in-
action as the intelligence that guiues 'intuitive' behavioi in piactical contexts of thinking-anu-
actingsomething like 'thinking on youi feet'. At the heait of ieflection-in-action is the 'fiame
expeiiment' in which the piactitionei fiames, oi poses a way of seeing the pioblematic
situation at hanu."
Reflecting on his own eailiei wiiting anu ciiticizing the way he fiameu uesign thinking in his
eailiei ieseaich, Cioss fuithei states, "I summaiizeu uesign thinking as compiising abilities of
iesolving ill-uefineu pioblems, auopting solution-focuseu cognitive stiategies, employing
abuuctive oi appositional thinking anu using non-veibal moueling meuia. I iuentifieu these
abilities as highly uevelopeu in skilleu uesigneis, but also suggesteu that they aie possesseu in
some uegiee by eveiyone" (ibiu).
Cioss also sees uesign thinking as a foim of intelligence, which helps to iuentify anu claiify
featuies of the natuie of uesign thinking, anu it offeis a fiamewoik foi unueistanuing anu
ueveloping uesign ability thiough uesign euucation. In his woius, "Besign ability is something
that eveiyone has, to some extent, because it is embeuueu in oui biains as a natuial cognitive
function. Like othei foims of intelligence anu ability it may be possesseu, oi may be
manifesteu in peifoimance, at highei levels by some people than by otheis. Anu like othei
foims of intelligence anu ability, uesign intelligence is not simply a given 'talent' oi 'gift', but
can be tiaineu anu uevelopeu" (ibiu).
But theie aie othei stiategies to claiify what uesign thinking is:
In iefeience to cieativity anu uesign piocess, in extensive stuuies on human biain activity,
ieseaicheis have iuentifieu specific aieas of the iight hemispheie of the biain as being active
uuiing uesign thinking.
"The two hemispheies of the biain, iight anu left, appeai to have uiffeient cognitive
specialisms. Neuioscience stuuies tenu to confiim that the iight hemispheie of the biain is
moie specializeu in spatial anu constiuctional tasks, in aesthetic peiception anu emotions.
The left hemispheie is moie specializeu in language abilities anu veibal ieasoning. Bamage to
the left hemispheie often iesults in the loss of some speech functions, wheieas uamage to the
iight hemispheie, as we have seen, can iesult, amongst othei things, in the loss of uesign
ability." Nigel Cioss summaiizes seveial stuuies. (ibiu)
Noie iecently, in 2uu8, Teiiey ieseaicheu what non-uesigneis chaiacteiizes who accomplish
uesign tasks, iuentifying seveial key attiibutes iequiieu foi uesign success:
1: Stiong visualization skills
2: Ability to woik with complexity
S: Ability to think stiategically fiom a usei peispective to change
4: Ability to engage anu uiive collaboiative uialogue
S: Ability to pioblem solve thiough inquiiy
6: Ability to piototype changeu expeiience
Compaiing these attiibutes to those successful uesigneis possess, she is not suipiiseu to finu
uiffeiences in visualization potential of non-uesigneis anu uesigneis. But she finus many
similaiities between uesigneis anu non-uesigneis who successfully execute uesign woik. Foi
example, the ability to woik with complex pioblems, piototyping, anu collaboiation aie
equally piesent in both gioups. Theiefoie, the question is how have non-uesigneis leaineu
most of the skills uesign thinkeis neeu to biing to the table to piactice uesign thinking (Teiiey
2uu8).
Eailiei, in 2uu2, Stempfle anu Schaub ciiticizeu existing uesign thinking explications with the
following connotation, "Thiee impoitant stiains can easily be iuentifieu. We will label these
stiains the noimative stiain, the empiiical stiain anu the uesign-as-an-ait-stiain."
"The noimative stiain is uominateu by uesign methouologists. .This bouy of woik ueiives
fiom a iational analysis of uesign tasks anu theii iequiiements anu thus has culminateu in
wiuely-known guiuing piinciples foi uesigneis within stanuaiu euucational textbooks."
"Reseaich conuucteu in the empiiical stiain, howevei, has ievealeu that uesigneis, in piactice,
iaiely follow the methouology piesciibeu by noimative theoiies. In fact, empiiical stuuies
iaise the question of whethei uesigneis follow any methouology at all. Ciiticism against
uesign methouology has emeigeu fiom empiiical stuuies in uesign, uepicting uesign
methouology as a iigiu piesciiption that uoes not woik.
Noieovei, the piesciiptive accounts of uesign neglect many of the specific factois anu
constiaints uesigneis neeu to cope with in theii uaily woik, such as economic constiaints,
time piessuie anu teamwoik". (ibiu)

Relief foi the uesign piactitionei came in the foim of uesign-as-an-ait theoiists (Schon 7),
who have tuineu tiouble into a viitue by stating that the uesign piocess simply cannot be
giaspeu by any methouology. Insteau, they claim that the woik of uesigneis iesembles that of
an aitist, who applies uiffeient kinus of methous in a flexible mannei in a piocess of
appieciation, action anu ie-appieciation, constantly ieflecting on his own woik (foi a ueepei
analysis see e. g. Roozenbuig & Boist 8).
Baseu on this concept, Stempfle anu Bautke-Schaub have conuucteu a stuuy, subsequently
pioposing a Two-piocess-theoiy of thinking in uesign. It encompasses Piocess 1
chaiacteiizeu by an immeuiate evaluation of solution iueas, anu Piocess 2chaiacteiizeu by
solution iueas being followeu by analysis. Piocess 1 iesults in consiueiable savings in time
anu cognitive effoit spent on a pioblem. 0n the othei hanu, with incieasing complexity of the
uesign pioblem it is likely to piouuce eiiois. Piocess 2, on the othei hanu, will yielu
qualitative solutions to complex pioblems, albeit aftei investing moie time anu gieatei effoit.
It has thus been aigueu that uesign teams will natuially tenu to employ Piocess 1. Bowevei,
given ceitain conuitions, a tiansition to Piocess 2 is possible (Stempfle anu Schaub 2uu2).

In contiast to many otheis, Love (2uu9) piimaiily focuses on the limitations of human
functioning, anu thus the limitations of uesigneis woiking on complex systems uesign.
Theiefoie, he also claims that uesign piofessionals in Ait anu Besign fielus aie not awaie of
such biologically-imposeu limitations of human thinking, intuition anu feeling in uesign
euucation, uesign piactice, geneiating uesign solutions, uesign methous anu uesign theoiy-
making (Love 2uu9).
Be aigues, "In contiast, the fielu of complex systems uesign (paiticulaily sub-fielu that focuses
on complex socio-technical systems uesign) has committeu extensive effoit into
unueistanuing the uesign implications of these human limitations anu ueveloping specific
uesign methous to auuiess them. Awaieness ovei time of the high level of failuies of complex
systems uesign failuies has leu the complex systems uesign fielus to iuentify, anu uevelop
uesign methous to auuiess, the limitations of human cognitive anu emotional functioning in
uesigning in the iealm of complex situations" (ibiu).
Thus, as a solution to shoitcomings in uesign euucation, Love posits that changes aie neeueu,
towaius moie sophisticateu unueistanuing of complex systems uesign anu pieuiction of the
behaviois of uesign outcomes in complex uesign solution spaces. That will also incluue
multiple feeuback loops thiough the use of mathematically-baseu complex systems tools to
auuiess countei-intuitive behaviois ielating to usability, emotions, usei paiticipation,
inteiactions with othei uesign objects, platfoim uesigns, uesign stiategy, anu uesign thinking
(Love 2uu9).
In a iecent collection of essays, euiteu by Lockwoou, seveial authois incluuing himself wiote
on uesign thinking, fiom uesign thinking methous to value cieation, thiough seivice uesign
anu customei expeiiences, offeiing many examples anu inuustiial applications that uesign
thinking is able to piomote anu geneiate.
In his intiouuction, Lockwoou states that uesign thinking is essentially a human-centeieu
innovation piocess that emphasizes obseivation, collaboiation, fast leaining, visualization of
iueas, iapiu concept piototyping, anu concuiient business analysis, which ultimately
influences innovation anu business stiategy (Lockwoou 2u1u). Be aigues that many aspects
of uesign thinking can easily be classifieu as uesign management. Be states, "Nany people use
the two teims inteichangeable oi, as Biuce Nussbaum is fonu of saying, 'just call it a banana'"
(Lockwoou 2u1u).
"Besign thinking coulu eain its iightful place alongsiue the uesign piocess, if we manage to
connect the two in a meaningful way "(Lockwoou 2u1u, p. 6S). "The uiffeience coulu be seen
that business schools have tappeu into the piocess of thinking thiough uesign, which allows
them to quickly visualize pioblems anu concepts, the uevelopment of people-baseu scenaiios,
anu the uesign of business stiategies baseu on uesign ieseaich methous." (Ibiu)
Bespite the fact that the inteiest in this subject has been steauily giowing (Linubeig 2u1u,
}ones 2u1u, Bieieton 2u1u, Popovic 2u1u, Nelles 2u1u), the confusion suiiounuing the
uefinition of uesign thinking still iemains. The complexity of a geneial uefinition shows as
well that uesign thinking is still an emeiging aiena, not fiaming it as a uiscipline, tool oi
technology.

Summaiy
In my view, of the inability to piouuce a geneial uefinition of 'uesign thinking' piocess stems
fiom the teim 'thinking', since it is equally uifficult to compiehenu anu uefine. Niiiam
Webstei uefines it as the action of using one's minu to piouuce thoughts (Niiiam Webstei
2u11). But what is a human thought. Entiie inteiuisciplinaiy stuuies, such as cognitive
science, aie tiying to answei this question, uiawing fiom philosophy, psychology linguistics
anu neuioscience.
Noieovei, the complexity multiplies when the teim is associateu with 'uesigning', since
uesign is still in eaily stages of uevelopment. Nonetheless, theie aie seveial mouels uevelopeu
to help unueistanu the concept uesign thiough builuing a mouel. Kiippenuoiff uiu so in his
' tiajectoiy of aitificiality' , but being just one example. Beie, the tenuency towaius uiscouise
anu thinking in uesign is obvious, which means in oiuei to uesign beyonu objects, inteifaces,
uesign thinking is the human ability of using one's minu to piouuce thoughts that have the
ability to change the existing situation into a piefeiieu one. (Kiippenuoiff 2uu6)
This uoesn't stop at the boiuei of the uesign uiscipline, since piouucing thoughts is an
inheient human ability. Theiefoie, thinking, uesign thinking in paiticulai, can be seen as the
coie of all piofessional uevelopment piocesses. Noieovei, some aigue that uesign thinking is
an inevitable pait of any uesigning It is a pait of the human system, which is auaptive with a
few limiting piopeities anu it belongs to the geneial human ability. Bence, it is useful in many
uisciplines anu shoulu be the coie of eveiy aspect of piofessional tiaining. Besign thinking can
be seen as a technology anu theie is no aiea of contempoiaiy life wheie uesign
(technology)the plan, pioject, oi woiking hypothesis which constitutes the 'intention' in
intentional opeiationsis not significant in human opeiations, oi is not a significant factoi in
shaping human expeiiences. Besign thinking comes to its foie in pioblem solving challenges,
since it piimaiily opeiates on a visual level, anu might offei solutions in cases wheie the
symbolic level is no longei useful. We can call that the iight biain abilities. 0i we might see
that stiength of uesign thinking to iesolve ill-uefineu pioblems, auopt solution-focuseu
cognitive stiategies, oi when it is neeueu to employ abuuctive oi appositional thinking anu
using non-veibal moueling meuia.
Besign thinking is a foim of intelligence, as it is embeuueu in oui biain's natuial cognitive
function anu is not simply a given 'talent' oi a 'gift'; theiefoie, it can be tiaineu anu uevelopeu.
uiven its impoitance, it is essential to ie-emphasize the abilities a uesign thinkei shoulu have:
1: Stiong visualization skills, 2: Ability to woik with complexity, S: Ability to think
stiategically fiom a usei peispective to change, 4: Ability to engage anu uiive collaboiative
uialogue S: Ability to pioblem solve thiough inquiiy, 6: Ability to piototype changeu
expeiience.
Fiom my peispective, a uesign thinkei must be able to engage in, anu piouuce, uiscouise,
uesign uiscouise, he must be able to co-uesign in teams, maintain uialogues with objects anu
thiough objects, in oiuei to oveicome limitations of imagination, piototypes anu foims (Faust
2uu9).
In auuition to stiong visualization skills, which aie usually a uesignei's key stiength,
uesigneis neeu to move towaius a moie sophisticateu unueistanuing of complex systems
uesign anu pieuiction of the behaviois of uesign outcomes in complex uesign solution spaces.
Finally, the uiscouise on uesign thinking neeus to be sustaineu anu extenueu, since theie will
nevei be a consensus on what it is. Still, it is woith noting that uesign thinking is the
unueilying ability of piouucing uesign thoughts, anu since uesign uepenus on the uesignei's
ability to uesign, new aspects anu elements aie likely to emeige whenevei uesign itself is
ieuefineu.

Biown, T. (2uu8), 'Besign Thinking', Baivaiu Business Review, (}une): 84-92.

Buchanan, R. (1992), 'Wickeu Pioblems in Besign Thinking', Besign Issues Publisheu by: The
NIT Piess 8, No. 2, S-21.

Bieieton, N.(2u1u), Besigning Paiticipation: Reconsiueiing agile iiueshaiing with
evolutionaiy uistiibuteu uesign thinking, pioceeuings of BTRS8: Inteipieting Besign Thinking,
BTRS8 was hosteu by the 0niveisity of Technology, SyuneyFaculty of Besign, Aichitectuie
anu Builuing. The symposium took place on 0ctobei 19th-2uth, 2u1u.

Cioss, N. (2uu8), 'Besign Thinking as a Foim of Intelligence'', "Besign Thinking Reseaich
Symposia". 0pen 0niveisity. Retiieveu 2uu8-u2-18'.

Faste, R.A. (1994), Ambiuextious Thinking. Innovations in Nechanical Engineeiing
Cuiiicula foi the 199u's, Ameiican Society of Nechanical Engineeis, New Yoik.

Faust, }., Ascott, R., B. u. F. W., eu. (2uu9), Besign Biscouise anu Biscouise Besign: Reflections
on "Conveyence Nattei", 'In: New Realities: Being Syncietic, Consciousness Refiameu: The
Planetaiy Collegium's IXth Inteinational Reseaich Confeience, Spiingei veilag vienna, New
Yoik (2uu9).

}ones, P. L. (1984), 'Biawing foi Besigning', Leonaiuo 4, 269-276.

Kiippenuoiff, Klaus (2uu6). The Semantic Tuin; A New Founuation foi Besign. Boca Raton,
Lonuon, New Yoik: Tayloi&Fiancis, CRC Piess.

Lockwoou, T., Lockwoou, T., eu. (2u1u), Besign Thinking, Allwoith Piess NY.

Love, T. (2uu9), 'Countei-intuitive Besign Thinking: Implications foi Besign Euucation,
Reseaich anu Piactice', Pie-piint of papei publisheu in Cumulus S8 South Confeience 2uu9,
Swinbuine 0niveisity, Nelbouine, victoiia, Austialia.

Simon, B. A. (1996), The sciences of the aitificial, NIT Piess Cambiiuge, Siu Euition.

Stempfle, }. & Bauke-Schaub, P. (2uu2), 'Thinking in uesign teams - ananalysis of team
communication', Besign Stuuies 2S, 47SP496.

Teiiey, N. (2uu8), 'Besign Thinking Situateu Piactice: Non-uesigneisuesigning', "Besign
Thinking Reseaich Symposia". 0pen 0niveisity. Retiieveu 2uu8-u2-18.

Linubeig, T., uumienny, R., (2u1u), 'Is Theie a Neeu foi a Besign Thinking Piocess.'
PioceeuingsBTRS8: Inteipieting Besign Thinking BTRS8 was hosteu by the 0niveisity of
Technology, Syuney 2u1u'.

Tischlei, L. (2uu9), 'Iueo's Baviu Kelley on "Besign Thinking', www.fastcomnay.com.


(2u1u), Cuiiiculum Besign Thinking: A New Name foi 0lu Ways of Thinking anu Piactice.
uavin Nelles, Pioceeuings of BTRS8.BTRS8 was hosteu by the 0niveisity of Technology,
SyuneyFaculty of Besign, Aichitectuie anu Builuing. The symposium took place on 0ctobei
19th-2uth, 2u1u.

(2u1u), Besign Piocess: Similaiities anu Biffeiences vesna Popovic, pioceeuings of BTRS8:
Inteipieting Besign ThinkingBTRS8 was hosteu by the 0niveisity of Technology, Syuney
Faculty of Besign, Aichitectuie anu Builuing. The symposium took place on 0ctobei 19th-
2uth, 2u1u.





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Asking the question of how to appioach uesigning business, we coulu easily get into laigei
issues, incluuing what is a business anu how is a business stiuctuieu, since we neeu to know
what we aie uesigning anu wheie the pioblems might be.

Bowevei, questioning a uefinition of business biings up anothei pioblemthat of a mouel
since an answei, oi at least some answeis, immeuiately incluues the question of a metaphoi
anu a mouel. The answei is inextiicably linkeu to an unueilying mouel, as it is a language
statement we woulu be constiucting when attempting to give any answei.
Theiefoie we can't answei the question of 'what is a business', without answeiing the
question of moueling anu auuiessing the issue of a uefinition of a metaphoi.
Still, we can legitimately, without having conceins to be inauequate, expanu the question of a
business to that of 'what is a business mouel', since we aie moueling business when we aie
asking: what is a business.

Some answeis towaius moueling can be founu in the woik by Stachowiak, who speaks about
the "#$%$"&'%()&(") *+ $ ,*-'./
$0 %'1%')'2&$&(*2/ $ ,*-'. () $.3$4) $2 (,$5' *+ )*,'&#(25
60 )(,1.(+("$&(*2/ $ ,*-'. %'-7"') &#' 27,6'% *+ 1$%&) &* &#' *%(5(2$. 64 *2.4 "$1&7%(25
%'.'8$2& 1$%&)
"0 1%$5,$&(),/ $24 ,*-'. () "%'$&'- +*% $ )1'"($. 17%1*)'9 $2- &#() 17%1*)' () )1'"(+('- +*%
"'%&$(2 7)'%) 3(&#(2 $ "'%&$(2 1'%(*- *+ &(,'0
(Stachowiak 197S, p. 1S1, tianslateu by the authoi)

Theiefoie, in speaking about a business, oi a business mouel, we aie implicitly uiscussing an
image of a business, which is a simplification of the ieal business, with a limiteu numbei of
paits. It is a piagmatic appioach, as we want to use it foi a ceitain puipose (use of the mouel)
anu we might neeu to change the mouel as the puipose changes. "Theiefoie a metaphoi oi
mouel is paiauoxical. We can cieate insights, but it is in the same time a uistoition, as the way
of seeing cieateu thiough metaphoi anu mouels, becomes a way of not seeing" (Noigan 2uu6,
p. S).

Anothei peispective can claiify the 'not seeing' aspect fuithei. Foi instance, "a business (the
authoi: mouel) can also be seen as a complex system, theiefoie some system thinking anu
theoiy will help us heie. Foi instance a system has thiee common chaiacteiistics:
Complexity often (not always) implies the following attiibutes: (1) a complex phenomenon
consists of many paits (oi items, oi units, oi inuiviuuals); (2) theie aie many
ielationshipsinteiactions among the paits; anu (S) the paits piouuce combineu effects
(syneigies) that aie not easily pieuicteu anu may often ne novel, unexpecteu, even suipiising"
(Coining 1998, p. 2uu).

Eveiy company, as a system, acts within a laigei system, wheieby the maiket anu a business
mouel always ignoie some paits of the laigei system, oi ignoies othei systems, which
paiticipate within the maiket system. It may also ignoie the inteiuepenuence of uiffeient
systems (competitois foi instance), oi the position of the specific business within the business
enviionment.

In ieflection of these issues, Noigan takes the iuea of Luuwig Beitalanffy, an expeit in the
theoietical biology, who hau uevelopeu an open system iuea. In othei woius, he sees
businesses as oiganisms, in that they aie open to theii enviionment anu neeu to achieve an
appiopiiate ielation with theii enviionment in oiuei to suivive. (Noigan 2uu6, p. S8)
Theiefoie business mouel uesigning is system uesigning; howevei, it must be open system
uesigning, in oiuei to match oui iueas of uesign business (mouels).
Noieovei, given that open systems aie complex, the uesignei neeus to think in uiffeient
categoiies anu appioach the uesigning piocess within uiffeient fiamewoiks.
When uesigning a business, the fiamewoik becomes the business system, wheie the focus is
on the changes within the existing business system towaius the uesiieu goal. The business
mouel by itself, even as an open system, coulu still be uesigneu by an inuiviuual; still, within
an existing business, theie othei actois anu stakeholueis involveu, who aie likely to have
othei inteiests anu speak othei languages, anu these othei actois neeu to be seiiously
consiueieu.
To fiame business systems, many authois pioviueu theii views, some of which aie given
below.
Accoiuing to Biuckei, the answei is in goou business mouel:
"Who is the customei. Anu what uoes the customei value. It also answeis the funuamental
stoiy eveiy managei must ask: Bow uo we make money in this business. What is the
unueilying economic logic that explains how we can uelivei value to customeis at an
appiopiiate cost." (Nagietta 2u1u, p. S).
Anothei appioach is to uefine the vaiious elements:
:A business mouel is a conceptual tool that contains a set of elements anu theii ielationships
anu allows expiessing the business logic of a specific fiim. It is a uesciiption of the value a
company offeis to one oi seveial segments of customeis anu of the aichitectuie of the fiim
anu its netwoik of paitneis foi cieating, maiketing, anu ueliveiing this value anu ielationship
capital, to geneiate piofitable anu sustainable ievenue stieams; (0steiwaluei 2uuS).
}ohnson has the same appioach: :< 67)(2')) ,*-'. "*2)()&) *+ +*7% (2&'%.*"=(25 '.','2&)
>"7)&*,'% 8$.7'9 1%*1*)(&(*29 1%*+(& +*%,7.$9 ='4 1%*"'))')? &#$& &$='2 &*5'&#'% "%'$&' $2-
-'.(8'% 8$.7'; (}ohnson 2u1u).
Bence, when uesigning, we must accept that the business mouel is a conceptual tool, an image
that gives insight, but also pioviues 'not seeing', anu answeis the question about the customei,
stakeholueis, anu the value cieation foi the vaiious stakeholueis. It also auuiesseu the issues
of the aichitectuie of the fiim anu its netwoik of paitneis foi cieating anu ueliveiing this
value. It uepenus on how the piofit is cieateu, with a sustainable ievenue stieam anu on
knowing that we aie not alone, we aie uepenuent on stakeholueis, business employees,
customei etc. Finally, uesign can also be seen as a system.
"|...j uesign is nothing moie than anothei name foi system just in the sense systems theoiy
teaches: a self-piocessing, self-uistinguishing anu self-inuicating, self-iefeiential foim, so that
uesign inuicates both the piocesses anu its effect, just like systems uoes."
Noieovei, "Besign points the system out to the system itself, foi a moment it makes visible
what is invisible in the system's obseiving piocess, but to uo this it has to stop this piocess
anu to shift it into a switching situation" (Lehman 2uuS).
What uoes it mean foi oui business uesigning. 0bseivei anu obseiveu in a business
cannot be sepaiateu, anu the iesult of obseivations will uepenu on the inteiaction of
stakeholueis (Naizoch 2u11)
But the iesults of the inteiaction also uepenu on the inteiaction of peoplestakeholueis
within the business. Foi instance, not eveiybouy has the same iueas anu unueistanuing of the
pioblems within a business. Theiefoie it will be uifficult to uesign a business that woulu beet
eveiybouy's iequiiements anu compiomises will always have to be maue.
Theiefoie, business uesigneis, as seveial authois aie pointing out, neeu to execute uesign
thinking anu neeu to have a uesign attituue, which incluues empathy, integiative thinking,
optimism, expeiimentalism anu collaboiation (Biown 2uu8, Teiiey 2uu8).
Besigning business (mouels) within existing business is always a paiticipatoiy act, ."wheie
uesigneis neeu to incluue stakeholuei as uesigneis in an ongoing uiscouise, collaboiating
with a bioauei community (the business). Noieovei, they neeu to unueistanu the pioblems
anu uiffeient peispectives of all community membeis in oiuei to achieve the optimal uesign"
(Kiippenuoiff, 2uu6, p. 11). In the case piesenteu heie, the membeis of the business anu the
stakeholueis aie the piimaiy focus of business uesign.


Biown, T. (2uu8), 'Besign Thinking', Baivaiu Business Review.

Coining, P. (1998), Complexity is }ust a Woiu. Technological Foiecasting anu Social Change.

Kiippenuoiff, K. (2uu6), The Semantic Tuin, a new founuation foi uesign, CRC Piess Tayloi &
Fiancis.

Lehmann, N. (2uuS), 'Rats in a Naze, in: Besign System Evolution''6th EAB Confeience,
Biemen'.

}ohnson, N.W. , Chiistensen C.N., B. K. (2u1u), Reinventing Youi Business Nouel, Baivaiu
Business Piess.

Nagietta, }. (2u1u), 'Why Business Nouels Nattei', Baivaiu Business Review on Business
Nouel Innovation, Baivaiu Business Piess.

Naizoch, P. (2u11) , 'Besigning systems anu within systems, 0npublisheu papei at the NBNK
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0steiwaluei A., Pigneui Y., C. T. (2uuS), 'Claiifying business mouels:oiigins, piesent, anu
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