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1 . 4
Action Research and
Classroom Research by
Teachers
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In the previous chapter, I outlined a series of problems 'f associated with the traditional
approach to educational research that limits its usefulness for teachers who wish to \
improve their practice. There are, however, at least two % other research traditions to
which teachers can turn. ne tradition is associated with the wor! of sociolo"ists and
anthropoli"ists. #ocial-anthropolo"ical, ethno"raphic, i$ phenomenolo"ical, naturalistic and
illuminative research % are e%amples of these research approaches. These are lon" words
that describe essentiall& the same approach' one | that attempts to understand a social
situation and to derive h&potheses from that e(ort of appreciation. The " procedures that
such social scientists have developed for anal&sin" )eldwor! data are used in this boo! as
a "uide for ma!in" sense of classroom data. These are described in some detail in chapter
ei"ht.
The other research tradition that stands in contrast to | the ps&cho-statistical paradi"m
and has a stron" lin! with contemporar& social science research is a method !nown | as
action research. In recent &ears, teacher-researchers I have adopted the label action
research to describe their
particular approach to classroom research. In this chapter I describe and criti*ue this application
of action research, and from the discussion propose )ve criteria for classroom research b&
teachers.
Action Research
+
I
1 Why action research?
,ction research combines a substantive act with a research procedure' it is action disciplined b&
en*uir&, a personal attempt at understandin" whilst en"a"ed in a process of improvement and
reform.
-ere are three de)nitions of action research. The )rst is b& .apoport /10123 who sa&s that
action research$
.. . aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation
and to the "oals of social science b& 4oint collaboration within a mutuall& acceptable ethical framewor!.
The second is b& #tephen 5emmis /10673 who writes$
,ction research is a form of self-re8ective en*uir& underta!en b& participants in social /includin"
educational3 situations in order to improve the rationalit& and 4ustice of /a3 their own social or
educational practices, /b3 their ' understandin" of these practices, and /c3 the situations in which the
practices are carried out. It is most rationall& empowerin" when underta!en b& participants collabor-
ativel&, thou"h it is often underta!en b& individuals, and sometimes in cooperation with 'outsiders'. In
education, action research has been emplo&ed in school-based curriculum development, professional
development, school improvement pro"rams, and s&stems plannin" and polic& development.
The third is ta!en from a paper b& 9ave :bbutt /10673 who not onl& "ives a de)nition of his own,
but also *uotes from :lliott and 5emmis. -e writes that action research$
. . . is about the systematic study of attempts to improve educational practice by groups of participants
by means of their own practical actions and by means of their own reflection upon the effects of those
actions
.. . . is the stud& of a social situation with a view to improvin" *ualit& of action within it. /:lliott3.
;ut simpl& action research is the wa& "roups of people can or"anise the conditions under which the&
can learn from
their own e%perience. /5emmis3
,ction research is tr&in" out an idea in practice with a view to improvin" or chan"in" somethin", tr&in"
to have a real e(ect on the situation. /5emmis3
The idea of action research was developed b& 5urt <ewin in the immediate post-war period as a
method of intervenin" into social problems. <ewin identi)ed four phrases to action research -
plannin", actin", observin", and re8ectin"' and envisa"ed it bein" based on principles that could
lead '"raduall& to independence, e*ualit& and cooperation' /<ewin, 104=3.
The combination of the action and the research components has a powerful appeal for teachers'
<awrence #tenhouse was *uic! to point to the connection between action research and his
concept of the teacher as researcher. <ater, >ohn :lliott populari?ed action research as a method
for teachers doin" research in their own classrooms throu"h the @ord Teachin" ;ro4ect, and estab-
lished the Alassroom ,ction .esearch Betwor!.
7
Models of Action Research
.ecentl& #tephen 5emmis has considerabl& re)ned and formali?ed the concept of action research
and how it applies to education. Cased at 9ea!in Dniversit& in ,ustralia, 5emmis has produced a
series of publications and courses and materials on action research, curriculum development and
evaluation based on the pen Dniversit& model. -is article on action research /5emmis, 10673 is a
useful review- of how educational action research has developed from the wor! of <ewin and
established its own character. f more interest to us is his Action Research Planner
/5emmis and EcTa""art, 10613 where a se*uential pro"ramme for teachers intendin" to en"a"e
in action research is outlined in some detail. -e summari?es his approach to action research in the
model shown in @i"ure 4.1.
4
I
1 Why action research?
>ohn :lliott was *uic! to ta!e up 5emmis
F
schema of the action research spiral and
he, too, produced a similar but more
elaborate model as seen in @i"ure
4.+. :lliott /10613 summari?es
5emmis' approach and then
outlines his elaborations li!e this$
,lthou"h I thin! 5emmis
F
model is an
e%cellent basis for startin" to thin!
about what action research involves,
it can allow those who use it to
assume that 'The General Idea' can
be )%ed in advance, that
'.econnaissance' is merel&
H
@IGD.: 4.1 Action research in action
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fact-)ndin", and that 'Implementation' is a fairl& strai"ht forward process. Cut I would ar"ue that$
'The General Idea' should be allowed to shift.
'.econnaissance' should involve anal&sis as well as fact )ndin", and should constantl& recur in the
spiral of activities, rather than occur onl& at the be"innin".
'Implementation' of an action-step is not alwa&s eas&, and one should not proceed to
evaluate the e(ects of an action until one has monitored the e%tent to which it has been
implemented.
9ave :bbutt /10673, a collea"ue of :lliott provides us with another variation on 5emmis'
model and ma!es these comments about it$
It seems clear to me that :lliott is wron" in one respect, in su""estin" that 5emmis e*uates
reconnaissance with fact )ndin" onl&. The 5emmis dia"ram clearl& shows reconnaissance to comprise
discussin", ne"otiatin", e%plorin" opportunities, assessin" possibilities and e%aminin" constraints - in
short there are elements of anal&sis in the 5emmis notion of reconnaissance. Bevertheless I su""est
that the thrust of :lliott's three statements is an attempt on the part of a person e%perienced in
directin" action research pro4ects to recapture some of the 'messiness' of the action-research c&cle
which the 5emmis. version tends to "loss.
Cut :bbutt /10673 claims that the spiral is not the most useful metaphor' instead the most
. . . appropriate wa& to conceive of the process of action research is to thin! of it as comprisin" of a
series of successive c&cles, each incorporatin" the possibilit& for the feedbac! of information within
and between c&cles. #uch a description is not nearl& so neat as conceivin" of the process as a spiral,
neither does it lend itself *uite so tidil& to a dia"rammatic representation. In m& view the ideali?ed
process of educational action research can be more appropriatel& represented li!e this$ Nas shown in
@i"ure 4.7O
E&
purpose
in
presenti
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these
three
models
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provide
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overvie
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action
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1 Why action research?
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help the reader "ain an understandin" of the whole
process. There are, however, some problems inherent in
these models and to these I now turn.
/Ariti*ue of :ducational ,ction .esearch
There are two main areas of concern that I have with the
action research models developed b& 5emmis, :lliott and
:bbutt. ,lthou"h this is not the place for a
thorou"h"oin" criti*ue, a brief discussion of these
concerns is necessar& because the problems ma& lead
teacher-researchers into possible confusion. ,lso, the
criti*ue will help e%plain the form and structure of the
rest of the boo!.
E& )rst concern is that there ma& be a misunder-
standin" of the nature of <ewinian action research. ,s I
mentioned earlier, the term action research was coined
as a useful label to describe what teacher-researchers
were doin". .ecentl&, much ener"& has been devoted to
settin" out the intellectual basis for action research as it
derived from <ewin. This ener"& has been misplaced
because <ewin's conception of action research is ver&
di(erent from what "oes on in the name of teacher
research. <ewin's concept of action research was /i3 as
an e%ternall& initiated intervention desi"ned to assist a
client s&stem, /ii3 functionalist in orientation, and /iii3
prescriptive in practice. Bone of these features appl& to
what I assume to be the nature of classroom research b&
teachers which is characteri?ed b& its practitioner,
problem solvin", and eclectic orientation.
I am also concerned about the values implicit in the
<ewinian approach. The functionalist values that appear
in his writin" tend to o(set his commitment to
democratic and communitarian values. It is doubl& ironic
that 5emmis illustrates the process of action research b&
citin" <ewin's e%ample of the bombin" of German
factoriesQ ,lthou"h 5emmis sa&s that educational action
research has moved awa& from <ewin's ori"inal ideas, I
am still concerned that this emphasis will associate
teacher research with a set of values that are at odds
with its central emphasis on individual autonom&, action
and 'emancipation'. Rhat be"an as a useful label to
describe a loose set of activities underta!en for.
professional development purposes is in dan"er of
assumin" a rather di(erent character as a result of a
*uest for intellectual credibilit&.
E& other concern relates to the speci)cation of process
in the action research models. There are three interelated
points. The )rst is that the ti"ht speci)cation of process
steps and c&cles ma& trap teachers within a framewor!
which the& ma& come to depend on and which will conse-
*uentl& inhibit independent action. The ori"inal purpose
of teacher research was to free teachers from the con-
straints of prespeci)ed research desi"ns. It is useful to
have a "uide for action, m& concern is when it becomes,
or appears to become, prescriptive. #econd, the models
outline a process rather than a technolo"&. The&
delineate a se*uence of sta"es, but sa& little about the
'what' and the 'how' within these sta"es. Third, the
models ma& appear dauntin" and confusin" to
practitioners. :bbutt himself admits that the :lliott
framewor! tends to m&sti)cation.
Dnfortunatel& models and framewor!s cannot mirror
realit&$ the& are one individual's interpretation of realit&.
Aonse*uentl&, the& impose upon the user a prespeci)ed
anal&sis of a process that the user ma& *uite ri"htl&
interpret di(erentl&. ,t best, the& provide a startin" point,
an initial "uide to action. ,t worst, the& trap the
practitioners within a set of assumptions that bear little
relationship to their realit& and, conse*uentl&, constrain
their freedom of action.
Alassroom .esearch b& Teachers
I prefer to tal! about 'classroom research b& teachers'
rather than 'action research'. Instead of producin" an
elaborate step b& step model, I will present a series of
methods and techni*ues that teachers can use in their
classroom research e(orts. In particular, I will discuss$
1. wa&s in which classroom research pro4ects can be
identi)ed and initiated /chapter )ve3
2. methods of "atherin" data on classroom
behaviours /chapters si% and seven3
3. wa&s of interpretin" and anal&sin" the data
"athered from classroom research /chapter ei"ht3
4. wa&s in which the research process can be sustain-
ed /chapter nine3.
E& purpose in tac!lin" classroom research in this wa&
is to "ive teachers an introduction to the variet& of
methods available to them as a means of e%tendin" their
repertoire of professional behaviours and of encoura"in"
8e%ibilit& in professional development. These are
methods and approaches that teachers can put into use,
that will empower them, and ma!e them increasin"l&
competent and 'autonomous in professional 4ud"ement'.
Criteria for Classroom Research by Teachers
The essence of what I am advocatin" is the development
of a teacher's professional e%pertise and 4ud"ement.
,lthou"h man& teachers are in broad a"reement with this
"eneral aim, some are *uite ri"htl& concerned about how
far involvement in classroom research activit& will
impin"e upon their teachin" and on their personal time.
Aoncerns are also raised as to the utilitarian or practical
value of classroom research. Rith these concerns in
mind, let me su""est the followin" )ve principles for
classroom research b& teachers.
The )rst is that the teacher's primar& 4ob is to teach,
and an& research method should not interfere w
r
ith or
disrupt the teachin" commitment. This rule of thumb
should serve to *uell immediate concerns, but it also
points to certain ethical considerations. In some
instances, it ma& be inevitable that the adoption of a new
and barel& internali?ed teachin" strate"& is initiall& less
e(ective than the wa& one previousl& tau"ht. Is it ethical,
therefore, some ma& as!, for a teacher to sub4ect
students to an inferior performance when the ori"inal
behaviour was perfectl& ade*uateU These are *uestions
which ultimatel& can onl& be answered b& the individuals
involved. @or m& part, I am prepared to stand behind the
teacher's 4ud"ement, particularl& if the teachers involved
are so concerned about improvin" the teachin" and the
learnin" e%perience of their students that the& have
bro!en the mould and are e%perimentin" with new
models. In becomin" a teacher-researcher, the individual
teacher is deliberatel& and consciousl& e%pandin" his or
her role to include a professional element. It is almost
inconceivable then that he or she would do this and at
the same time i"nore the primac& of the
teachin"Flearnin" act.
The second criterion is that the method of data
collection must not be too demandin" on the teacher's
time. ,s a corollar&, the teacher needs to be certain
about the data collection techni*ue before usin" it. The
reasons for this are obvious. Teachers alread& consider
themselves overwor!ed and there are continuin"
demands for increased preparation and professional
development time. It is naive to assume that the
adoption of a research role will ma!e no inroads on a
teacher's private time. This can be reduced, however, b&
4udicious use of speci)c data collection techni*ues, and
the utili?ation of easil& anal&sed dia"nostic methods. @or
e%ample, the tape recorder is widel& re"arded as a ver&
useful tool for the classroom researcher. It is, however,
e%tremel& e%pensive to use both in terms of time and
mone&. It ta!es appro%imatel& H2% lon"er to listen to a
tape than to ma!e it, and on top of that transcription
/which is necessar& if full use is to be made of the
method3 is both time consumin" or e%pensive. Given
this, it is advisable to use another method for broad
spectrum dia"nosis and reserve such intensive
techni*ues for speci)c and )nel& focused en*uiries. ,
ta%onom& of data collection techni*ues is presented in
chapter si%, and in chapter seven a number of
techni*ues for classroom observation are discussed.
The third criterion is perhaps the most contentious. The
methodolo"& emplo&ed must be reliable enou"h to allow
teachers to formulate h&potheses con)dentl& and
develop strate"ies applicable to their classroom
situation. Traditional researchers hold a poor opinion of
action research. In man& cases, that opinion is well
founded particularl& if it is based on individual pieces of
research. It behoves all researchers, be the& ps&cho-
statisticians en"a"ed in lar"e scale research or a primar&
teacher testin" ;ia"et's theoretical h&potheses, to be
ri"orous about their methodolo"&. It is no e%cuse at all to
claim that ri"our is unnecessar& because the research is
practitioner oriented, small scale, or used solel& to
improve individual practice. If a chan"e in teachin"
strate"& is to be made, then that decision needs to be
based on reliable data. These issues form the substance
of chapter ei"ht.
The fourth criterion is that the research problem under-
ta!en b& the teacher should be one to which he or she is
committed. ,lthou"h this sounds self-evident, it is dif-
)cult enou"h, "iven all the pressures on a teacher's
time, to sustain ener"& in a pro4ect even if it is
intrinsicall& interestin" and important to the teachers'
professional activities. ,s a corollar&, the problem must
in fact be a problem' that is, the problem must be
capable of solution, else b& de)nition it is not a problem.
If a teacher chooses a topic that is too comple% or
amorphous then frustration and disillusionment will soon
set in.
The )fth criterion refers to the need for teacher-re-
searchers to pa& close attention to the ethical
procedures surroundin" their wor!. :thical standards for
classroom researchers have been wor!ed out over the
past decade b& researchers associated with the Aentre
for ,pplied .esearch in :ducation /e.". Eacdonald and
Ral!er, 1014 #imons 106+3. , summar& of ethical
procedures for teacher-researchers is found in ,ppendi%
C.
In the chapters that follow, these criteria will be dealt
with in more detail. In the ne%t chapter, problem forma-
tion and the wa&s to initiate classroom research pro4ects
are discussed.
Commentary
In this chapter, I have discussed and criti*ued the
concept of educational action research. The importance
of action research is not to be underestimated, because
it provides teachers with a le"itimate and more
appropriate alternative to traditional research desi"ns.
,nd in its present form, it also provides a "uide to action.
Re must, however, be aware of the problems associated
with too prescriptive a framewor! for action, and the
values that are embedded within it.
The line between specif&in" principles of procedure
that encoura"e informed action, and prescribin"
activities that determine behaviour and limit outcomes,
is a ver& )ne one indeed. There is a real dan"er that
teacher research will assume the character of the
ob4ectives model which$
. . . is li!e a site-plan simpli)ed so that people !now e%actl&
where to di" their trenches without havin" to !now wh&
/#tenhouse 10623.
To use >ean .udduc!'s felicitous phrase, it seems that
alread& 'the elusive butter8& of teacher research has
been cau"ht and pinned'. Aonse*uentl& I propose usin"
terms li!e 'classroom research b& teachers'. This implies
the ac*uisition of s!ills and techni*ues that become part
of a teachers' repertoire and are sub4ect to the e%ercise
of their professional 4ud"ement.
In re8ectin" on this chapter, it ma& be useful to
consider the di(erences between the ps&cho-statistical
paradi"m and teacher based research approaches' and
to evaluate in terms of &our own e%perience the
usefulness of the action research framewor!s and m&
criti*ue of them.
@urther .eadin"
ne of the earl& e%amples of teacher based research
was the -umanities Aurriculum ;ro4ect and the approach
is worth considerin" /e.". #tenhouse, 10123. f similar
interest are the earl& accounts of the @ord Teachin"
;ro4ect /:lliott and ,delman, 101=3. There are a number
of well !nown articles on <ewinian action research which,
althou"h rather technical and speciali?ed, ma& be of
interest {vide, <ewin, 104=, .apoport, 1012, #andford,
10123. f more immediate concern is the wor! of
5emmis. -is article on action research /5emmis, 10673
provides an e%cellent overview of the topic, and the
Action Research Planner /5emmis and EcTa""art, 10613
not onl& contains a step-b&-step "uide, but also a useful
introductor& essa& on action research. The papers b&
:lliott /10613 and :bbutt /10673 e%tend 5emmis' wor!, all
of which are criti*ued in a rather polemical article b&
-op!ins /1064a3. Cac!"round readin" on the teacher-
researcher movement and its educational conte%t is
found in #tenhouse /101H3 An
Introduction to Aurriculum Research and Development, and in
Aarr and 5emmis /10673 Cecomin" Aritical.1 Rh& action researchU
1.1 Aim of this book
,s professional people, most teachers would accept that our
e%pertise should pro"ressivel& develop as we continue in our chosen
occupation. E& aim in this boo! is to demonstrate a particular
strate"& for acceleratin" and enhancin" that !ind of development,
with special reference to lan"ua"e teachin".
This strate"& is basicall& a wa& of re8ectin" on &our teachin" /or
teacher-trainin", or mana"ement of an :n"lish department, or
whatever it is &ou do in :<T3. It is done b& s&stematicall& collectin"
data on &our ever&da& practice and anal&sin" it in order to come to
some decisions about what &our future practice should be. This
process is essentiall& what I mean b& the term action research. In
this )rst chapter, I am "oin" to tr& to locate action research within
the conte%t of professional development.
1.2 Professional development
The value that is placed on 'e%perience' in most 4ob-descriptions
shows that the e%pectation of improvement after a period of practice
is true, not 4ust of professions, but indeed of a wide ran"e of other
emplo&ment. -owever, in some 4obs, the e%pectation ma& be that
the process of professional development levels o( after an ade*uate
level of competence is reached. This ma& be after a shorter or lon"er
time, dependin" on the comple%it& of the tas!s involved in doin" the
4ob, the aptitude of the person en"a"ed in those tas!s, and other
factors. ;eople wor!in" in a profession li!e teachin", on the other
hand, ma& have more demandin" e%pectations of themselves and
their collea"ues, because the& re"ard the process of professional
development as continuous and on-"oin".
ne of the *ualities that we should therefore e%pect in the
strate"ies that we consider for professional development is that
these strate"ies should help us to turn the problems we face in our
professional careers
i into positive rather than ne"ative e%periences. In other words, how
is it possible for us to turn our felt need for self-improvement into
a challen"in" rather than a threatenin" processU
In fact, most of us tend to use a wide variet& of strate"ies for our Q
professional development, some formal, some informal. ne informal
but ver& e(ective strate"& is discussions with our collea"ues on I
classroom e%periences or problems relatin" to speci)c students. This
4 !ind of 'tal!in" shop' can have a whole ran"e of useful functions$ |
accessin" useful bac!"round information, articulatin" possible solu- |
tions to ever&da& classroom problems, improvin" self-esteem,
relievin" | tension, and so on. , ver& di(erent !ind of activit& /much
less 4 commonQ3 is readin" professional 4ournals for ideas and
su""estions. ;erhaps at this point &ou mi"ht wish to re8ect on the
'strate"ies for professional development' that &ou currentl& use, or
have used in the past.
PERSONAL REVIEW 1.1: Strategies
for Professional Development
What are the strategies formal or
informal that !o" either as a matter of
poli#! or perhaps almost "n#ons#io"sl!
"se for !o"r professional $evelopment%
&I am thin'ing of things li'e atten$ing
#onferen#es rea$ing professional
(o"rnals et#.) *o+ "sef"l,helpf"l $o !o"
-n$ these .strategies.% &/se a s#ale of
101 +here 1 2 not reall! "sef"l,helpf"l
an$ 1 2 e3tremei! "sef"l,helpf"l.) *o+
#ongenial $o !o" -n$ these strategies%
In other +or$s $o the! #ome easil! to
!o" or $oes it ta'e a real e4ort of +ill
to em5ar' on some of these strategies%
&/se the same 101 s#ale +here 1 2
least,+orst an$ 1 2 most,5est.)
Strategy Useful? Congenial?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.
1.3 Commentary
-ow man& di(erent strate"ies did &ou come up withU Rere the si% 4
spaces suVcient, or did &ou want to list moreU There are man&
possibilities, of course. Wou ma& have listed the me?nbership of a
professional association as one of &our strate"ies. This has man& of
the advanta"es of informal discussions with colleagues, and in
addition a wider scope for social interaction. Eembership of an
association ma& or ma& not "o alon" with attendance at
conferences. If &ou listed this, &ou ma& have found it diVcult to
"rade, since conferences can var& so much in their impact upon
one. Departmental meetings and membership of working parties
can also be ver& positive or ver& frustratin" e%periences, partl&
dependin" on one's relationships with the collea"ues involvedQ
Eveningweek!endtwilight /i.e. after school3 classes can also var&
widel& on their e(ectiveness and con"enialit&. Ta!in" up new
challenges,"for e%ample b& career moves from one post to another,
is another wa& in which man& people e%pand their professional
e%pertise. There is also, of course, private re#ection$ sometimes we
do our best professional thin!in" while silentl& drivin" to or from
our place of wor!, or while readin" a boo! on some aspect of
lan"ua"e teachin".
There is clearl& a wide ran"e of possibilities, and as I have
alread& noted, the aim of the present boo! is to e%tend that ran"e
of possibilities still further.
1.4 Areas for development
#ome teachers tend to be ver& self-critical - sometimes too much
so. Cut this is better than bein" totall& complacent, since self-
development will never ta!e place without the perceived need for
it. #elf-awareness of potential areas of improvement is therefore
helpful provided it "oes alon" with a reasonabl& "ood self-ima"e.
The leap into the un!nown is unli!el& to ta!e place unless it can be
done from a secure and stable platform of self-esteem. In this
spirit, let us attempt two further ';ersonal review' sections.
Just because something is a 'strength' does not mean, of course,
that it need not be developed further - particularly if it is an
important or 'key' strength in your professional repertoire. his
point should be remembered when we turn to our ne!t topic
1 Why action
research?
.PERSONAL REVIEW 1.6: "trengths
Pi#' si3 areas of !o"r professional
#ompeten#e +hi#h !o" feei are strengths
of !o"rs. 7he -g"re .si3. is 8"ite ar5itrar!
of #o"rse 5"t go on 0 stret#h9 &If !o"
have more than si3 0 +rite them all $o+n.
Don.t 5e mo$est9)
If !o" are +or'ing in a gro"p an$ !o"
feel this tas' is a little too .personal. then
set !o"rselves this tas': What are the
tea#hing strengths that !o" +o"l$ sa! are
most #ommon among the tea#hers that
!o" 'no+%
:an !o" ran' them in importan#e% &Or
alternativel! p"t an asteris' 5esi$e the
'e! strengths.)
!rofessional strengths Ran"#im$ortance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.
F
1 Why action
research?
1-5 Increased effectiveness
F
1 Why action
research?
he ne!t '#ersonal review' section should be easier because it is
concerned with areas of our e!pertise that we feel could be
improved. $n my e!perience, teachers and colleagues in the
education field generally, are much more conscious of such areas
than they are aware of their strengths. $ would like you to
imagine that you wish to become a more effective teacher,
inspector, adviser, administrator, pro%ect organiser, head of
department, teacher-trainer - or whatever. he '#ersonal review'
section will also ask you to think of the possible application of
action research to these areas of concern.PERSONAL
REVIEW 1.;: &reas for $mprovement
/se the #hart 5elo+ to ma'e a list of
again sa! si3 areas in +hi#h !o" thin'
!o" #o"l$ 5e more e4e#tive in !o"r +or'.
7he areas #an 5e ver! general &e.g.
'eeping $is#ipline) or ver! spe#i-# &e.g.
-n$ing interesting topi#s for #omposition
tas's).
As 5efore if !o" are +or'ing in a gro"p
this tas' ma! 5e a little too private. In
that #ase as' !o"rselves this 8"estion: In
!o"r e3perien#e +hat are the areas in
+
+
1 Why action
research?
+hi#h most tea#hers #o"l$ 5e more
e4e#tive than the! are no+%
When !o" have $one that go 5a#' over
the areas !o" have liste$ an$ as'
!o"rself if there is an! serio"s possi5ilit!
that .resear#h. &+hatever !o" "n$erstan$
5! that term) is li'el! to 5e of signi-#ant
help to !o" in a$$ressing some of those
#on#erns. If !o" thin' it is p"t a ti#' &<,)
in the -nal #ol"mn of the #hart.
I %most teachers& could 'e more effecti(e
if)
*ould research
hel$? %#&
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.
1 A-GnusTserctanf
#ince I don't !now what &ou put, let me "ive an e%ample of a statement
that man& teachers have made in doin" such an e%ercise$ 'I could be
more e(ective if I had more time to prepare m& teachin".' This is
probabl& a sentiment that man& of us would shareQ
;uttin" to one side, for the time bein", the issue of 'research', let
us 4ust loo! at this statement in terms of some *uestions it mi"ht
raise$
- -ow much time do I currentl& spend on school wor! out of classU
+
7
1 Why action
research?
- Is that a rou"h estimateU If so, how could I ma!e it more accurateU
- -ow much of that time is spent on preparation /as distinct, from,
sa&, correction3U
- -ave I an& idea of how these )"ures compare with m& collea"uesU
- ,re there an& wa&s in which class time could have been used for
preparation without reducin" the e(ectiveness of m& teachin"U
- -ave I discussed this with m& collea"ues at all - have the& an&
ideasU
- -ow about m& use of time "enerall&U Rould I sa& it was eVcientU
- Rhat do I !now about time mana"ementU -ave I read an& boo!s
on time mana"ement. If so, what do I thin! of themU
;lease note two thin"s about these *uestions which ma!e them
useful *uestions to as!. @irstl&, the& relate to &our persoital practice
! so the answers ou"ht to be relevant. #econdl&, the& are
answerable, even if occasionall& the answer is a matter of
4ud"ement rather than fact.
These *uestions mi"ht be of much "reater interest to &ou if the&
applied to one of &our own areas of concern. The ne%t ';ersonal
review' section "ives &ou an opportunit& to do this. >ust in case &ou
haven't been able to thin! of a 'suitable' topic, the ';ersonal review'
section includes su""ested areas of concern which &ou can use if
&ou prefer.
PERSONAL REVIEW 1.=: >enerating
?"estions
7a'e one of the areas that !o" have
spe#i-e$ in PERSONAL REVIEW 1.;
an$ see +hether !o" #an generate
some 8"estions on the topi#.
Alternativel! !o" #an tr! one of these
areas +hi#h have 5een s"ggeste$ 5!
other tea#hers:
+
4
1 Why action
research?
I #o"l$ 5e a more e4e#tive tea#her if:
1. I #o"l$ 'eep 5etter $is#ipline
2. I 'ne+ a +i$er range of tea#hing
te#hni8"es
3. I $i$n.t have to follo+ s"#h a tightl!0
spe#i-e$ s!lla5"s
4. I ha$ more tea#hing reso"r#es
5. I +asn.t so $isorganise$
'ote( if you have trouble generating )uestions, try relating the
topic to the )uestion-words Who/Whom?, What?, Why7,
Where?, When?, Ho? *emember to ask )uestions that
are !ersonal and anserable"+ ,hy action research- 1-7
Commentary
Wou were as!ed to ma!e up *uestions to this ';ersonal review' section
which were 'personal' /i.e. speci)c to &our own professional
practice3. -owever, 4ust as a chec! that &ou are on the ri"ht trac!, I
would li!e to show how *uestions could be "enerated from one of
the "iven topics. <et us ta!e the )rst one {% could be a more
e&ective teacher if % could keep better discipline'. This topic could
"enerate *uestions li!e these$
- (hen have I e%perienced indiscipline this sessionU
- Rhat form did the indiscipline ta!eU
- )ow did I reactU
- Did I react appropriatel&, or notU
+
H
1 Why action
research?
- )ow should I have reactedU
- (ho was responsibleU
- (h* did the indiscipline ta!e placeU (hat were the immediate
causesU (hat were the underl&in" causesU
- (hat is the appropriate strate"& for me to ta!eU In the short termU
In the lon" termU
- (hat sources of help or "uidance are available to meU
These are onl& some of the possible *uestions$ others ma& have
occurred to &ou. ,s!in" the *uestions does not of course solve the
problem. Cut even the act of writin" the *uestions and perhaps
writin" out the answers ma& help to 'ob4ectif&' the situation and
enable &ou to thin! &our wa& throu"h to a proactive plan of action
/instead of merel& reacting to problems as the& arise3. ,t the ver&
least &our *uestions should "ive &ou a ran"e of options.
1. !n"#iry
<et us brie8& review where we have "ot to so far. It has been
su""ested that a continuous process of professional development is
a rational and intrinsic part of the "ood professional's life. The
motivation for this development is often an interest in, or perhaps
even an an%iet& about, some aspect of our professional
performance. Re have seen that there is a wide ran"e of possible
activities that we can "et involved in to develop our professional
e%pertise.
ne possibilit& which we have 4ust been e%plorin" is to isolate an
area and as! ourselves some *uestions about it. This is not ver& far
from what Aohen and Eanion /10043 have called in*uir&. %n+uir* in
its most basic sense simpl& means the act or process of see!in" the
answer to a *uestion. #o academic in*uir& means see!in" to answer
academic *uestions. #ome e%amples within :<T mi"ht be$
- Rhat ma!es a "ood :#; s&llabusU
- -ow do &ou desi"n "ood materials to develop listenin" s!illsU
+
=
1 Why action
research?
- -ow should I teach the present perfect tenseU
- Rhat are the relative advanta"es of teacher-centredness and
student- centrednessU
- Is teachin" :n"lish as a forei"n lan"ua"e a form of lin"uistic
imperialismU
- Rhat are the processes b& which someone learns a forei"n
lan"ua"eU
- -ow e(ective is tas!-based learnin"U
- Rhat happens when people tr& to learn a lan"ua"e without the
help of a teacherU
Botice that I have deliberatel& made these *uestions of ver&
di(erent t&pes in order to show the ran"e of *uestions that 'in*uir&'
can conve&. #ome of them /e.". Rhat ma!es a "ood :#; s&llabusU3
could be answered without collectin" an& data /facts3 at all, but
could be ar"ued from certain principles /e.". principles concernin"
the nature and function of :#;3.
ther *uestions /li!e the last one$ Rhat happens when people tr&
to learn a lan"ua"e without the help of a teacherU3 are purel&
descriptive and an& worthwhile discussion would have to be
supported at some point b& data recordin" the successes or failures
of people tr&in" to learn lan"ua"es on their own.
9ependin" on the 4ob we do within :<T, the answers to such
*uestions mi"ht be *uite important or completel& irrelevant. Cut for
someone, somewhere, an& one of them ma& be a *uestion worth
answerin", or at least attemptin" to answer, with reference to his or
her particular practice.
5nowin" what *uestions to as!, and how to as! them, is b& no
means as strai"htforward as it mi"ht appear, and this is an issue that
we will have to return to later. In the meantime, let us have another
loo! at *uestions that were raised about the 'not enou"h time for
preparation' problem.
+
1
1 Why action
research?
1.$ %esearch
<oo!in" at these *uestions, &ou will notice that man& of them relate
to established facts /e.". -ow much time do I spend on school wor!
out of classU -ow much of that time is spent on preparationU -ow do
these times compare with m& collea"uesU3. #ome have to do with
collectin" views and opinions of collea"ues - what are their
su""estions about preparation timeU
Coth these sets of facts and these opinions can form the raw data,
which, after a period of re8ection or anal&sis, we can use as a basis
for our decisions on what, if an&thin", we are "oin" to do about the
problem we have identi)ed.
This process of data collection, the settin" up of a database, and
the subse*uent anal*sis of the data we have collected forms the
core of what we call research. There are man& other aspects of
research, and other procedures ma& also be involved, but this
process forms its essence. Re see that, accordin" to this de)nition,
research is a special !ind of in*uir&, since not all in*uir& is based on
data collection and anal&sis. #ome in*uir&, for e%ample, ta!es the
form of pure reasonin" from )rst principles and is especiall& common
in disciplines li!e mathematics or philosoph&. This form of in*uir&, or
somethin" appro%imatin" to it, is also *uite common in :<T. Ean& of
the in8uential writin"s on methodolo"& of teachin" lan"ua"es have
been based, not on data about classrooms or lan"ua"e learners, but
on deductions from principles of what constitutes "ood lan"ua"e
teachin", or what is the appropriate philosoph& for a teachin"
pro"ramme. #o, we )nd that some national lan"ua"e teachin"
s&llabuses specif& that the s&llabus should incorporate moral
teachin" in a s&stematic wa&. ther forei"n lan"ua"e pro"rammes
contain elements desi"ned to create mutual understandin" between
cultures, because this is felt to be a desirable peda"o"ic aim. ,nd so
on.
Re have alread& used in the previous para"raph the e%pression
'deductions from principles'$ this !ind of in*uir& or investi"ation can
be characterised as deductive. This is often contrasted with the
inductive !ind of in*uir& which is derived from data collection and
anal&sis /i.e. 'research' in our terms3. It will hopefull& be clear from
what has 4ust been said that research is here bein" viewed as bein"
included in the term in+uir*, 4ust as, for e%ample, rose is included in
the term #ower. I am labourin" this point about the distinction I am
ma!in" between research and in+uir*, since research can be used
+
6
1 Why action
research?
with a wide variet& of meanin"s, some of them ver& close to what I
have here called in+uir*.
1.1& %esearch' in8"ir! and professional
development
C& this time, &ou ma& feel that we have wandered *uite a wa& from
our startin" point of professional development. <et me, therefore,
tr&, to pull these issues to"ether at this point.
I have elsewhere /Rallace, 10013 proposed a model for teacher
education at the core of which is a process of re#ection on
professional action. I su""ested that it was this process /called the
're8ective c&cle'3 which provided the momentum for increased
professional competence.
In the present conte%t, the process involved could be summarised
b& the representation in @i"ure 1.1.
The whole of the present boo! is essentiall& an e%ploration of
certain wa&s in which the 're8ective c&cle' can be mana"ed.
;uttin" it another wa&, it is concerned with providin" 'tools for
re8ection'.
1-11 %esearch' in"#iry and the ref(ective cycle
If &ou now loo! at @i"ure 1.+, &ou will see that I am su""estin"
that there is more than one wa& into the re8ective c&cle. This has
to be the case, since the process of professional development
varies from one person to another. Re all have our own di(erent
!inds of professional e%perience, !nowled"e, bac!"round and
e%pertise. #tren"ths and needs ma& var& from one individual to
+
0
Figure 1.1 The refective cycle and professional development
1 Why action
research?
another. Rhat ma& be of "reat importance to me ma& be totall&
irrelevant to &ou.
Wou will therefore note in @i"ure 1.+ that after '#trate"ies for ;9'
there is a for! in the dia"ram. n the ri"ht-hand side are listed a
few of the strate"ies which man& of us have used /e.". attendin"
conferences, informal discussion with collea"ues, etc.3. #uch
activities ver& often "ive us information or ideas which cause us to
re8ect on our practice, and perhaps chan"e it. -ence the arrow
leadin" into the .:@<:ATIX: AWA<: bo% /which refers bac! to
@i"ure 1.13.
1.1) inforrna! reflection
7
2
It has to be reco"nised, however, that not all these strate"ies are e*uall& e(ective. Aertain
t&pes of informal re8ection can be more therapeutic than productive. Aontemplatin" problems
does not necessaril& lead to;.@:##IB,< 9:X:<;E:BT
Figure 1.2: Professional development strategies (excluding *conventional
research!
1 Why action
research?
solvin" them. Indeed, sometimes such a process is not even
therapeutic$ mentall& rehearsin" certain e%periences can lead to an
intensi)cation of unpleasant emotions without su""estin" an& wa&
forward.
1 - 1 7 #tructured ref#eciion
There is therefore a case for also havin" available as a source for our
re8ection certain s&stematic approaches and techni*ues which will
help us to ma!e sense of our e%periences, and perhaps throu"h such
structured re#ection come to a solution. It would be e%tremel& naive,
of course, to impl& that all our professional problems are capable of
'solution'. #ome can onl& be investi"ated' some we mi"ht have to
wal! awa& from' others we mi"ht have to live with. -owever, it is the
received wisdom of those wor!in" in carin" professions that most
problems bene)t from bein" aired and discussed in some controlled
or structured wa&' and this should also be true of professional
problems. It is su""ested here that action research is a form of
structured re8ection. #ince action research is the main concern of
this boo!, it has been separated and positioned on the left hand side
of @i"ure 1.+. To simplif& the dia"ram I have e%cluded 'conventional'
research from the dia"ram /see discussion below in #ection 1.163.
1.14 Action research is problem-foc#sed
#ome of our professional development is open-ended and relativel&-
unfocused. LRe sometimes s!im throu"h professional 4ournals 4ust to
see if there is an&thin" interestin". Re occasionall& even enrol on
trainin" pro"rammes without a ver& clear idea of what the criteria
will be in terms of our professional development.
,ction research is di(erent from this in that it nearl& alwa&s arises
from some speci)c problem or issue arisin" out of our professional
practice. /Re loo!ed at some possible problems of this !ind in ;:.-
#B,< .:XI:R 1.7.3 It is therefore ver& problem-focused in its
approach and ver& practical in its intended outcomes.
1.15 Action research and in"#iry
,s we saw in ;:.#B,< .:XI:R 1.4 and the discussion leadin" up to
it, problemsFissues "ive rise to +uestions. Generatin" *uestions "ives
7
1
1 Why action
research?
us the lead into various possible areas of investi"ation. ,s we have
alread& noted, action research is therefore a sub-area of in+uir*,
which simpl& means the process of answerin" *uestions b& usin"
various !inds of evidence in some !ind of reasoned wa&.
If &ou loo! a"ain at @i"ure 1.+ &ou will see that two !inds of in*uir&
are featured$
+. non-databased in*uir&
2. research
7
+
1 Why action research?
.esearch and non-databased in*uir&Re saw earlier in this chapter
that *uestions can be answered b& a process of data collection and
anal&sis /action research3, or b& other means /e.". b& ar"uin" from
"eneral principles or b& comin" to certain conclusions accordin" to
certain thin"s we believe - 'belief s&stems'3. #ome *uestions can be
answered b& either of these processes, or b& combinin" them, but
other *uestions can be answered onl& b& usin" one method or the
other.
,n& conclusions or ideas we derive from databased in*uir& can
also feed bac! into the re8ective c&cle. To ta!e a ver& simple
e%ample, when faced with a particular problem, I ma& "o to a more
e%perienced teacher and as! his or her advice. I ma& re8ect on the
advice, and then decide to follow it implicitl&, modif& it, or do
somethin" else.
-owever since we are mainl& interested in action research, we
will not pursue this an& further, and "o bac! to the left-hand side of
the dia"ram. Cut before that, let us 4ust e%plore a bit further this
business of how we can "o about answerin" professional *uestions,
b& doin" ;:.#B,< .:XI:R 1.H.
PERSONAL REVIEW 1.1: Ans+ering
Professional ?"estions
Loo' 5a#' at the EL7 8"estions that
+ere liste$ in Se#tion 1.@. Pi#' an!
one of these 8"estions. *o+ +o"l$ !o"
go a5o"t ans+ering the 8"estion !o"
have #hosen%
Aore spe#i-#all!:
3. What sort of evi$en#e +o"l$ !o" loo' for%
4. What pro#e$"res +o"l$ !o" "se to #olle#t
the evi$en#e%
77 N
5. Wo"l$ the evi$en#e involve the #olle#tion
of $ata or not%
To "ive an e%ample$ the answer to '-ow should I teach the present
perfect tenseU' could be found to be appealin" to an authorit& /e.".
I chec!in" up in a teacher's boo! on methodolo"&, as!in" a more
e%perienced teacher3, or b& observin" various teachin" methods /a
form of data collection3, or b& tr&in" out various approaches and
seein" how | the& wor!. r &ou ma& be "uided b& certain
principlesFbelief s&stems /e.". 'I don't believe in the formal teachin"
of "rammar, so this *uestion reall& doesn't ma!e much sense to
me'3.
1.17 Action research and the ref*ectave cycle
,ction research involves the collection and anal&sis of data related
to some aspect of our professional practice. This is done so that we
can N re8ect on what we have discovered and appl& it to our
professional 4
action. This is where it di(ers from other more traditional !inds of
research, which are much more concerned with what is universall&
true, or at least "eneralisable to other conte%ts.
This is a loop process, in the sense that the process can be
repeated /reframin" the problem, collectin" fresh data, rethin!in"
our anal&sis, etc.3 until we have found a solution that satis)es us.
1.1 The stat#s of action research
To some readers, it ma& seem that we have come a lon" wa&
round to a statement of the obvious. I suspect that for man&
people, however, the role of action research as an activit& for
practisin" teachers is b& no means obvious. It is li!el& that the
attitude of the ma4orit& of teachers varies between indi(erence
and downri"ht hostilit&. #o it has to be made clear precisel& what
is bein" ar"ued for here.
It has been assumed here that it is natural, and appropriate, for
teachers /li!e other professionals3 to develop their e%pertise b&
re8ectin" on their practice. It is not bein" ar"ued, however, that
ever& teacher can be, or should be, a 'researcher' in an&
traditional sense of that word. This seems to the present writer to
1 Why action research?
be an unreasonable re*uirement. ,s Rri"ht /100+$ +273 has noted$
' . . . teachers ma& sense that the& are bein" as!ed to ta!e on &et
more duties in addition to those which alread& burden them . . .' ,s
we have previousl& established, there are man& avenues of
professional development which di(erent professionals will )nd
more or less useful andFor con"enial. It seems undul& constrictive
to isolate one of them as a route that must be ta!en.
,ction research has been proposed as an 'empowerin"'
procedure. Cut, as Riddowson /1007$ +=13 has pointed out, if it
becomes another top-down re*uirement, it turns into the reverse$
not onl& is it an additional burden upon teachers, but it also
creates a new !ind of dependenc& on /non-teachin"3 'e%perts'.
Xarious conditions have been laid down from time to time as to
what constitutes proper action research. #ome writers recommend
that action research should be collaborative or team-based. thers
su""est publication or at least sharin" of the process and results of
the investi"ation in some wa&. It has also been su""ested that the
same strin"ent re*uirements of validit*, reliabilit* and veri-cation
for conventional research should also appl& to action research.
/These terms will be discussed in Ahapter 7, which deals with
issues relatin" to the collection of data.3
If re8ection is to be of an& real value it must be valid /i.e. the
data anal&sis must be relevant and appropriate3. -owever, since
the position bein" ta!en in the present boo! is that action research
is primaril& an approach relatin" to individual or small "roup
professional development, the "eneralisabilit& of the )ndin"s to
other conte%ts will not in most cases be of primar& importance. The
important thin" is that the processes involved are helpful to the
practisin" teacher's re8ection, irrespective of whether the& can be
veri)ed b& someone else.
,ction research, in this de)nition therefore, overlaps the areas of
professional development and conventional research, and for some
practisin" teachers ma& well form a brid"e between the two. The
aim, however, is not to turn the teacher into a researcher, but to help
him or her to continue to develop as a teacher, usin" action research
as a tool in this process.
If &ou have identi)ed some problems and &ou are not clear about
the !ind of data available or the method of collection, don't worr&$
this boo! is intended to help &ou with these problemsQ
7H N
1-1$ !#mmary
It is assumed that most lan"ua"e teachers wish to develop
themselves professionall& on a continuin" basis. The& have access to
a wide variet& of methods of doin" this. ne method is b& re8ectin"
on interestin" andFor problematic areas in a structured wa&. In this
boo!, we shall be loo!in" at various wa&s of structurin" this process
of re8ection throu"h the s&stematic collection and anal&sis of data.
This is what I have called 'action research'. ,ction research is
di(erent from other more conventional or traditional t&pes of
research in that it is ver& focused on individual or small-"roup
professional practice and I# IIl 7G Y concerned with ma!in" "eneral
statements. It is therefore more 'user-friendl&' in that /for e%ample3 it
ma& ma!e little or no use of statistical techni*ues. The main function
of action research is to facilitate the 're8ective c&cle', and in this wa&
provide an e(ective method for improvin" professional action.
PERSONAL REVIEW 1.B: Professional
Pro5lems an$ Availa5le Data
At the en$ of this #hapter it might 5e
appropriate to see if !o" #an thin' of an!
pro5lem areas in !o"r professional life that
might 5e ta#'le$ thro"gh #olle#ting or anal!sing
$ata in a s!stemati# +a!.
.Pro5lem areas. #o"l$ #over a +i$e range of
possi5ilities for e3ample:
1. pro5lems of #lassroom management
2. pro5lems of appropriate materials
3. pro5lems relate$ to parti#"lar tea#hing areas
&e.g. rea$ing oral s'ills)
4. pro5lems relating to st"$ent 5ehavio"r
a#hievement or motivation
1 Why action research?
5. pro5lems relating to personal management
iss"es &e.g. time management
relationships +ith #olleag"es,higher
management)
7hese are onl! e3amples an$ the topi#s given
are pro5a5l! too 5roa$. 7r! to 5e spe#i-#.
/#s before, if you are $oin% this as a member
of a %rou!, an$ $o not ant this e&ercise to
be too !ersonal, ask yoursel'es this (uestion:
What are the !roblems hich an a'era%e
teacher in our conte&t mi%ht encounter or be
concerne$ ith? What kin$ of $ata mi%ht be
a'ailable to him or her?
!ro'lem +ind of data that might 'e a(aila'le and
ho, it might 'e collected
1.
2.
3.
71 N