1

In-House Summer Training Report

On
AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC LIGHT MODEL

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Mentors: Submitted By:-
Mr. VIVEK JANGHRA Shashank Pandey (05210403011)
Mrs. AMAN SETIA Srijan Upadhyay (05410403011)
Mr. VIJAYANAND Akhilesh Thapliyal (07310403011)
Mrs. VINI TUTEJA




Department of Instrumentation & Control Engineering
AMITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
GGS Indraprastha University, New Delhi


2


CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled Automatic Traffic Lights Model
submitted by-
SHASHANK PANDEY 05210403011
SRIJAN UPADHYAY 05410403011
AKHILESH THAPLIYAL 07310403011
has been accomplished under my guidance.
This report is submitted for partial fulfilment of award of degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Instrumentation and Control Engineering at Amity School of
Engineering and Technology, affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha
University, New Delhi.

Date: 31 July, 2013 Mentors:
Mrs. VINI TUTEJA
Mr. VIVEK JHANGRA
Mrs. AMAN SETIA
Mr. VIJAYANAND KUMAR
ICE Department
Amity School of Engineering & Technology
Bijwasan, New Delhi- 61


3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to thank my project guide Mrs. VINI TUTEJA whose
constant guidance and support throughout my entire training helped me in
completing this project. I would also like to thank Mrs. PINKY NAYAK, H.O.D,
ICE, ASET for her support and encouragement.
Sincere thanks to my training coordinator, Mr.VIJAYANAND KUMAR for
presenting me, not only with this concept but also giving their valuable guidance
which was essential for compilation of this report.
Special thanks to our director Dr. REKHA AGGARWAL for providing us the
infrastructure such as laboratory and apparatus, equipments which helped in
completion of my project.
I would also like to thank to Mr. VIVEK JHANGRA for the help he lent me in the
form of new ideas, as well as her constructive criticism, which helped us greatly
along the way.
The Lab assistant in the laboratories of Amity School of Engineering & Technology
Mr. KAILASH JOSHI and Mr. SANJEEV also need to be acknowledged for their
cooperation and providing us a convenient environment to work in.

Shashank Pandey (052)


Srijan Upadhyay (054)


Akhilesh Thapliyal (073)







4

ABSTRACT

This automated traffic signal controller can be made by suitably using the 555 Timer
and 4017 Counter. This project operates red, amber and green LEDs in the correct
sequence for a single traffic light. The time taken for the complete red - green -
amber sequence can be varied from about 7s to about 1 minute by adjusting the 100K
preset. Some amber LEDs emits light that is almost red so you may prefer to use a
yellow LED.
The 555 astable circuit provides clock pulses for the 4017 counter which has ten
outputs (Q0 to Q9). Each output becomes high in turn as the clock pulses are
received. Appropriate outputs are combined with diodes to supply the red, amber and
green LEDs. The red LED is connected to the 4 outputs (Q0-Q3) using 4 diodes (D1-
D4), which makes it light longer than amber and 2
nd
green (the right turn) LEDs
whereas the 1
st
green LED is connected to 5 outputs (Q4-Q8) using 5 diodes (D5-D9)
which makes it light longest whereas the 2
nd
green LED is connected to 3 outputs
using 3 diodes (D11- D13) which makes it light longer than amber but less than red
and 1
st
green LED. The amber LED is connected to just 1 output (Q9) only using 1
diode (D10) which makes it light shortest just for (5-6 sec).
This project uses a 555 astable circuit to provide the clock pulses for the 4017
counter.
Its main features are:-
1. The controller assumes equal traffic density on all the roads.
2. In most automated traffic signals the free left-turn condition is provided
throughout the entire signal period, which poses difficulties to the pedestrians in
crossing the road, especially when the traffic density is high. This controller allows
the pedestrians to safely cross the road during certain periods.
3. The controller uses digital logic, which can be easily implemented by using logic
gates.
4. The controller is a generalized one and can be used for different roads with slight
modifications.
5. The control can also be exercised manually when desired. The time period for
which green, yellow and red traffic signals remain on (and then repeat) for the
straight moving traffic is divided into eight units of 8 seconds each.
SOFTWARES USED:
1. Cadence OrCAD 9.2 (for Schematic and Simulation of circuit)
2. NOVARM DIPTRACE (for PCB layout)


5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATE I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT II
ABSTRACT III
LIST OF FIGURES/TABLES IV
LIST OF SYMBOLS V

1. INTRODUCTION 10
1.1 HISTORY OF TRAFFIC LIGHTS 10
1.2 TECHNOLOGY 11
2. THE PROJECT 13
2.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 13
2.2 PCB LAYOUT 14
2.2.1 3D LAYOUT 15

LITERATURE REVIEW: -
3. COMPONENTS USED 16
4. ABOUT THE COMPONENTS 17
4.1.1 RESISTOR 17
4.1.2 DIODE 19
4.1.3 CAPACITOR 21
4.1.4 PRESET 23




6

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE
4.1.5 LED 25
4.1.6 IC 555 TIMER 31
4.1.7 IC 4017 DECADE COUNTER 38
4.1.8 POWER SUPPLY 41
4.1.9 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD 43
5. WORKING PRINCIPLE 47
6. ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC LIGHTS 48
7. DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC LIGHTS 48
8. APPLICATIONS 49
9. FUTURE SCOPE 49
10. REFERENCES 50
11. APPENDICES 51-72


7

LIST OF FIGURES/ TABLES















Table no. Table Name Page no.
1. Resistor Colour codes 18
2. Colours and materials of LEDs 28




Figure No. Name Page No.
1 Automatic Traffic Light Model 9
2 PCB Layout 14
3 3D Layout 15
4 Resistor 17
5 Capacitor 21
6 Preset 23
7 LED 25
8 LEDs Working 26
9 IC 555 TIMER 31
10 PIN configuration of IC 555 34
11 Graph showing counting action of
IC 4017
38
12 PIN configuration of IC 4017 39
13 AC source 41
14 Printed circuit Board 43



8

LIST OF SYMBOLS














S.No

Component

Symbol

1

Resistance


2.

Diode


3.

Capacitor (Polar)


4

Preset


5

LED



9

AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC
LIGHT MODEL















Fig.1





10

1. INTRODUCTION

The traffic signals are used to control the flow of vehicles. In recent years the need of
transportation has gain immense importance for logistics as well as for common
humans. This has given rise to number of vehicles on road. Due to this reason traffic
jams and road accidents are a common sight in any busy city. Traffic signals provide
an easy, cheap, automated and justified solution to the road points where the vehicles
may turn to the other directions.
Now a day, due to ever increasing vehicles on the road, it require a efficient control
on the four way junction of road. In order to find a solution to this problem the
concept of an automatic traffic controller is conceived. Apart from providing
efficient control of traffic, it also eliminate chance of human errors since it function
automatically.
The automatic traffic controller automatically switches on the four way junction for
required time in order to control the direction.
BASIC IDEA- The project we have chosen is a T- junction traffic controller. The
basic idea behind the design is to avoid the collision of vehicles by providing
appropriate signals to different directions for a limited time slot and to let the
pedestrians cross the road through Zebra crossing, after which the next waiting
drivers and pedestrians are given the same treatment. In this way, a cycle has been
established which will control the traffic.
CONTROL SIGNALS- The control signals are 4 lights. Top light is Red (Stop)
Middle Light is Yellow (Wait) Bottom Light is Green (Go) Bottom right Light is
also Green (the Go signal for traffic taking right turn).
The main circuit components used are astable 555-Timer and a 4017 decade counter.
The 555-Timer generates a clock signal for 15 seconds. This signal is used to clock
counter circuit. Binary counter is converted to 3 bitcounter to achieve 8 possible
cases. The traffic light control is done by using 5 bit output for Red light so that it
would light longest, 4 bit output for Green light and 1 bit output for Yellow light.


1.1 HISTORY OF TRAFFIC LIGHTS

On 10 December 1868, the first traffic lights were installed outside the British
Houses of Parliament in London, by the railway engineer J. P. Knight. They
resembled railway signals of the time, with semaphore arms and red and green gas
lamps for night use. The gas lantern was turned with a lever at its base so that the
appropriate light faced traffic. Unfortunately, it exploded on 2 January1869, injuring
the policeman who was operating it.
The modern electric traffic light is an American invention. As early as 1912 in Salt
Lake City, Utah, policeman Lester Wire invented the first red-green electric traffic


11

lights. On5 August 1914, the American Traffic Signal Company installed a traffic
signal system on the corner of East 105th Street and Euclid Avenue in Cleveland,
Ohio. It had two colours, red and green, and a buzzer, based on the design of James
Hoge, to provide a warning for colour changes. The design by James Hoge allowed
police and fire stations to control the signals in case of emergency. The first four-
way, three-color traffic light was created by police officer William Potts in Detroit,
Michigan in 1920. In 1923, Garrett Morgan patented a traffic signal device. It was
Morgan's experience while driving along the streets of Cleveland that led to his
invention of a traffic signal device. Ashville, Ohio claims to be the location of the
oldest working traffic light in the United States, used at an intersection of public
roads until 1982 when it was moved to a local museum.
The first interconnected traffic signal system was installed in Salt Lake City in 1917,
with six connected intersections controlled simultaneously from a manual switch.
Automatic control of interconnected traffic lights was introduced March 1922 in
Houston, Texas. The first automatic experimental traffic lights in England were
deployed in Wolver Hampton in 1927.
Ampelmnnchen pedestrian traffic signals have come to be seen as a nostalgic sign
for the former German Democratic Republic. The color of the traffic lights
representing stop and go are likely derived from those used to identify port (red) and
starboard (green) in maritime rules governing right of way, where the vessel on the
left must stop for the one crossing on the right.


1.2 TECHNOLOGY

Optics and Lightings:-

In the mid 1990s, cost-effective traffic light lamps using light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) were developed; prior to this date traffic lights were designed using
incandescent or halogen light bulbs. Unlike the incandescent-based lamps, which use
a single large bulb, the LED-based lamps consist of an array of LED elements,
arranged in various patterns. When viewed from a distance, the array appears as a
continuous light source. LED-based lamps (or 'lenses') have numerous advantages
over incandescent lamps; among them are:

Much greater energy efficiency (can be solar-powered).

Much longer lifetime between replacements, measured in years rather than months.
Part of the longer lifetime is due to the fact that some light is still displayed even if
some of the LEDs in the array are dead.

Brighter illumination with better contrast against direct sunlight, also called
'phantom light'.

The ability to display multiple colors and patterns from the same lamp. Individual
LED elements can be enabled or disabled and different color LEDs can be mixed in
the same lamp

Much faster switching.



12

Instead of sudden burn-out like incandescent-based lights, LEDs start to gradually
dim when they wear out, warning transportation maintenance departments well in
advance as to when to change the light. Occasionally, particularly in green LED
units, segments prone to failure will flicker rapidly beforehand.

The operational expenses of LED-based signals are far lower than equivalent
incandescent-based lights. As a result, most new traffic light deployments in the
United States, Canada and elsewhere have been implemented using LED-based
lamps; in addition many existing deployments of incandescent traffic lights are being
replaced. In 2006, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada completed a total refit to LED-based
lamps in the cities over 12,000 intersections and all pedestrian crosswalks. Many of
the more exotic traffic signals discussed on this page would not be possible to
construct without using LED technology. However, colour-changing LEDs are in
their infancy and may surpass the multi-colour array technology. In some areas,
LED-based signals have been fitted (or retrofitted) with special Fresnel lenses
(Programmed Visibility or 'PV' lenses) and/or diffusers to limit the line of sight to a
single lane. These signals typically have a "projector"-like visibility; and maintain an
intentionally limited range of view. Because the LED lights don't generate a
significant amount of heat, heaters may be necessary in areas which receive snow,
where snow can accumulate within the lens area and limit the visibility of the
indications. Another new LED technology is the use of CLS (Central Light Source)
optics. These comprise around 7 high-output LEDs (sometimes 1 watt) at the rear of
the lens, with a diffuser to even out and enlarge the light. This gives a uniform
appearance, more like traditional halogen or incandescent luminaries. Replacing
halogen or incandescent reflector and bulb assemblies behind the lens with an LED
array can give the same effect. This also has its benefits: minimal disruption,
minimal work, minimal cost and the reduced need to replace the entire signal head
(housing).
























13

2. PROJECT

2.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM






























14

2.2 PCB LAYOUT
























Fig. 2



15

2.2.1 3D LAYOUT





















Fig.


Fig.3



16

3. COMPONENTS USED


Table- 1










S.No.

Components

Specifications

Quantity

1

Resistor

470 , 10 K

3+1

2

Diode

1N4148

9

3

Capacitor

100 f

1

4

Preset

100 K

1

5

LED

Red, Amber, Green

1+1+2

6

I.C

555 Timer, 4017 Counter

1+1

7

Power Supply

9V-12V A.C

1

8

PCB

Copper coated

1


17

4. ABOUT THE COMPONENTS
4.1 RESISTORS:
A resistor is a piece of materials that obeys Ohms Law. The name comes from its
main property. It resists the flow of charge through itself, hence allowing us to
control the current. Resistors can be made of various kinds of material, but whatever
the choice it must conduct some electricity otherwise it wouldnt be of any use. Two
wires are connected to opposite ends of the resistor. When we apply a potential
difference between the wires we set up a current from one wire to another wire
through the resistor. The size of the current is proportional to the difference in
voltage between the wires. The resistance (in units of Ohms) is defined as the ratio of
the applied voltage ( in Volts ) , divided by the current, I (in Ampere ) , produced by
the applied voltage. Resistors come in wide variety of sizes and shapes , but the most
common type is a cylinder with wires at the ends.






Fig. 4 Symbol- 1
Resistors, like diode and relays , are another of the electronic parts that should have a
section in the installers parts bin . They have become a necessity for the mobile
electronics installer ,whether it to be door locks, parking lights, timing circuits
,remote starts, LEDS , or just to discharge a stiffening capacitor.
The tolerance band is usually gold or silver, but some may have none. Because
resistors are not the exact value as indicated by the colour bands, manufactures have
included a tolerance colour band to indicate the accuracy of the resistor. Gold band
indicates the resistors is within 5% of the what is indicated. Silver is equal to 10%
and None is equal to 20%. Others are shown in the chart below. For example 1 K
ohm resistor may have an actual measurement anywhere from 950 ohms to 1050
ohms. If a resistor does not have tolerance band, start from the band closest to lead.
This will be the 1
st
band. If you enable to read the colour bands , then youll have to
use your multimeter. Be sure to zero it out first.



18

4.1.1 Resistor Colour Codes:


Table- 1








Color
Significant
figures
Multiplier Tolerance
Temp. Coefficient
(ppm/K)
Black 0 10
0
250 U
Brown 1 10
1
1% F 100 S
Red 2 10
2
2% G 50 R
Orange 3 10
3
15 P
Yellow 4 10
4
(5%) 25 Q
Green 5 10
5
0.5% D 20 Z
Blue 6 10
6
0.25% C 10 Z
Violet 7 10
7
0.1% B 5 M
Gray 8 10
8
0.05% (10%) A 1 K
White 9 10
9

Gold 10
-1
5% J
Silver 10
-2
10% K
None 20% M


19

4.2 DIODES

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric
conductance, it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and
high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most
common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a pn
junction connected to two electrical terminals A vacuum tube diode has two
electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an
electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called
rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including
extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are
forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action.
Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage
or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said
to be forward-biased. The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a
little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a
temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic can be tailored by
varying the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing impurities into the
materials. These are exploited in special-purpose diodes that perform many different
functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect
circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and
TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel
diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes).
Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of
circuits.
4.2.1 About 1N4148 Diode:
The 1N4148 is a standard silicon switching diode. It is one of the most popular and
long-lived switching diodes because of its dependable specifications and low cost.
The 1N4148 is useful in switching applications up to about 100 MHz with a reverse-
recovery time of no more than 4 ns.





20





Symbol- 2

4.2.2 Specifications:
V
RRM
= 100 V (maximum repetitive reverse voltage)
I
O
= 200 mA (average rectified forward current)
I
F
= 300 mA (maximum direct forward current)
V
F
= 1.0 V at 10 mA.
I
FSM
= 1.0 A (pulse width = 1 s), 4.0 A (pulse width = 1 s) (non-repetitive
peak forward surge current)
P
D
= 500 mW (power dissipation)
T
RR
< 4 ns (reverse-recovery time)

4.2.3 Applications:
High speed switching














21

4.3 CAPACITORS

There exist two types of capacitors:
(i) Polar Capacitor
(ii) Non- Polar Capacitors
Since, in our project we have used polar type of capacitor, so here, we will discuss
about polar capacitors, only.
Aluminium electrolytic capacitors are constructed from two
conducting aluminium foils, one of which is coated with an insulating oxide layer,
and a paper spacer soaked in electrolyte. The foil insulated by the oxide layer is
the anode while the liquid electrolyte and the second foil acts as the cathode. This
stack is then rolled up, fitted with pin connectors and placed in a cylindrical
aluminium casing. The two most popular geometries are axial leads coming from the
centre of each circular face of the cylinder, or two radial leads or lugs on one of the
circular faces.








Fig. 5

In aluminium electrolytic capacitors, the layer of insulating aluminium oxide on the
surface of the aluminium plate acts as the dielectric, and it is the thinness of this layer
that allows for a relatively high capacitance in a small volume. This oxide has a
dielectric constant of 10, which is several times higher than most common polymer
insulators. It can withstand electric field strength of the order of 25 megavolts per
meter which is an acceptable fraction of that of common polymers. This combination
of high capacitance and reasonably high voltage result in high energy density.
Most electrolytic capacitors are polarized and require one of the electrodes to be
positive relative to the other; they may catastrophically fail if voltage is reversed.
This is because a reverse-bias voltage above 1 to 1.5 V will destroy the centre layer
of dielectric material via electrochemical reduction. Following the loss of the


22

dielectric material, the capacitor will short circuit, and with sufficient short circuit
current, the electrolyte will rapidly heat up and either leak or cause the capacitor to
burst, often in a spectacularly dramatic fashion.
To minimize the likelihood of a polarized electrolytic being incorrectly inserted into
a circuit, polarity is very clearly indicated on the case. A bar across the side of the
capacitor is usually used to indicate the negative terminal. Also, the negative
terminal
lead of a radial electrolytic is shorter than the positive lead and may be otherwise
distinguishable. On a printed circuit board it is customary to indicate the correct
orientation by using a square through-hole pad for the positive lead and a round pad
for the negative.
Special bipolar capacitors designed for AC operation are available, usually referred
to as "non-polarized" or "NP" types. In these, full-thickness oxide layers are formed
on both the aluminium foil strips prior to assembly. On the alternate halves of the
AC cycles, one of the foil strips acts as a blocking diode, preventing reverse current
from damaging the electrolyte of the other one.
Modern capacitors have a safety valve which is typically either a scored section of
the can or a specially designed end seal to vent the hot gas/liquid, but ruptures can
still be dramatic. An electrolytic can withstand a reverse bias for a short period, but
will conduct significant current and not act as a very good capacitor. Most will
survive with no reverse DC bias or with only AC voltage, but circuits should be
designed so that there is not a constant reverse bias for any significant amount of
time.
The electrolyte is usually boric acid or sodium borate in aqueous solution, together
with various sugars or ethylene glycol which are added to retard evaporation. Getting
a suitable balance between chemical stability and low internal electrical resistance is
not a simple matter; in fact, the exact compositions of high-performance electrolytes
are closely guarded trade secrets. It took many years of research before reliable
devices were developed. The electrolytic solvent has to have high dielectric constant,
high dielectric strength, and low resistivity; a solute of ionic conductivity facilitators
is mixed within.
Electrolytes may be toxic or corrosive. Working with the electrolyte requires safe
working practice and appropriate protective equipment such as gloves and safety
glasses. Some very old tantalum electrolytes, often called "Wet-slug", contain
corrosive sulphuric acid; however, most of these are no longer in service due
to corrosion.




Symbol- 3


23

4.4 PRESET

A trimmer or preset is a miniature adjustable electrical component. It is meant to be
set correctly when installed in some device, and never seen or adjusted by the
device's user. Trimmers can be variable resistors, potentiometers, variable capacitors,
or trimmable inductors. They are common in precision circuitry like A/V
components, and may need to be adjusted when the equipment is serviced. Trim pots
are often used to initially calibrate equipment after manufacturing. Unlike many
other variable controls, trimmers are mounted directly on circuit boards, turned with
a small screwdriver and rated for many fewer adjustments over their lifetime.
Trimmers like trimmable inductors and trimmable capacitors are usually found in
superhet radio and television receivers, in the Intermediate frequency, oscillator and
RF circuits. They are adjusted into the right position during the alignment procedure
of the receiver.Trimmers come in a variety of sizes and levels of precision. For
example, multi-turn trim potentiometers exist, in which it takes several turns of the
adjustment screw to reach the end value. This allows for very high degrees of
accuracy. Often they make use of a worm-gear (rotary track) or a leadscrew (linear
track).
There are 3 pins/terminals on a preset. The maximum resistance that a preset can
provide is written on it. If 100K is written on preset, it means that we can vary its
resistance from 0 Ohm to 100K. A movable metal is rotated in clockwise or
anticlockwise direction that changes the resistance of preset.
Now, we name the three terminals as A, B, C.







Fig. 6



24



Symbol- 4
If we take terminal A and terminal B, and rotate the movable metal
in clockwise direction, the resistance of preset increases from 0 to maximum.
As we move the metal in anticlockwise direction, the resistance decreases.
If we take terminal A and terminal C, and rotate the movable metal
in anticlockwise direction, the resistance of preset increases from 0 to
maximum. As we move the metal in clockwise direction, the resistance
decreases.





















25

4.5 LEDs:

A Light Emitting Diode, usually called a LED is a semiconductor diode that emits
incoherent narrow spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction of
the p-n junction, as in the common LED circuit. This effect is a form of
electroluminescence






Fig. 7
The LED consists of the chip of the semiconducting materials doped with the
impurities to create a p-n junction diode. As in other diode, the current flow easily
from the p-side or anode to the n-side or cathode, but not in the reverse direction.
Charge carriers like electrons and holes are flow into the junction from electrodes
with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole it falls into the lower energy
level, and releases the energy in the form of photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted and thus it color depend on the band gap energy
of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes the
electrons and holes are recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces a no
optical emission, because these are the indirect band gap materials. The materials
used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near
infrared ,visible or near ultraviolet light.
LED development began with the infrared and red devices made with Gallium
Arsenide. Advances in material science have enable making devices with ever
shorter wavelengths emitting the light in a variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on n-type substrate with an electrode attached to the p- type
layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This
means that much light will reflected back into the material / air surface interface.




26









Fig. 8

A LED is usually a small area light source, often with optics added to the chip to
shape its radiation pattern and assists in reflection. LEDs are often used as a small
indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power applications
such as flashlight and area lighting. The color of the emitted light depends on the
composition and condition of the semiconducting materials used, and can be infrared,
visible, or ultraviolet. LEDs can also be used as a regular household light source.
Besides lighting, interesting applications include sterilization of water and
disinfection of devices.





Symbol- 5







27

4.5.1 Colours and Materials:
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials.
The following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop
and material:

Color Wavelength [nm]
Voltage
drop [V]
Semiconductor material
Infrared > 760 V < 1.63
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red 610 < < 760
1.63 < V <
2.03
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange 590 < < 610
2.03 < V <
2.10
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Yellow 570 < < 590
2.10 < V <
2.18
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Green 500 < < 570 1.9 < V < 4.0
Traditional green:
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)



28

Blue 450 < < 500
2.48 < V <
3.7
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrateunder development
Violet 400 < < 450
2.76 < V <
4.0
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Purple multiple types
2.48 < V <
3.7
Dual blue/red LEDs,
blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Ultraviolet < 400 3.1 < V < 4.4
Diamond (235 nm)
Boron nitride (215 nm)
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
down to 210 nm
Pink multiple types V ~ 3.3
Blue with one or two phosphor layers:
yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor
added afterwards,
or white with pink pigment or dye.
White Broad spectrum V = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

Table- 2









29

4.5.2 Advantages of using LEDs:

LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in
battery powered or energy-saving devices.
LEDs can emit light of an intended colour without the use of colour filters
that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower
initial costs.
When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change
their colour tint as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike
incandescent lamps, which turn yellow.
LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off
cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled
frequently or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external
shock. Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on the
ground.
LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to
50,000 hours of useful life, through time to complete failure may be longer.
Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 30,000 hours, and incandescent
light bulbs at 1,000-2,000 hours.
LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of
incandescent bulbs.
LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in microseconds;
LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike compact fluorescent lamps.

4.5.3 Disadvantages of using LEDs:
LEDs are currently more expensive.
LEDs must be supplied with the correct current. This can involve seies
resistors or current-regulated power supplies.
LEDs do not approximate a point source of light, so cannot be used in applications
needing a highly collimated beam.


30

4.5.4 Applications of LEDs:
Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of
these objects.
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and
respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.





















31

4.6 IC 555 TIMER


The 555 timer is one of the most remarkable integrated circuits ever developed. It
comes in a single or dual package and even low power emos versions exist -
ICM7555. Common part numbers are LM555, NE555, LM556, NE556. The 555
timer consists of two voltage comparators, a bi-stable flip flop, a discharge transistor,
and a resistor divider network Philips describes their 555 monolithic timing circuit as
a "highly stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays, or oscillation.
In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external
resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running
frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled with two external
resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling
waveforms, and the output structure can source or sink up to 200mA."
The 555 gets its name from the three 5-kOhm resistors used in typical early
implementations. The 555 timer is one of the most popular and versatile integrated
circuits ever produced. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors on a
silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8).











Fig. 9


4.6.1 OPERATING MODES OF 555 TIMER:

The 555 has three operating modes:

ASTABLE MODE: Free Running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation,
security alarms etc.
MONOSTABLE MODE: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot".
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch
switches, Frequency Divider, Capacitance Measurement, Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) etc.
BISTABLE MODE: A Bistable Mode or what is sometimes called a Schmitt
Trigger, has two stable states, high and low. Taking the Trigger input low makes the
output of the circuit go into the high state.


32




555 Timer in ASTABLE operation:

When configured as an oscillator the 555 timer is configured as in figure 2 below.
This is the free running mode and the trigger is tied to the threshold pin. At power-
up, the capacitor is discharged, holding the trigger low. This triggers the timer, which
establishes the capacitor charge path through Ra and Rb. When the capacitor reaches
the threshold level of 2/3 Vcc, the output drops low and the discharge transistor turns
on.
The timing capacitor now discharges through Rb. When the capacitor voltage drops
to 1/3 Vcc, the trigger comparator trips, automatically retriggering the timer, creating
an oscillator whose frequency is determined by the formula in the figure.










There are difficulties with duty cycle here and I will deal with them below. It
should also be noted that a minimum value of 3K should be used for Rb.










33




Here two signal diodes have been added. This circuit is best used at Vcc= I 5V. Both
the trigger and threshold inputs (pins 2 and 6) to the two comparators arc connected
together and to the external capacitor. The capacitor charges toward the supply
voltage
the two resistors Ra and Rh. The discharge pin (7) connected to the internal transistor
is connected to the junction of those two resistors.
When power is first applied to the

circuit
,
the capacitor will be uncharged, therefore,
both the trigger and threshold inputs will be near zero volts. The lower comparator
sets the , control flp flop flop causing the output to switch high. That also turns off
transistor. That allows the capacitor to
begin charging through Ra and Rb. As soon as the charge on the capacitor reaches
2/3 of the supply voltage, the upper comparator will trigger causing the flip-flop to
reset. That c output to switch low. Transistor also conducts. The effect of transistor
conducting causes res Rb to be connected across the external capacitor. Resistor Rb
is effectively connected to ground through internal transistor. The result of that is
that the capacitor now begins to discharge through Rb.
As soon as the voltage across the capacitor reaches 1/3 of the supply voltage, the
lower comparator is triggered. That again causes the control flip-flop to set and the
output to go high. Transistor cuts off and again the capacitor begins to charge. That
cycle continues to repeat with the capacitor alternately charging and discharging, as
the comparators cause the flip-flop to be repeatedly set and reset. The resulting
output is a continuous stream of rectangular pulses.
The frequency of operation of the astable circuit is dependent upon the values of Ra,
Rb, and C. The frequency can be calculated with the formula:
f = l/(.693 x C x (Ra + 2 x Rb))

The Frequency f is in Hz, Ra and Rb are in ohms, and C is in farads. The time
duration between pulses is known as the 'period, and usually designated with a 't'.
The pulse is on for t l seconds, then off for t2 seconds. The total period (t) is tl +t2.
That time interval is related to the frequency by the familiar relationship.
f=1/t or t= 1/f

The time intervals for the on and off portion of the output depend upon the values of
Ra and Rb,
The ratio of the time duration when the output pulse is high to the total, period
is known as the duty-cycle. The duty-cycle can be calculated with the formula:

D= (t1)/t = (Ra+Rb) / (Ra+2Rb)

You can calculate t1 and t2 times with the formulas below:
tl = 0.693 (Ra+Rb) C
t2 = 0.693 (Rb) C



34

The 555, when connected, can produce duty-cycles in the range of approximately 55
to 95%. A duty-cycle of 80% means that the output pulse is on or high for 80% of the
total period. The duty-cycle can he adjusted by varying the values of Ra and Rb.

4.6.2 PIN CONFIGURATION OF 555 TIMER












Fig 10


Pin 1 (Ground):

The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device,
which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated from
positive supply voltages.

Pin 2 (Trigger):

This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch, which in
turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in
monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to
below a voltage level of 1 3 V+ (or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin
5). The action of the trigger input is level-sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change
waveforms, as well as pulses, to be used as trigger sources. The trigger pulse must be
of shorter duration than the time interval determined by the external R and C. If this
pin is held low longer than that, the output will remain high until the trigger input is


35

driven high again. One precaution that should be observed with the trigger input
signal is that it must not remain lower than 1/3 V+ for a period of time longer than
the timing cycle. If this is allowed to happen, the timer will re-trigger itself upon
termination of the first output pulse. Thus, when the timer is driven in the monostable mode
with input pulses longer than the desired output pulse width, the input trigger should
effectively he shortened by differentiation. The minimum-allowable pulse width for
triggering is somewhat dependent upon pulse level, but in general if it is greater than the luS
(micro-Second), triggering will be reliable. A second precaution with respect to the trigger
input concerns storage time; in the lower comparator. This portion of the circuit can exhibit
normal turn-off delays of several microseconds after triggering; that is, the latch can still
have a trigger input for this period of time after the trigger pulse. In practice, this means the
minimum monostablc output pulse width should be in the order of l0uS to prevent possible
double triggering due to this effect. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the
trigger pin is between V+ and ground, A dc current, termed the trigger current, must also
flow from this terminal into the external circuit. This current is typically 500nA (nano-amp)
and will define the upper limit of resistance allowable from pin 2 to ground. For an astable
configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 3 Mega-ohm; it can be greater for
higher V+ levels.
Pin 3 (Output):

The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made up of
transistors Q20 -Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type loads,
and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7 volts
less than the V+ supply level used. Transistor Q24 provides current-sinking
capability for low-state loads referred to V+ (such as typical TTL inputs). Transistor
Q24 has a low saturation voltage, which allows it to interface directly, with good
noise margin, when driving current-sinking logic. Exact output saturation levels vary
markedly with supply voltage, however, for both high and low states. At a V+ of 5
volts, for instance, the low state Vce(sat) is typically 0.25 volts at 5 mA. Operating at
15 volts. however, it can sink 200mA if an output-low voltage level of 2 volts is
allowable (power dissipation should be considered in such a case, of course). High-
state level is typically 3.3 volts at V+= 5 volts; 13.3 volts at V+= 15 volts. Both the
rise and fall times of the output waveform are quite fast, typical switching times
being l00nS. The state of the output pin will always reflect the inverse of the logic
state of the latch, and this tact may be seen by examining. Since the latch itself is not
directly accessible, this relationship may be best explained in terms of latch-input
trigger conditions. To trigger the output to a high condition, the trigger input is
momentarily taken from u higher to a lower level. see "Pin 2 - Trigger". This causes
the latch to be set and the output to go high. Actuation of the lower comparator is the
only manner in which the output can be placed in the high state. The output eau he
returned to a low state by causing the threshold to go from a lower to a higher level
[see "Pin 6 -Threshold], which resets the latch. The output can also be made to go
low by taking the reset to a low state near ground [see "Pin 4 - Reset"), The output


36

voltage available at this pin is approximately equal to the Vcc applied to pin 8 minus
1.7V.
Pin 4 (Reset):

This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state. The reset
voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.lmA from this pin is
required to reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+
level; thus the reset input is TTL. compatible for any supply voltage. The reset input
is an overriding function; that is, it will t'oree the output to a low state regardless of
the state of either of the other inputs. U may thus be used to terminate an output
pulse prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to "off", ete. Delay time from reset
to output is typically on the order of 0.5 uS, and the minimum reset pulse width is 0.5
uS. Neither of these figures is guaranteed, however, and may vary from one
manufacturer to another. In short, the reset pin is used to reset the flip-flop that
controls the state of output pin 3. The pin is activated when a voltage level anywhere
between 0 and 0.4 volt is applied to the pin. The reset pin will force the output to go
low no matter what state the other inputs to the flip-flop are in. When not used, it is
recommended that the reset input be tied to V+ to avoid any possibility of false
resetting.

Pin 5 (Control):

This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider point, the reference level
for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the lower comparator, as
there is a 2:1 divider (R8 - R9) from this point to the lower-comparator reference
input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow extreme
flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the
comparator, etc. When the 555 timer is used in a voltage-controlled mode, its
voltage- controlled operation ranges from about 1 volt less than v+ down to
within 2 volts of ground (although this is not guaranteed). Voltages can be safely
applied outside these limits, but they should be confined within the limits of V+ and
ground for reliability. By applying a voltage to this pin, it is possible to vary the
timing of the device independently of the RC network, the control voltage may be
varied from 45 to 90% of the Vcc in the monostable mode, making it possible to
control the width of thc output pulse independently of RC. When it is used in the
astable mode to control voltage can bevaried from 1.7V to the full Vcc varying the
voltage in the astable mode will produce a frequency modulated (FM) output. In the
event the control-voltage pin is not used, it is recommended that it be bypassed., to
ground, with a capacitor of about 0.01uF (l0nF) tor immunity to noise, since u is a
comparator input, This fact is not obvious in many 555 circuits since I have seen
many circuits with 'no pin-5' connected to anything, but this is the proper procedure.
The small ceramic cap may eliminate false triggering.

Pin 6 (Threshold):

Pin 6 is one input to she upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is used to reset
the latch. which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this terminal is
accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage level of 2/ 3 V+
(.the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive, allowing


37

slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the
threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the Threshold current,
must also flow into this terminal from the external circuit. This current is typically 0.l uA
and will define the upper limit of total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+. For either
timing configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 16 Mega-ohm. For 15
volt operation, the maximum value of resistance is 20 Mega Ohms.


Pin 7 (Discharge):

This pin is connected to the open collector of a n-p-n transistor (Q14), the emitter of
which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is turned "on", pin 7 is effectively
shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is connected between pin 7 and
ground and is discharged when the transistor turns "on". The conduction state of this
transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage.
It is "on" (low resistance to ground) when the output is low and "off (high resistance
to ground) when the output is high. In both the monostable and astable time modes,
this transistor switch is used to clamp the appropriate nodes of the timing network to
ground. Saturation voltage is typically below l00mV (milli-Volt) for currents of 5
mA or less, and off-state leakage is about 20nA (these parameters are not specified
by all manufacturers, however). Maximum collector current is internally limited by
design, thereby removing restrictions on capacitor size due to peak pulse-current
discharge. In certain applications, this open collector output can be used as an
auxiliary output terminal, with current-sinking capability similar to the output (pin
3).

Pin 8 (V+):
The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the
555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to
+16 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and +15
volts. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages
without change in timing period. Actually, the most significant operational difference
is the output drive capability, which increases for both current and voltage range as
the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change
is low, typically 0.1% per volt. There are special and military devices available that
operate at voltages as high as 18 volts.







38


4.7 IC 4017 DECADE COUNTER
The IC 4017 is a versatile IC of the CMOS family which has got wide range of
applications. Internally it consists of a 10 stage decade counter/divider. When a clock
pulse is applied to it externally, its outputs become logic 'hi' and 'lo' sequentially (one
after the other). It has got numerous applications, for example in circuits where
sequential switching are required and also in decorative ornamental lighting, where
the lights are switched on and off sequentially giving it a 'running' effect.
The 4017 decade counter has ten outputs which go HIGH in sequence when a source
of pulses is connected to the CLOCK input and when suitable logic levels are applied
to the RESET and ENABLE inputs.
The counting action of the 4017 can be understood from the graph below:





















Fig. 11


39

Just one of the individual outputs is HIGH at a time. This is quite different from the
behaviour of a BCD counter like the 4510 in which it is the combination of 0's and
1's which represents the count.
As we can see, the 10 output is HIGH for counts 0-4 and LOW for counts 5-9.
The 4017 is an extremely useful device for project work and is used in the Games
Timer and in various DOCTRONICS construction kits including the Light Chaser
and the Matrix Die. When you are familiar with the 4017, you will be able to think of
lots of useful applications.
Internally, the 4017 contains five bistable subunits. These are interconnected in a
pattern known as a Johnson counter. The outputs of the bistables are decoded to give
the ten individual outputs.
4.7.1 Pin Configurations of IC 4017:

As can be from the diagram above, the IC 4017 is a 16 pin dual in line package IC.
Pin 1 can be identified from a small depressed circle at the extreme left corner of the
IC, or simply one can always remember, the printed side of the IC facing towards
you, the pin beginning from the left side of the semi circle notch of every IC is pin 1.
Pin configurations of this IC are as follows:


















Fig. 12

Pin 1 to pin 7 and pins 8, 9, 10 are all the outputs of the IC.
Pin 16 is for the positive supply and pin 8 is ground.
Pin 15 is the reset point of the IC. A logic '0' to this pin (or by connecting it to the
ground), gives a green signal to the IC, so that it can function. A logic '1' or a
positive supply here will bring its proceedings to a stand still and will reset it. At


40

this position pin 3 of the IC4017 stays at logic '1' where as all other outputs are
logic 'lo'.
Pin 14 is the clock input of the IC 4017. An external clock signal to this point
will make a logic '1' to proceed sequentially, beginning from pin 3 and ending at
pin 11.
The cycle is repeated as long as the clock persists at pin 14. The period of time
each output stays logic '1' will depend on the time period of the positive peaks of
the clock signal. With the rising edge of every clock pulse, the 'logic 1' will shift
from one output to the other serially.
Pin 13 is the clock enable point. A logic '1' to this pin will stop the IC 4017 from
proceeding and its output will freeze at that instant at the particular output. Even
if the clock signal at pin 14 is ON, the output cant shift as long as pin 13 is held
at logic'1', therefore this point should be grounded. On the contrary if pin 14 is
held at logic'1' and clock signal is applied at pin 1, every falling edge of the pulse
will make the outputs to change state sequentially.



















41

4.8 A.C POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The
term is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of
electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another
form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power
supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the
controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the
voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any
energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on
its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:
Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include
power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.
Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
Solar power.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an
integral device that is hardwired to its load.

Fig. 13




42

4.8.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM of AC POWER SUPPLY












The above circuit uses 220V A.C as input, a 6V centre tapped, step down transformer
for decreasing the high voltage of Alternating current to very low voltage, Bridge
rectifier for converting the alternating current into the Direct current and a polar
capacitor to store the direct current in it, and thus, gives us the DC output of very low
voltage (9-12 V) which is safe for operating circuits with low rating voltage.














43

4.9 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB)









Fig. 14

A Printed Circuit Board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically
connect electronic components using conductive pathways, or traces, etched from
copper sheets laminated onto a non conductive substrate . Alternative names are
Printed Wiring Board ( PWB ) , and Etched Wiring Board . A PCB populated with
the electronic components is a Printed Circuit Assembly (PCA) , also known as a
Printed Circuit Board Assembly (PCBA).
PCB is a component made of one or more layers of insulating materials with
electrical conductors. The insulator is made of various materials that are based on
glass ,ceramics or plastic.
PCBs rugged inexpensive and can be highly reliable. The initial cost of the PCB are
higher than the either wire- wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits , but are
much cheaper and faster for high- volume production.
During manufacturing, the portion of conductors that are not needed are etched off,
leaving printed circuit that connect electronic components.
Much of the electronics industrys PCB design, assembly and quality control needs
are set by standards that are published by the IPC Organization.
The generic standard for PCB is IPC-2221A. This standard provides rules for
manufacturability and quality such as requirement for material properties, criteria for
surface plating conductors thickness, component placement, and dimensioning and
tolerance rules.


44

While routing , the conductor width should be chosen based on selected temperature
rise at rated current.
The spacing between PC traces is determined by the peak working voltage , type of
circuit and safety requirements. Good PCB layout techniques require understanding
of effects of non- zero impedance and coupling of the signals.
4.9.1 Materials
Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating materials have
the wider scale: phenolic paper, glass fiber and different plastics (poly-eithrothemin)
are commonly used. Usually PCB factories use prepregs (pre impregnated), which
are a combination of glass fibre mat, non woven material and resin. Copper foil and
materials used in the PCB industry are FR-2 (Phenolic Cotton Paper) , FR-3 (Cotton
Paper and Epoxy) , FR-4 (Woven Glass and Epoxy) , FR-5 (Woven Glass and
Epoxy), FR-6 (Matte Glass and Polyester) , G-10 (Woven Glass and Epoxy) , CEM-
1 (Cotton Paper and Epoxy) , CEM-2 (Cotton Paper and Epoxy) , CEM-3 (Woven
Glass and Epoxy) , CEM-4 (Woven Glass and Epoxy) and CEM -5 (Woven Glass
and Polyester).
Procedure of Making PCB:
Building PCB in the proper manner is really an art, something that must be practiced
and learned through the trial and error. It is not difficult. The main thinks is to
remember to take each step slowly and carefully according to the instructions given
in making since that everything at it should be before proceeding further.
Basic Techniques And Designing of the PCB Layout:-
4.9.1.1: Introduction:
Printed circuit board making processes are intended for two sees: Making a prototype
and for small production runs. User includes design engineers, experimenters as well
as students and hobbyists. Instructors are invited to copy these material freely. These
are a number of methods for producing a printed circuit board described herein. Read
the following synopsis to determine which method best suit your projects. Most
likely, you will eventually use more than one of the following methods:
4.9.1.2: The Methods:
The DIRECT ETCH method is usually quickest way to produce one small circuit
board. All beginners should try this method. Not recommended when you need to
make many boards or for circuit with numerous components.




45

4.9.1.3: Etching the Board:
The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper
over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides , (creating a blank PCB) then
removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (e.g. By etching),
leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the
bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex
of multiple electroplating steps.
4.9.1.4: Lamination:
Some PCBs have trace layer inside the PCB and are multi-layer PCBs. These are
formed by bonding together separately etched thin boards.
4.9.1.5: Tools:
The electronics workbench is an actual place of or with comfortably and
conveniently and should be supplied with the compliment of those tools must often
must used in the PCB building. Probably the most important device is soldering tool.
Other tool which should be at the electronic work bench include a pair of needle nose
pliers, diagonal wire cutter, a small knife (blade), an assortment of screw driver , nut
driver , few nuts and bolts , electrical tape etc. diagonal wire cutter wick be used to
cut away any excess lead length from the copper side of PCB and to cut section of
the board after the circuit is complete. The needle nose pliers are most often used to
end the wire leads and wrap them in order to form a strong mechanical connection.
4.9.1.6: Drilling:
Holes or vias through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drikks bit made of solid.
The drilling is performed by automated drilling machine with placement controlled
by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically
controlled drills (NCD) files. The drill file describe the location and the size of each
drilled hole.

When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of
high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers.
Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These
holes are called micro vias.
It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling or by pre-drilling the
individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only
some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes
are called blind vias when they connect internal copper layer to an outer layer or
buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer
layers.


46

The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are plated with copper to
form plated-through holes that electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB.
For multi layer boards those with 4 layers or more, drilling typically produces a
smear comprised of the bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can
be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-smear process or by
plasma-etch.
4.9.2 Soldering
Soldering is a process of joining together two metallic parts. It is actually a process
of function in which an alloy, the solder, with a comparatively low melting point
penetrates the surface of the metal being joined and makes a firm joint between them
on cooling and solidifying. Before discussing the way of proper soldering, we should
know the complete kit of soldering station.
4.9.2.1: Method of Soldering:
Mount components at their appropriate place bend the leads slightly out wants to
prevent them from falling out when the board is turned over for soldering. Now cut
the leads so that you may solder them easily. Apply a small amount of flux at these
components leads with the help of a screwdriver. Now fix the bit or iron with small
amount of solder and flow freely at the point and the PCB copper track at the same
time. A good solder joint will appear smooth and shiny. If all appear well you may
continue to the next solder connections.
4.9.2.2: Tips of Good Soldering:
Use a right type of the soldering iron. A small efficient soldering iron (about
10-25 watt with 1/8 or 1/4 inch tip) is ideal for this work.
Keep the hot tip of soldering iron on a piece of metal so excess heat is
dissipated.
Make sure that connection to the soldered is clean. Wax frayed insulation and
other substances cause poor soldering connection. Clean the leads, wires, tags
etc before Soldering.
Use just enough solder the lead to be soldered. Excess solder can cause short
circuit.
Use sufficient heat. This is the essence of good soldering. Apply enough heat
to the component lead. You are not using heat , if the solder barely melts and
forms a round ball flaky solder. A good solder joint will look smooth, shining
and spread type. The difference between good and bad soldering just a few
seconds extra with a hot iron applied firmly.





47

5. WORKING PRINCIPLE

The circuit is self explanatory by its name and can be used to control traffic in public
places or to demonstrate traffic parks.
The given circuit of the Traffic Light control is a combination of the circuits one is a
square wave generator, to provide the pulses and the other is the counter that counts
the incoming pulses.
Here, the 555 IC works as the square wave generator. The IC is widely used and
popular one. It works as astable multivibrator. When the IC receives the supply, the
square wave output is available at the pin no. 3 and a regular interval pulse become
available continuously. The time interval can be adjusted by varying the preset.
The pulse is then fed to the pin no. 14 (input pin) of 4017 IC. This IC is work as a
counter IC. 4017 IC is the heart of the circuit, which is a decade counter. This
counter has 10 outputs.
The diodes are connected to the output of the 4017 IC. Now the Red LED is
connected with the first four output of the counter (i.e. Q0- Q3), then straight lane
Green LED is connected to the next five output (Q4- Q8) of the counter, whereas the
right turn Green LED is connected with the first three output of the counter from
which straight lane green LED is connected (i.e. Q4- Q6), the last output of the
counter (Q9) is connected with the Yellow LED.
Now, the Red LED will glow first, then straight lane as well as right turn Green LED
will glow after few seconds the right turn Green LED will be switched off and the
straight lane Green LED will remain glow for few seconds. At last, the Yellow LED
will glow just for 4-5 seconds then the Red LED will again glow. Thus, the sequence
will continue.
By changing the value of capacitor, connected at the pin no. 6 and pin no. 2 of the
555 timer IC, as well as by varying the value of 100 Kilo Ohms Preset, the time
interval of glowing of lights can be increased or decreased.










48

6. ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC LIGHTS


Reduction in normal recurring.

Significantly enhanced operational tools congestion to effectively manage traffic
incidents.

It improved public transport service.

Reduction in emergency response limes and safer travel.

Improve traffic guidance and traffic flow

Reduce fuel consumption

Increase safety.

They increase the traffic-handling capacity of the intersection

Less cost.






7. DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC LIGHTS


Excessive delay may be caused.

These unnecessary delay results in significant fuel waste and higher motorist costs.

Disobedience of signals.










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8. APPLICATIONS

Ramp metering.

Timers.

Fire station or medical emergency entrance.

At the entrance and exit of some car washes.

At the landing-stage of a ferry and aboard the ferry.




9. FUTURE SCOPE

1. We can increase the efficiency by using microprocessors (8086).
2. We can use this as Remote traffic Controller.

















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REFERENCES

Malvino and Albert Paul Electronics Principles, Sixth Edition, 878-895.

R.P. Jain, Modern Digital Electronics, Second Edition, 296-305.

Websites Referred:
http:// www.elprocus.com/ic-4017-pin-configuration
http:// www.electronic designwork.com
http:// www.electronicsforu.com
http://www.electronicsclub.info
http:// www.wikipedia.com

















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