Copyright 2007, Offshore Technology Conference

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Abstract
The design, materials, testing and installation of a large
diameter steel catenary riser system were some of the major
challenges of the Independence Trail Project in the Gulf of
Mexico. This paper will address global design considerations
including, analysis of strength, fatigue (wave-induced, riser
VIV, hull VIM, heave-induced VIV) and interference loading
conditions; also welding, validation testing used to ensure a
safe operating environment.
The Independence Trail 20-inch SCR is the largest riser
installed to date in this water depth. The global design of the
riser system was heavily influenced by the fatigue
performance of the riser touchdown zone and hang-off region.
The interface with the floating production unit is made up of a
support structure and flexible joint assembly to absorb the
local dynamic bending moment.
The 20-inch SCR that connects the export pipeline system
to the Independence Hub floating production facility
underwent an extensive design review and validation testing,
using full scale and laboratory techniques to verify the fatigue
design of the system.
As the largest diameter deepwater SCR operating from a
semi-submersible floating production unit to date, the
challenges met and the solutions employed as part of the
delivery of a robust and safe riser system provide important
lessons learned and have significant relevance to future SCR
projects.

Introduction
The Independence Hub development consists of a DeepDraft
Semi moored in approximately 8,000 ft of water in Block
920 of the Mississippi Canyon area of the Gulf of Mexico
(GoM). The floating production facility is a hub for numerous
gas fields in the Eastern GOM deepwater. The hub will
provide real estate and gas processing excess capacity to tie-in
future gas finds in the area. The gas product will be exported
from the platform via a 20-inch diameter Steel Catenary Riser
(SCR) that transitions into the 24-inch diameter Independence
Trail Pipeline which runs northwest for 134 miles, terminating
at a fixed platform in 115 ft of water in Block 68 of West
Delta area. The 20-inch Independence Trail SCR and 24-inch
Independence Trail Pipeline are 100% owned and operated by
Enterprise Product Partners LP, while Enterprise owns 80% of
the DeepDraft Semi. Figure 1 presents the DeepDraft
Semi , SCR and subsea layout.

Design and Construction of Gas Export SCR
The design and construction of the export riser for
Independence Hub required that multiple parties work and
interface in order to execute the project of designing the
worlds deepest export system. With many disciplines
interfacing, an Integrated Project Team (IPT) was formed to
ensure the timely flow of information and ultimate safe, robust
project design and delivery. Figure 2 presents a typical
flowchart of the SCR design and construction process per
Kavanagh et al. [5], highlighting the key activities and
interfaces for the project:
Design
Procurement
Weld qualification and testing
Construction
Installation
Operation
Figure 2 also illustrates the cycles and iterations that may
be required and undertaken during project execution to
achieve a feasible riser system design.
Prior to concluding FEED, GulfTerra Energy Partners LP
(acquired by Enterprise 2004), all stakeholders and IPT
members drafted a Riser Design Basis and Methodology
document detailing the minimum requirements of the flowline
risers and export riser system and their expectation of how
detailed design of the risers was to be executed. This
document formed part of the functional specification for the
competing EPC contractors, thus providing Enterprise
significant influence over design execution for the export
SCR. Chief among the requirements were; SCR design
criteria, functional requirements, design load cases and design
methodology.
The Riser Design Basis and Methodology document was a
live document and periodically updated to reflect availability
of more accurate project data, while also acting as the change
control within the SCR design scope of the project. As the
execution phase export SCR design progressed the Riser

OTC 19057
Independence TrailSteel Catenary Riser Design and Materials
Conor Galvin, MCS, and Rick Hill, EWI Microalloying
2 OTC 19057
Design Basis and Methodology document became
comprehensively populated with most of the required design
inputs, i.e. SCR azimuth bearing, porch location on hull,
flexible joint characteristics, metocean conditions, fluid
particulars of export gas, DeepDraft Semi global motion
performance data, etc.

Gas Export Global Configuration
The 20-inch gas export SCR departs the Independence Hub
DeepDraft Semi using a riser porch and flexible joint
arrangement. Table 1 presents the key characteristics of the as
designed gas export SCR, and Figure 3 presents a schematic of
the SCR configuration.
Table 1 Gas Export Key Design Characteristics
Parameter Value
Steel Pipe Grade X65
Outer Diameter (inch) 20.00
Wall Thickness (inch) 1.21
Hang-off Angle (deg) 15.00
Azimuth Angle (deg) N 325
o
E
Strake Length (ft) 8,300
Horizontal Distance to TDP (ft) 5,527
Suspended Catenary Length (ft) 10,340
Water Depth at TDP (ft) 7,840
Typical of large diameter risers in ultra deepwater
applications, the SCR wall size (1.21-inch) was governed by
the collapse resistance of the pipe on the seabed. The riser
joints were fabricated as longitudinal double submerged arc
welded line pipe. Supplemental specifications were used to
ensure consistent mechanical and dimensional properties with
particular focus on the chemical composition, uniform
elongation (strain capacity), inherent toughness and pipe end
tolerances, to facilitate field and shop welding.

Ultra Deepwater SCRs
One interesting trend to note as the industry moves to deeper
water is the rate of utilization of allowable stress for
deepwater SCRs. For a flooded X65 SCR, Figure 4 presents a
graph of the percentage of a steel pipe yield strength utilized
by the tensile load alone versus riser catenary (suspended)
length. At approximately 14,000 ft of suspended riser length
67% of the yield strength of the top X65 riser joints is realized
due to hanging riser weight alone, while the top riser joints
would reach yield (65 ksi) at 22,000 ft of suspended length.
The relevance of this is clear, when one considers that the
Independence Trail Gas Export SCR has a suspended length in
excess of 10,300 ft, water filled, the top joints experience
almost 32 ksi from tensile load alone. Maximum allowable
stress during normal operation is 67% of riser yield strength,
i.e. 43 ksi. Therefore, the top joints are almost at their
respective design limits before the stress components from
hoop and bending are even included.

SCR Global Design
The global design of the gas export SCR required a
comprehensive suite of design tasks to demonstrate a robust
and safe system design. Part of this design approach meant
capturing updated and new revisions of project data with each
cycle of riser design.
In general the key design tasks can be summarized as follows:
1. VIV Fatigue Design
2. Wave-induced Fatigue Design
3. VIM Fatigue Design
4. HVIV Fatigue Design
5. Interference Design
6. Strength Design
7. Cathodic Protection Design
8. Sensitivities
Each of these design activities for the gas export SCR are
discussed in detail in the following subsections of the paper.

Design Basis and Assumptions
The design of the Independence Trail Export SCR was
based on certain design assumptions made at the start of the
execution phase. Chief among these were the following:
Assumptions on Delivered Pipe Weight. The design of an
SCR must reflect the specifications used for the SCR pipe
procurement; specifically steel grade, wall thickness
tolerances and ovality. The SCR designer will very likely
target a nominal SCR pipe wall thickness based on a wall
sizing exercise; assessing pipe burst and collapse requirements
of the riser. The SCR design analysis must be aligned with the
SCR pipe mean weight and wall thickness as a result of the
manufacturing tolerances, rather than the nominal weight and
wall thickness. The pipe specification required delivered
joints with a wall thickness tolerance of -8% to +20%. This
tolerance of wall size results in a mean wall thickness of +6%
above nominal. SCR pipe procurement experiences from
previous projects were that the pipe mills invariably deliver
their pipe on the positive side of the specification mean, in an
attempt to minimize the rejection rate of their product by
falling below the lower tolerance limit. Therefore, for the
Independence Trail SCR, the SCR design was completed for
SCR pipe that was assumed +8% heavier that nominal weight.
In addition to this assumption on pipe wall tolerance,
design sensitivity to nominal and +12% on nominal dry
weight were performed as part of the fatigue and strength
design of the Independence Trail SCR.
Assumptions on Girth Weld Target S-N Curve and Stress
Concentration Factor. To perform the fatigue design of the
export SCR initial assumptions in regard to pipe girth weld
performance were required in lieu of the project specific weld
procedure qualification and fatigue testing results. From
previous project experience of large diameter seam welded
riser pipe, the E S-N Curve and an SCF of 1.2 were targeted
for SCR design. For the welds to achieve these performance
characteristics, end matching and pipe sorting would be
required to minimize Hi Lo, but importantly OD or ID
grinding of the welds was not required for this assumption.
Assumption on SCR Hang-off Angle. On the completion
of the FEED study of the SCR, a hang-off angle of 12
o
from
vertical was targeted as the final design angle. This design
assumption was required to be validated through the detailed
strength and fatigue analysis of the riser system performance.
Assumption on SCR Azimuth Angle. The Independence
Trail pipeline corridor was confirmed at the start of the project
execution phase. However, the SCR azimuth angle of N 325
o

E needed to align with the pipeline would have to be validated
OTC 19057 3
through the comprehensive suite of design analysis to be
undertaken on the SCR system.
Combined SCR Fatigue. The Independence Trail SCR
design life is 20 years. As indicated earlier in the paper,
fatigue damage is accrued due to multiple damage
contributors, therefore when all of these contributors are
combined together with appropriate safety factors, minimum
life must exceed 20 years. The damage sources were
combined as follows:

ins
D FOS
HVIV
D FOS
VIV LT
D FOS
VIM
D FOS
induced wave
D
years
+ + + +

1 2 _ 1 1
20
1


A factor of safety (FOS) of ten (10) was applied to damage
prediction for wave-induced damage, VIM damage & HVIV
damage. A larger factor of safety (20) was applied to the VIV
damage calculation for two reasons:
It is widely acknowledged that VIV analysis is not an
exact science. Therefore a larger safety factor on VIV
damage was applied to mitigate project risk and concern
due to these uncertainties;
VIV fatigue calculations during FEED indicated that VIV
damage was an SCR design driver. Given the uncertainty
in long term deepwater current prediction and the
significance of this contributor, it was prudent to utilize a
larger safety factor to capture these affects.

Weld Fatigue Testing
Full scale fatigue testing was performed to qualify the
weld procedure for the Independence Trail SCR. The design
assumption beginning the Detailed Design Phase of the project
was that an E Curve & SCF =1.2 would be appropriate for the
riser design. Although not originally planned, Enterprise
decided that all girth welds in the SCR fatigue critical
locations (hang-off below flexible joint/hang-off collar
assembly & TDZ) would have their external weld
reinforcement (cap) ground flush. The full scale fatigue test
results demonstrated that this extra process would mean that
weld performance characteristics achieved a C Curve and also
a reduced SCF =1.1.
In the hang-off region, a series of tests were performed to
validate weld joint performance for critical joints:
Laboratory tests were conducted on the forging to forging
welds used to attach the hold collar to the bottom of the
flexible joint assembly, refer to Figure 5. The forging
material used was ASTM A707 Grade L5. The results
from the laboratory tests showed the weld between the
forgings was significantly better than a B Curve, refer to
Figure 6;
Fatigue tests performed on the forging to pipe weld used
to attach the hold collar to the SCR pipe joints, refer to
Figure 5. The test results indicated that this weld
performance was slightly poorer than the assumed Design
E Curve, but that the SCF was less than 1.1.
To achieve the 20 year design life requirement for the E
curve, the design solution of the SCR would have to include a
periodic vessel relocation scheme, whereby the hull was re-
positioned approximately 100 ft every 4 5 years. This would
enable a large distribution of the TDZ fatigue damage and
ensure the SCR satisfied the design criteria.
However, with the favorable fatigue tests completed, the
final SCR fatigue design was based on the as
measured/constructed S-N curves. This ensured that the
fatigue design criterion was satisfied and eliminated the
requirement for vessel relocations as the base case design
solution.
The fatigue results presented herein are based on the
test/constructed S-N fatigue data (Figure 7).

SCR VIV Fatigue Design
The Independence Hub facility is located close to the
Sigsbee Escarpment, intense near bottom (seafloor) currents
are prevalent in this region. The FEED study completed on
the gas export riser system highlighted significant challenges
for the riser VIV design. In particular substantial VIV damage
of the SCR touchdown region was generated from strong near
bottom currents.
With this in mind, prior to starting project execution, the
Integrated Project Team embarked on a detailed metocean
study to develop a better understanding and definition of
expected current profiles at block MC920. SCR VIV
performance in FEED was assessed using approximately 30
current profiles to represent annual current regimes occurrence
at MC920, the conclusion was that the dataset was not
sufficiently refined, yielding spurious damage predictions.
Interim results of the metocean study yielded annual
occurrence represented by 220 current profiles, preliminary
analysis of the export SCR to this dataset highlighted
questionable contributions of VIV damage from certain
currents. Therefore the dataset was refined further using
filtered current data from a sample of monitored data,
recorded hourly for two years. This dataset, consisting of
approximately 17,000 distinct current profiles (each
representing a monitored hour).
This large current profile dataset was used for detailed
design of the gas export SCR. Even with such a
comprehensive dataset, VIV continued to be as a significant
damage contributor, requiring approximately 9,100 ft of
strakes to achieve a satisfactory VIV fatigue life in the critical
touchdown region based on the design S-N curve (E Curve).
Later during the project, the results of the welding
procedure qualification and fatigue testing program indicated
that in the SCR touchdown zone where the girth weld caps
were ground flush, a fatigue S-N curve approaching a C Curve
was achieved with an SCF =1.1. With this test data available,
the strake coverage on the SCR was ultimately reduced
slightly to a final as built design of 8,300 ft. With such
significant strake coverage and high weld performance, VIV
fatigue damage to the SCR was determined to be a modest
contributor to the overall touchdown zone fatigue life of the
SCR, approximately 10%; refer to Figure 8.
The gas export SCR was also assessed for short term
extreme currents events (100 year loop current, 100 year
bottom current, extreme submerged current, etc.). These
events were not a driver for VIV design or strake
requirements.

SCR Wave-induced Fatigue Design
The primary contributor to fatigue damage identified
during detailed design of the Independence Trail SCR was
4 OTC 19057
wave-induced fatigue. This contributor is primarily driven by
the wind & wave-induced motion characteristics of the
DeepDraft Semi.
The dynamic touchdown zone of the SCR was predicted to
be almost 2,500 ft in length, based on the maximum predicted
DeepDraft Semi excursions. With such a large region of
SCR pipe susceptible to intermittent seabed touchdown, the
project team felt it prudent to perform all SCR wave-induced
fatigue analysis using a time domain approach, thus capturing
all SCR non-linearities, i.e. seabed interaction, drag loading,
non-linear flexible joint rotational stiffness characteristics, etc.
The hang-off region and the touchdown zone of the SCR
were identified as the fatigue critical locations. Preliminary
fatigue analysis indicated that the SCR nominal 12
o
hang-off
angle would not achieve satisfactory overall fatigue life;
therefore the design configuration was modified to a 15
o
hang-
off angle. For the updated riser configuration (15
o
hang-off
angle) minimum wave-induced fatigue lives were calculated
as 358 years and 2,418 years respectively in the hang-off
region and touchdown zone respectively based on the as tested
S-N Curves, refer to Figure 9. The spread of damage by
environmental direction was observed to be heavily dominated
by waves propagating towards northwest, refer Figure 10.
These seastates cause significant stress cycling in the plane of
the SCR and thus have a large contribution to overall damage.
In retrospect, hanging the SCR from the northwest side of the
hull was not optimal from a wave fatigue performance
standpoint, as this aligned the riser with the prevalent wave
direction, thus inducing a higher level of fatigue. However, a
re-alignment of the SCR would have had large costs and
scheduling consequences; therefore the design of the SCR was
refined to accommodate the routing.
Wave-induced Fatigue Sensitivities. A comprehensive set
of wave-induced fatigue sensitivities were performed on the
SCR, including;
Hang-off angle
Pipe delivered dry weight
SCR drag coefficient
Seabed vertical stiffness
Flexible joint rotational stiffness
Hull 1
st
order motion characteristics
A sensitivity analysis was performed to understand the
relationship between the Independence Trail wave-induced
fatigue performance and riser hang-off angle (a key design
parameter). For wave-induced fatigue, a sensitivity has been
performed investigating the impact of a hang-off variation of
1
o
about the nominal 15
o
. The results indicate that the export
SCR touchdown zone wave-induced fatigue life is quite
sensitive to this design parameter, whereby a larger hang-off
angle generates a preferential TDZ fatigue life, refer to Figure
11.
It has already been discussed earlier in this paper, the
expected variation in riser pipe weight due to wall thickness
tolerances. The base case assumed for SCR design was +8%
above nominal dry weight. A wave-induced fatigue sensitivity
to a nominal SCR weight and a 12% heavy pipe were
performed as part of the design analysis. The results indicate
that the export SCR touchdown zone fatigue performance is
lower for the 12% heavy pipe; while nominal pipe weight
would be better, refer to Figure 11. This observation re-
iterates the basis for perform global design analysis using the
+8% heavy pipe.
The Independence Trail SCR represents a significant
suspended riser length between the riser porch and the seabed;
therefore, the design assumption of drag coefficient (C
d
) will
have a significant affect on wave-induced fatigue results.
From previous project experience, a nominally high C
d
can
result in an over estimation of wave-induced fatigue life. A
sensitivity has been completed, where a reduction of 20% in
nominal C
d
was considered, touchdown zone fatigue life is
observed to be 7% below nominal life, refer to Figure 11.
The assumed seabed model for SCR interaction is a key
parameter in the fatigue design of the touchdown zone,
particularly for wave-induced fatigue. A sensitivity analysis
was performed whereby the seabed vertical stiffness was
increased by 100% above nominal. Touchdown zone fatigue
life is predicted to reduce by approximately 10% for such an
increase in vertical seabed stiffness, refer to Figure 11. While
one may conclude that this SCR fatigue life in the touchdown
zone is not particularly sensitive to seabed stiffness, it must be
highlighted that the nominal vertical seabed stiffness was
chosen to be conservatively high to begin with, hence yielding
a conservative TDZ design life for the design case analysis.
The wave-induced fatigue performance of the top riser
joints will be highly influenced by the flexible joint rotational
stiffness curves. To this end, a sensitivity analysis was
performed for a flexible joint stiffness curve 25% above
nominal, wave-induced fatigue life at the first weld below the
joints was observed to drop by levels similar to the increase in
rotational stiffness of the flexible joint, refer to Figure 11.
The performance of an SCR at touchdown will be highly
dependent of the global performance of the floating
production facility. A wave-induced fatigue sensitivity
analysis was performed to the Independence Trail SCR where
the hull 1
st
order motions were assessed. It was determined
that the touchdown performance of the SCR was most
sensitive to hull surge & heel, with similar levels of
sensitivity. The fatigue response was demonstrated to be
relatively insensitive to hull 1
st
order heave response, refer to
Figure 11.

SCR VIM Fatigue Design
Vortex-induced Motions (VIM) are typically observed for
Spar floater concepts, where the large cylindrical hull form is
susceptible to vortex shedding. However, the model tank
testing program performed during the Independence Hub
FEED highlighted directionally dependent current induced
VIM. Based on previous project experience, hull VIM can
prove to be a significant damage contributor for SCR
touchdown regions. During the execution phase, a detailed
tank test program was undertaken on a scaled model. In
agreement with the FEED study, transverse & inline hull
motions were recorded for a comprehensive matrix of speeds
& headings completed in the tow tests [6].
In previous projects, VIM response of a production facility
was often characterized using simple A/D versus V
r
tables for
inline and cross flow; Figure 12 presents a typical VIM
response curve [7]. The VIM response amplitude is defined
simply as a function of reduced velocity (V
r
) and floater
OTC 19057 5
column diameter, so for a specific current velocity, VIM
floater response is considered a fixed value amplitude.
However, the tow tests for the Independence Hub DeepDraft
Semi indicated that for a specific current velocity, the hull
VIM response was more typical of a normal distribution; refer
to Figure 13 for a typical distribution. While the hull VIM
natural response period was in order of 200 sec.
VIM fatigue analysis of the Independence Trail SCR was
performed using time domain analysis, whereby VIM hull
vibrations were imposed as sinusoidal displacement boundary
conditions at the riser hang-off porch. The export SCR was
analyzed for 10 sinusoidal cycles of each distinct VIM
amplitude within the distribution for each current, therein SCR
fatigue damage was calculated using a Rainflow counting
technique.
Preliminary assessment of the SCR indicated that VIM
damaged was unacceptably high in the riser touchdown
region. To mitigate this problem the base case riser hang-off
angle of 12
o
was increased to 15
o
. Sensitivity analysis
performed indicated that this hang-off angle increase would
result in a touchdown minimum fatigue life improvement of
approximately 40%. Therefore, the riser design was updated
to reflect a 15
o
hang-off going forward. Minimum riser
fatigue life due to VIM was 6,225 years based on the as
qualified weld procedure and test program, while damage was
extremely localized on the touchdown region, over
approximately 150 ft (i.e. 4 to 5 joints), refer to Figure 14. In
the SCR touchdown region VIM fatigue was highlighted as a
significant contributor to overall fatigue damage,
approximately 20%; refer to Figure 8.
VIM Sensitivities. A comprehensive set of VIM fatigue
sensitivities were performed on the SCR, including;
Hang-off angle
Pipe delivered dry weight
Hull A/D response
The hang-off angle of the SCR is one of the fundamental
design parameters when determining configuration. Therefore
it is very important to understand the sensitivity of riser
performance to this parameter. For VIM fatigue, a sensitivity
has been performed investigating hang-off angle variation of
1
o
about the nominal 15
o
. The results indicate that the export
SCR touchdown zone VIM performance is quite sensitive to
hang-off angle, and one can expect a fatigue life variation of
approximately 10% from nominal for variations in this
parameter, refer to Figure 15.
Expected variation in riser pipe weight due to fabrication
wall thickness tolerances are discussed earlier in this paper,
the significance of this parameter on VIM life was assessed.
The base case assumed for SCR design was +8% above
nominal dry weight, i.e. 8% heavy pipe. VIM fatigue
sensitivity to the nominal SCR weight and a 12% heavy pipe
were performed as part of the design analysis. The results
indicate that the export SCR touchdown zone fatigue
performance is lower for the 12% heavy pipe; while nominal
pipe weight is a better VIM fatigue performer, refer to Figure
15.
As part of the sensitivity scope, the impact of potential hull
VIM response above and beyond the design response was
investigated. For a 15% increase above design in hull VIM
response, the export SCR VIM minimum fatigue would be
approximately 20% less than the design results, refer to Figure
15.

SCR HVIV Fatigue Design
For the Independence Trail SCR, a significant number of
heave cycles at the riser porch were expected based on semi 1
st

order heave response in MC920 prevalent seastates.
Therefore, as part of the SCR design, the potential of HVIV
fatigue damage was assessed due to porch heave response to
confirm that the SCR design as robust and sound.
Documented observations by Grant et al. [9] during model
tests of steel catenary risers identified the tendency of out-of-
plane VIV to occur along the riser when the riser hang-off was
subjected to sinusoidal vertical displacement, known as
Heave-induced VIV (HVIV). These VIV amplitudes were
concluded to be reasonably constant with excitation
frequency, once the excitation amplitude exceeded a certain
minimum Keulegan Carpenter number (approx 20 25).
The Independence Trail SCR HVIV assessment was based
on the long term statistics of riser heave response developed
from the long term seastate scatter diagram studied as part of
the wave-induced fatigue analysis. The SCR heave response
was measured as velocity time histories along the catenary
length for each fatigue seastate within the scatter diagram. To
estimate the rate of HVIV damage accumulation along the
SCR as a result of potential vibration lock-in to the random
time varying riser HVIV the SCR Design Team adopted a
procedure proposed by Maher et al. [10]. Maher et al. [10]
concluded that significant heave velocity (V
sig
) was the best
metric to present the amplitude of riser heave velocity
modulation from a random time history. The definition of V
sig

is the average of the one third largest amplitude oscillations
during the recorded time history, somewhat analogous to the
definition of significant wave height (H
sig
).
Significant heave velocity profiles were developed along
the total catenary length for each seastate within the scatter
diagram. These profiles were normalized with the riser plane,
similar to generic current-induced VIV, such that HVIV
analysis of the SCR was performed with commonly used
analysis techniques. Figure 16 presents the current profiles for
the Independence Trail SCR; it is evident that once the
profiles are normalized, the riser catenary near the seabed will
experience large normalized heave motions due to its near
horizontal orientation. This region with large normalized
velocities coupled with low tensions was identified as the
region of significant HVIV energy power-in.
The minimum SCR HVIV fatigue life was 6,820 years,
occurring in the riser touchdown region based on the as build
and qualified joint girth weld performance data. Outside of
this region, HVIV damage contributors were shown to be
minimal. The design approach adopted for HVIV damage
calculations was considered highly conservative, as a random
time varying response was equated to a persistent constant
velocity profile for the purposes of the analysis for the full
exposure time to each seastate within the scatter diagram. In
all likelihood, in the event of HVIV, lock-in would occur for
very short instances of time at any given SCR natural
frequency due to the random and time varying heave
characteristics of the Semi/SCR. None the less, with a
6 OTC 19057
contribution of 18% to total SCR touchdown zone fatigue
damage( refer to Figure 8), HVIV damage has been shown to
be a significant SCR damage contributor and highlights that
careful consideration to this on future SCR designs is
recommended.

Combined Fatigue Design
The design (service) life criterion for the Independence
Trail SCR is 20 years. The SCR design was confirmed to
satisfy this criterion when all the fatigue contributors (VIV,
wave-induced, VIM, HVIV, Inst) were summed together as
per the Combined SCR Fatigue expression.
Minimum touchdown zone fatigue life is 120 years
(including all safety factors), while this exceeds the
requirement by a factor of six (6);
Minimum fatigue life in the hang-off region is 31 years
(including all safety factors), this occurs at the weld
between the hang-off collar forging and the first SCR pipe
joint.

SCR Interference Design
Fatigue and strength analysis of the Independence Trail
SCR was heavily focused on developing the optimum riser
configuration without consideration for anything outside of
that system. To confirm the field layout and SCR routing,
interference design analysis of the Independence Trail SCR
was performed to check for any potential clashing issues with
adjacent risers/umbilicals or mooring lines. In particular,
based of previous project experience, the extreme loop and
submerged currents were identified as possible field layout
design drivers due to clashing.
Initial interference analysis indicated that gas export SCR
interference would not be a significant design driver. The
high hang-off tensions associated with the ultra deepwater
development, e.g. 600 1,400 kips for the flowline risers and
1,600 2,700 kips for the export riser depending on the load
case (Hydrotest, hurricane, etc.) ensure that even in extreme
currents events riser movement and deflection is acceptable.
Additionally, there is not significant congestion on the hull
pontoon where the gas export porch is located, as just two
additional (future) risers are planned to hang from this side of
the semi.

SCR Strength Design
Strength design of the Independence Trail SCR was
flagged early in the project as a potential configuration design
driver. The SCR strength design was performed using a time
domain finite element analysis (FEA) method, where wave
loading was captured using random sea techniques. Key to the
strength design was to confirm the export riser performance
for the following aspects:
Interface loads: porch and flexible joint (tensile, bending
and rotational) loads & deflections;
Riser stress checks and code compliance;
To confirm the feasible design of an SCR with regards to
strength (extreme) performance, a load case matrix is required
to capture all extreme current and seastate conditions that the
SCR could conceivably be exposed to, within reason of
course. These load cases shall capture normal operating,
extreme, survival, test, accidental (damaged) conditions, while
riser stress utilization checks are performed as per API RP
2RD [2].
In the case of the Independence Trail SCR design, a total
of fifty seven (57) individual load cases were assessed. The
key strength load cases included the 10 year winter storm
(operational), the 100 year hurricane (extreme), the 100 year
hurricane damaged (survival) and the 1,000 year hurricane
(survival). The strength design concluded:
SCR design was in API RP 2RD [2] compliance, with all
riser stresses within code allowables for all load cases.
The maximum dynamic flexible joint rotation was 19
o
;
this was well within the flexible joint capacity. The
maximum flexible joint rotation included the riser
dynamic response and also the following considerations:
3
o
of rotation to account for riser and porch
misalignment, i.e riser installed with a 15
o
angle
while the porch was designed for 12
o
riser hang-
off due to the late SCR hang-off angle
configuration change from 12
o
to 15
o
;
2
o
tolerance for all fabrication and installation
activities.
There were some aspects of the SCR design that were
notable, for instance, the extreme loop and submerged current
events were not design drivers as observed for SCRs to
shallower water developments (Matterhorn [5], Typhoon
[11]). This was largely due to the high tensions in the
Independence Trail SCR and smaller percentage of exposed
riser length to these current loads. Also, using constant pipe
wall sizes for the entire SCR length resulted in high riser
tensions near hang-off, this in turn meant that overall API RP
2RD [2] stress utilizations have very high contributions from
axial stress in this region.
The Independence Trail SCR is expected to experience
touchdown effective compression during 100 year hurricane or
larger. This is typical of most large diameter export SCRs to a
semi-submersible in the Gulf of Mexico. SCR touchdown
response becomes highly non-linear with the onset of effective
compression, therefore accurate calculation of extreme
effective compression and stress can be challenging. In the
case of the Independence Trail SCR, multiple realizations of
the critical storm events were analysed, wherein, the statistical
prediction of extreme values were calculated.
For an SCR installed to a semi-submersible, the riser
touchdown tension and stress responses during the large
hurricanes are very sensitive to SCR strake coverage close to
the seabed. The large added mass and damping characteristics
associated with the strakes mean that during these large
seastates, the riser TDZ can not deform quickly enough, such
that it will not keep up with the large riser displacements at
hang-off that are driving the riser response. The closer the
SCR is straked to the seabed the larger the effective
compression and stress levels predicted. In the case of the
Independence Trail SCR, the riser touchdown stress and
tension responses were considered unacceptable based on the
SCR configuration with 9,100 ft of strake coverage (9,100 ft
governed by VIV design to E Curve). With the knowledge
that a C S-N Curve was achievable (based on the full scale
fatigue tests) in the SCR TDZ for fatigue purposes, the SCR
Design Team had scope to back-off on the total strake
OTC 19057 7
coverage, thus elleviating the hurricane SCR touchdown zone
response without having detrimental affect on riser fatigue.
The revised SCR configuration was based on 8,300 ft of
strakes.
The 95% non-exceedence levels of the SCR TDZ effective
compression (8,300 ft strake configuration) were
approximated to 100 kips and 140 kips for 100 year and 1,000
year hurricane storms respectively. Figure 17 presents the
reliability of predicting extreme effective compression and
stress versus the number of storm realizations considered for
the 100 year hurricane event, it is clear that numerous analysis
realizations are required to attain a reliable prediction of SCR
touchdown response.
Currently, there is not a specific design requirement in API
RP 2RD [2] for riser effective compression, other than to
confirm stress utilization compliance with the code. As
discussed earlier, all riser stress utilizations were confirmed to
be code compliant. To evaluate the consequence of SCR TDZ
effective compression and confirm SCR integrity additional
steps were taken by the SCR Design Team. Specifically, the
following supplementary evaluation was performed for the
critical effective compression load cases:
Demonstrate that the SCR does not experience sustained
effective compression, i.e. only short pulses of
compression during the hurricane event;
Confirm that for the predicted levels of effective
compression and bending strain, that the pipes resistance
to collapse based on API RP 2RD [2] criterion was not
compromised, i.e. pipe will not collapse;
Utilize the limit state Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD) approach of DnV-OS-F201 [12] to confirm that
the moment capacity of the pipe due to combined loading
effects is not exceeded as per the code.
These additional checks confirmed that riser effective
compression occurs only for a couple instances in the storms,
while the compression was typical of a pulse or a wave nature,
where the riser tension dropped below zero for 2 seconds at
most. Maximum pipe strain was well below strain levels (3
times below) that could induce pipe collapse. Using the limit
state design approach from DnV-OS-F201 [12], maximum
combined loading utilizations of 0.81 were calculated.
It was concluded that the predicted levels of SCR
touchdown effective compression were acceptable and did not
cause a riser integrity risk.
Strength Sensitivities. A comprehensive set of strength
sensitivities were performed on the SCR, including;
Hang-off angle
Pipe delivered dry weight
Seabed vertical stiffness
Hull excursions
Hull 1
st
order motion characteristics
A sensitivity analysis was performed for riser hang-off
angle, to capture potential tolerances on installation and
fabrication. It was concluded that a variation on hang-off by
1
o
from nominal 15
o
would result in marginal hang-off
response change, in the order of 1 - 2% for stresses and
tensions. Minimum touchdown tensions were predicted to
change by approx 10% for 1
o
variations on riser hang-off
angle.
A sensitivity analysis to steel dry weight was performed to
capture variation in expected riser weight and wall thickness
from the +8% heavy weight chosen for design. For a 12%
heavy pipe hang-off loads were expected to increase 5% above
design, while hang-off stresses were expected to rise
approximately 3%. Initial design interface loads were
supplied with a safety factor which was sufficient to account
for this positive variation in pipe weight.
Vertical seabed stiffness was demonstrated to have
minimal impact on the strength performance of the SCR.
The SCR design sensitivity to hull motions was performed
to determine the feasibility of the system due to potential
changes in the hull operational performance against the design
case. The SCR touchdown response is very sensitive to the
hull design motions, and any significant increase in the 1
st

order response could result in riser TDZ overstressing. The
riser hang-off response is not extremely sensitive to hull
motions, which is primarily driven by riser hanging weight
and export gas pressure.

Cathodic Protection and Coating Design
The Independence Trail SCR is cathodically protected for
a design life of 30 years using a combination of external
coatings and sacrificial anodes.
The coating selection was based on corrosion protection
performance and coating abrasion resistance. The following
coating strategy was adopted for the SCR:
Fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) along the riser straked
section;
Three layer Polyethylene (TLPE) for SCR TDZ;
FBE along the static riser section beyond TDZ.
Early in the project, the decision to coat the SCR below the
strakes with FBE was made; as there were some project
concerns over the resistance of a thermally sprayed aluminum
(TSA) coating to damage during in installation. Where
intermittent seabed contact in the TDZ was expected TLPE
was chosen as the coating material because of its higher
abrasion resistance than FBE.
The initial riser design was developed for a TLPE
touchdown coating section of 2,000 ft in length, split
symmetrically about the mean (nominal) TDZ. However, the
change to SCR hang-off angle in addition to an increase in
hull maximum excursions during the project meant that the
final dynamic touchdown zone exceeded the original 2,000 ft
section. This was identified quite late in the project.
However, the riser joint coating activity was not completed by
that time; therefore it was possible to increase the TLPE
coating to 2,600 ft of SCR pipe, sufficient length to cover the
dynamic touchdown region.
Aluminum (Al-In) anodes were also used as part of the
Independence Trail SCR cathodic protection solution. Early
in the project consideration was given to protecting the riser
with the anodes split between a sled on the hull and similarly a
sled installed on the seabed with an anode bank. The
motivation for this was to keep riser hang-off loads as low as
possible and not add any additional weight directly to the riser.
However, difficulty in developing a robust electrical isolation
weld between hull and hull mounted sled and project schedule
dictated that this solution was dropped. Given that riser
8 OTC 19057
protection for one end was not option, bracelet anodes directly
mounted to the riser would be required for protect of the top
SCR section. This meant progressing with a seabed anode
sled was no longer the design case; therefore the idea of the
seabed sled was also dropped. One concern with bracelet
anodes was that the welds needed to attach the copper jumper
leads to the SCR surface may create hard spots on the riser.
To mitigate this risk, anodes were not attached to regions of
high fatigue rate or high stress on the SCR (TDZ and hang-
off), but instead the required anodes were concentrated just
outside the critical zone to provide the required CP protection
and in the mid catenary section.

SCR Global Design Verification
As part of the design process, independent verification was
performed on the strength and fatigue design analysis of the
export SCR. The verification scope was almost as detailed as
the full design scope, given the record water depth of the
Independence Trail project, with the verification agent
performing a full suite of independent analysis.
The independent strength and fatigue analysis indicated
that the design results agreed very well with the verification
results, whilst the conclusion that the export SCR system was
a robust design.

Conclusions
The Independence Trail SCR is the deepest large diameter
SCR to be installed anywhere in the world to date. Significant
lessons learned have been identified with application to future
deepwater SCR projects:
Developing a Riser Design Basis & Methodology
document for Detailed Design as part of the FEED
deliverables. This report should be developed and
maintained by the operator. Getting this document
circulated and buy-in from all stakeholders prior to
completing FEED ensures that the minimum requirements
from SCR design are agreed prior to contract award. This
provides the operator with significant influence on the
design execution of the SCR system;
The Independence Trail SCR may very well be the
deepest large diameter SCR installed in the world;
however, the trend towards ultra deepwater developments
is becoming more common. The high stress utilization
associated with these ultra deepwater SCRs from tensile
load alone is striking. For future ultra deepwater SCRs,
configurations with multiple wall sizes, higher grade
steels or buoyant waves may be likely design solutions in
an effort to control riser tension near hang-off such that
these pipe joints are not overstressed;
SCR Design Basis assumptions are required to be
validated during the project design and construction
stages. In the case of the Independence Trail SCR, an E
S-N Curve was targeted as the fatigue curve for design.
Some fatigue challenges in regard to touchdown zone,
meant that weld cap grinding was adopted as part of the
weld qualification procedure in fatigue critical regions.
The favorable results; C Curve & SCF =1.1, were
implemented in the design of the SCR touchdown, ensure
a feasible system design was achieved. Therefore, with
the Independence Trail Project experience, careful
selection of the initial design S-N Curves is required, such
that certain riser concepts are not excluded due to
feasibly concerns due to prohibitively conservative
fatigue data assumptions;
Industry experience has been that during SCR pipe
procurement, pipe mills invariably deliver in the high end
of the wall thickness tolerance range. Therefore, it is
highly likely that the average joint weight is significantly
heavier than the nominal. This is an extreme important
characteristic to capture in the global design of the SCR,
as SCR hang-off loads and SCR TDZ fatigue performance
are generally highly sensitive to this design assumption;
Although VIM fatigue has been traditionally considered
for Spar floating concepts, there is potential for
substantial VIM for semi-submersible floater designs.
This can consequently become a significant design driver
for SCR touchdown zone fatigue as in the case of the
Independence Trail SCR. Therefore careful consideration
should be given to all potential riser fatigue contributors
during design;
Semi-submersible plaforms with large diameter SCRs will
most likely experience touchdown zone effective
compression during large Gulf of Mexico hurricane
events. Currently the most commonly used SCR design
code API RP 2RD [2] does not contain a specific tension
requirement. The Independence Trail SCR Design Team
developed a methodology to assess predicted SCR TDZ
effective compression occurrences during 100 year &
1,000 year hurricanes. To this end, the SCR design was
confirmed to be feasible and a robust design;
Significant strake coverage of the Independence Trail
SCR was required to effectively suppress VIV due to
strong near bottom currents. Straking of the SCR close to
the seabed increased the added mass and riser damping in
this region substantially. During large hurricane
conditions, this characteristic generates larger levels of
SCR TDZ effective compression & stress the closer the
straked region gets to the seabed. Therefore, careful
consideration must be given to all SCR design aspects,
not only fatigue, when riser straking is introduced into the
design configuration;
The value of performing a comprehensive set of
sensitivity analysis around the SCR base case design
identifies riser performance trends early. In the event of
design data change (a reality in all projects), initial
prediction of impact of such changes can be concluded.
The use of design sensitivities in the Independence Trail
SCR design have been demonstrated as a very efficient
method of achieving a robust and safe SCR design.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Enterprise Product Partners LP for
allowing selected results from their SCR design to be
presented in this paper. Thanks also to others involved with
the Independence Trail SCR design, including Mike Stark,
Majid Al-Sharif, Basim Mekha and the Independence Hub
Project Manager, J im Guion. The authors also wish to
OTC 19057 9
acknowledge Atlantia Offshore in particular Peimin Cao and
Chuck Kindel for their contribution to the SCR design effort.

References
1. MCS, Flexcom Reference Manual (2005);
2. API RP 2RD, Design of Risers for Floating Production
Systems (FPSs) and Tension-Leg Platforms (TLPs), 1
st

Edition 1998;
3. API RP 1111, Design, Construction, Operation, and
Maintenance of Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines (Limit
State Design), 3
rd
Edition 1999;
4. Code of Federal Regulations, Research and Special
Programs Administration, Department of Transport,
Transportation of natural and other gas by pipeline:
minimum Federal safety standards, 49CFR Part 192, 1
st

October 2002;
5. Kavanagh, W.K., Harte, G., Farnsworth, K.R., Griffin,
P.G., Hsu, T.M., J efferies, A., Van der Linder, C.,
Matterhorn Steel Catenary Risers: Critical Issues and
Lessons Learned for Reel-Layed SCRs to a TLP,
Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference,
May 2004, OTC 16612;
6. Kindel, C., Rijken, O., Khodr, R., Cao, P., Galvin, C.,
Van Hofslot, T., Independence Hub Turn Key Delivery
of Ultra Deepwater Hull and Mooring System,
Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference,
May 2007, OTC 18587;
7. Bai, Y., Tang, A., OSullivan, E., Uppu, K.C.,
Ramakrishnan, S., Steel Catenary Riser Fatigue Due to
Vortex Induced Spar Motions, Proceedings of the
Offshore Technology Conference, May 2004, OTC
16629;
8. MCS, MC920 Independence Hub Facility SCR Detailed
Design Summary Design Report, Report to Atlantia
Offshore by MCS, November 2006, Doc. No. 4-1-4-
190/SR01 Rev.03;
9. Grant, R., Litton, R., Mamidipudi, P., Highly Compliant
Rigid (HCR) Riser Model Test and Analysis,
Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference,
May 1999, OTC 10973;
10. Maher, J ., Finn, L., A Combined Time-Frequency
Domain Procedure to Estimate Riser Fatigue Caused by
Heave-induced Vortex-induced Vibration, Proceedings
of the Offshore Technology Conference, May 2000, OTC
11994;
11. Thompson, H.M., Grealish, F.W., Young, R.D., Wang,
H.K., Typhoon Steel Catenary Risers: As-Built Design
Verification, Proceedings of the Offshore Technology
Conference, May 2002, OTC 14126;
12. DnV-OS-F201, Dynamic Risers, J anuary 2001.

10 OTC 19057


Figure 1 Independence Hub SCR Layout (Source:
Atlantia Offshore).

Strength (Pipe & FJ)
WF Fatigue
VIV Fatigue
Installation Analysis
Interference
CP Design
Fracture Mechanics
Design Sensitivities
As-Built Design Analysis
Design Verification
Procurement,
Construct & Testing

Procurement

Delivery & End Match
Fatigue Testing
Welding & Spooling
Pipe

F/J

Installation

Operations
As-installed
ROV-surveyed
SCR condition
S - N
SCFs
Pipe Weights
Assumptions
Design Basis
i) WD
ii) SCR Diameter
iii) Fluids
iv) Waves
v) Currents
vi) Soil
vii) TLP Motions
Design
Reeled
Installation
Installation
Fatigue
Figure 2 Schematic SCR Design Flowchart (Source OTC
Paper 16612).

Figure 3 Schematic of Independence Trail Export SCR
Design.

0
40
80
120
160
200
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Suspended Riser Length (feet)
%

o
f

S
t
r
e
s
s
%of yield(X65) %of allowable (X65)

Figure 4 Comparison of % stress utilization for X65
steel versus Suspended Riser Length.

Figure 5 Schematic of Flexible Joint to Hold Collar
weld.



OTC 19057 11

Figure 6 Summary of S-N fatigue data for lab air
testing of the forging to forging weld.
Independence Trail SCR - As Constructed S-N Curves
1
10
100
1,000
1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+08
Number of Cycles to Failure (N)
S
t
r
e
s
s
R
a
n
g
e

(
k
s
i
)
E Curve
C Curve
1st Weld belowflexible joint hang-off collar

Figure 7 Summary of S-N Curves for design.

Independenc e T r ai l Expo r t SC R
D i s t r i but i o n o f F at i gue C o nt r i but o r s at T D Z
11%
49%
19%
18%
3%
VIV
Wave
VIM
HVIV
Inst

Figure 8 Distribution of total touchdown zone fatigue
damage among relative contributors.

Independence Trail Export SCR Wave-induced Fatigue Life
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000
Distance along SCR from Flex-Joint COR (ft)
F
a
t
i
g
u
e

L
i
f
e

(
y
e
a
r
s
)

Figure 9 Distribution of Wave-induced Fatigue Life
along Independence Trail SCR.

% Distribution of Total Touchdown Damage for 20-inch Gas Export SCR
N
16%
NE
2% E
3%
SE
14%
S
11% SW
1%
W
11%
NW
42%

Figure 10 Distribution of Wave-induced Fatigue at
Independence Trail SCR TDZ versus Environment.

Independence Trail SCR - Wave-induced Fatigue Design Sensitivities
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
SCR Hang-
off Angle
Dry Weight
Tolerance
Drag
Coefficient
Seabed
Vertical
Stiffness
Flexible
Joint
Rotational
Stiffness
DeepDraft
Semi Heave
DeepDraft
Semi Surge
DeepDraft
Semi Pitch
Design Parameters for Sensitivity Analysis
N
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

W
a
v
e
-
i
n
d
u
c
e
d

F
a
t
i
g
u
e

L
i
f
e
SensitivityLower Bound DesignCase SensitivityUpper Bound

Figure 11 Independence Trail SCR Wave-induced
Fatigue Sensitivity Results.

12 OTC 19057
Transverse (Vr VS Amxa/D)
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Reduced Velocity (UT/D)
A
m
x
a
/D

Figure 12 Typical Characterization of hull current
induced VIM response (Source OTC 16629).

VIM Oscillation Distribution for Bin #5 Propagating West
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
18.9 20.6 22.2 23.8 25.4 27.1 28.7 30.3 31.9 33.6 35.2
VIM Oscillation Amplitude (ft)
#
o
f
c
y
c
le
p
e
r
d
a
y
b
a
s
e
d
o
n
c
o
n
t
in
u
o
u
s
e
x
p
o
s
u
r
e
t
o
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
p
r
o
f
ile

Figure 13 Typical distribution of DeepDraft Semi
VIM amplitude response for a high velocity current.

Independence Trail Gas Export SCR - VIM Fatigue Damage Distribution
1,000
10,000
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
Distance along SCR from Flex-Joint (ft)
F
a
t
i
g
u
e

L
i
f
e

(
y
e
a
r
s
)

Figure 14 Distribution of VIM Fatigue Life along
Independence Trail SCR.

Independence Trail SCR - VIM Fatigue Design Sensitivities
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
140%
SCR Hang-off Angle Dry Weight Tolerance Hull VIM A/D
Design Parameters for Sensitivity Analysis
N
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

V
I
M

F
a
t
i
g
u
e

L
i
f
e
D
e
s
i
g
n

C
a
s
e

(
1
5
o
)
-
1
o

f
r
o
m

D
e
s
i
g
n

H
a
n
g
-
o
f
f

A
n
g
l
e
+
1
o

f
r
o
m

D
e
s
i
g
n

H
a
n
g
-
o
f
f

A
n
g
l
e
D
e
s
i
g
n

C
a
s
e

(
+
8
%

h
e
a
v
y

p
i
p
e
)
+
1
2
%

h
e
a
v
y

p
i
p
e

-

u
p
p
e
r

b
o
u
n
d
N
o
m
i
n
a
l

p
i
p
e

w
e
i
g
h
t

(
+
0
%
)

-

l
o
w
e
r

b
o
u
n
d
D
e
s
i
g
n

C
a
s
e

V
I
M

A
/
D

C
u
r
v
e
s
+
1
5
%

o
f

D
e
s
i
g
n

V
I
M

A
/
D

C
u
r
v
e
s

Figure 15 Independence Trail SCR VIM Fatigue
Sensitivity Results.

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50
Current Velocity (ft/sec)
D
e
p
t
h

(
f
t
)

Figure 16 Independence Trail SCR HVIV Normalized
Heave Velocity Profiles.

Independence Trail SCR 100 year Hurricane TDZ 95% confidence levels
-1000
-900
-800
-700
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of Storm Realisations used in Extreme Prediction
9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
c
e

T
D
Z

E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n

(
k
i
p
s
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
9
5
%

c
o
n
f
i
d
e
n
c
e

T
D
Z

A
P
I

R
P

2
R
D

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
Effective Compression
API RP 2RD Stress
Max Allowable
API RP 2RD Stress

Figure 17 Independence Trail SCR 100 year Hurricane
TDZ Statistical Predictions.