Wot kind of unloader mechanism is there in main air compressr?

Is it the same like

refer compressor or something difrent?
here are two kinds electronic and mechanical. electronics involve a solenoid which
opens after stop command and shuts around 10 seconds after start
command,mechanical ones have a sliding spool valve which shuts by the lub. oil
pressure opens by spring pressure when oil pressure absent.
! too much cooing water in condenser cn lead to short cycling in refer compressr ?
too much sub cooling of refregerent will take place as a result as a result less "ash
evaporation in #$% n evaporator will have less refregerant gas hence short cycling.
%it
If a simple jerk type fuel pump is considered, then start of injection is fixed at the point at
which the top edge of the plunger covers the spill port(s). End of injection which is variable,
takes place when the edge of the helix uncovers the spill port(s). I! is the term used to
define a pump which alters the timing of the start of injection. "ith a jerk type injection
pump this can be done by altering the position of the barrel with respect to the plunger,
using a pump with two plungers, altering the fuel cam or cam follower position or using a
pump as described in (b)
I! is employed to advance
injection timing so that # max is
reached at about $%& load. !his
gives a more efficient engine by
lowering the fuel consumption.
!he injection timing can also be
manually adjusted to allow for more
efficient combustion of fuels with
different ignition 'ualities.
b.
!he sketch shows the operating principle of
the I! fuel pump as fitted to the (ul)er *!+
engine. + plain cylindrical plunger
reciprocates in a barrel. +s the plunger moves
up and down, two pivoted levers operate push
rods which open the suction and spill valves.
"hen the cam follower is on the base circle of
the cam, the suction valve is open and the spill
valve is closed. +s the plunger moves up the
barrel, the suction push rod moves downwards
and the suction valve closes. Injection then
commences and fuel is delivered via a non
return valve to the injectors. +s the plunger
continues upwards so the spill push rod will
open the spill valve, the pressure above the
plunger will fall and injection will cease.
!he 'uantity of fuel delivered can be
controlled by altering the position of the
eccentric pivot for the spill valve operating
lever. !his will cause the spill valve to open
earlier or later.
,y altering the position of the suction valve
pivot, the start of injection can be similarly
controlled, and therefore it can be seen that the
pump utilises I!.
c.
!he pump is isolated, drained and the valve covers
(suction, discharge and spill) are removed along with the
springs. !he discharge valve is also removed.
!he I! hand setting lever is set to )ero, the profile cam
on the I! profile segment is removed, and the fuel
lever is set to $ with the engine set to run ahead.
!he engine is turned until the roller is on the cam peak
so that the suction valve is closed. + dial indicator is
mounted on top of the suction valve and set to )ero.
!he engine is turned astern until the roller is on the base
circle of the cam. -ial indicators are now mounted on
top of the plunger and the spill valve and set to )ero. !he
suction valve is now open.
!he idle stroke of the plunger, which is the distance moved by the plunger before the
suction valve closes is obtained from the engine records. !he engine is now turned ahead,
while observing the dial indicator on top of the plunger, until the plunger has moved this
distance. +t this point the suction valve should have just closed. !his can be confirmed from
the reading on the -!I. If not, adjust push rod tappet. !he crank angle is also checked and
compared with the testbed reading.
!he total stroke for this fuel setting is obtained from the timing record. !he engine is turned,
observing the plunger dial indicator until the plunger has moved this total distance. +t this
point the dial indicator on the spill valve should indicate it has just started to open, ending
injection. If not adjust push rod tappet. !he crank angle is again checked against timing
records.
!he total stroke minus the idle stroke gives the effective distance moved by the plunger.
!his distance multiplied by the csa of the plunger will give the volume of fuel injected.
(ignoring any distortion of .# piping and assuming fuel as incompressible.)
With reference to crankshafts, explain EACH of the following:
a. the cause and effects of torsional vibration !"#
b. the term critical speed indicating wh$ it can be a problem !"#
c. the term fatigue cracking and state, with reasons, %W& factors of crankshaft
operation which have greatest influence on the likelihood of fatigue cracking !"#
d. how a detuner or torsional vibration damper can reduce the effects of torsional
vibration. !"#
a.
!orsional vibration is caused by the forces applied to the crankpin by the conrod which
varies according to the angle of thrust applied by the conrod and the cylinder firing pressure.
It occurs during the firing and compression stroke. !he stress is cyclic which means that the
crankshaft is twisting and untwisting along its length. It can be compounded on direct drive
engines by an unbalanced propshaft, which can be caused by a damaged propeller.
,ecause it is a reversing stress (cyclic), if it is not kept within limits it can lead to crankshaft
failure.
b.
"hen a rotating shaft runs at critical speed it becomes dynamically unstable. +s a
crankshaft and coupled shaft rotates, it twists and untwists along its length about its
e'uilibrium position. If a curve was drawn of time against amplitude, the wave form would
be sinusoidal.
+ crankshaft, because of its complexity of design will vibrate in as many modes as there are
shaft elements. !hese are natural fre'uencies. (e.g. / node mode, 0 node mode etc.)
+s well as these natural fre'uencies of vibration, the shaft also vibrates because of the
varying gas loads on the crankpins, applying or opposing the turning moment to the
crankshaft as described in (a). !hese are known as the forcing fre'uencies, and for a 0
stroke engine are / 1 rpm, 0 1 rpm etc up to the number of cylinders in the engine. (2or a 3
stroke it is more complex4 5 engine speed 1 5, /5, 0, 05, etc)
+ serious problem arises when the forcing fre'uency is the same as one of the lower node
modes of natural fre'uency of vibration. 2or example, if the natural fre'uency in the one
node mode is 677 vibrations8min and the engine was a 9 cylinder two stroke running at %7
rpm, then the fre'uency of the turning moment would coincide with the natural fre'uency of
the system. !his resonance will produce vibrations of high amplitude which will damage
bearings and even break the crankshaft if allowed to continue.
c.
"hen a section of a crankshaft is subject to a stress reversal, it is going from tension
through to compression and back to tension again as the crankshaft rotates. !his is known as
cyclic stressing. !he properties of the material deteriorate until the material is no longer
strong enough to accommodate the tensile stress and a crack starts. !his is known as fatigue
cracking. !he crack will continue to grow with continued operation and stress reversal until
complete failure occurs. :nder normal operation the crankshaft is operated well within its
fatigue limiting stress, which is the alternating stress that a crankshaft can withstand
indefinitely without fracture. .owever fatigue cracks can propagate from a sharp change in
section, a flaw in the material or a badly finished oil hole even when operated within this
limit.
!wo factors of crankshaft operation which will increase the likelihood of a crack starting
are;
/. <verloading the engine. !his will cause increased bending, torsional and axial
stresses increasing the alternating stress to beyond its limit.
0. <perating the engine with a crankshaft out of alignment (i.e. excessive deflections due
to uneven bearing height) !his will cause excessive bending of the shaft as it sits
down in the bearings.
d.
<ne type of torsional vibration damper is the viscous
damper.
It consists of a light metal casing fixed to the front end of
the crankshaft.
!he metal casing contains a heavy annular mass supported
on a centring bearing. !he clearance between the mass and
casing is filled with a high viscosity silicone fluid.
+s the damper rotates with the crankshaft the heavy mass
is dragged around at the same speed by the viscous fluid.
"ith small angular accelerations the viscous drag is
enough to cause the internal mass to move with the casing,
but as the vibrations get larger, the heavy mass starts to
slip, and the energy is dissipated as heat. !his transfer of
energy from the vibrations to the slipping mass reduces the
torsional vibrations.
(nderstanding )ibrations in *arine Engines
%ibrations are an integral part of every mechanically moving component or machine
on board ship. %ibrations in marine engines are a result of periodic or random
oscillations caused about an e&uilibrium point.
When these same vibrations occur in machines with bigger si'e, operating under
heavy loads ()*stroke marine propulsion engine+ the intensity of vibration levels
would magnify because of large mass rotation and combustible gases forces inside
the machinery.
If the vibration levels increase beyond the minimal level i.e. when mechanical system has one or
more fre'uency, it may lead to deformation or breakage of engine components. It is therefore
important to damp the vibration by some external arrangement.
In a 0 stroke marine propulsion engine there are basically + t$pes of vibrations that act on the
engine when it is in operating condition;
,. -ongitudinal )ibration
!his type of vibration occurs as a result of guide forces resulting from transverse reaction forces
on the crossheads. !he transverse reaction forces are generated when connecting rod and
crankshaft mechanism converts reciprocating motion in to rotary motion. (uch vibrations move
the engine top athwart ship causing rocking or twisting.
.. Axial )ibration
+xial vibration is a kind of longitudinal shafting vibration which occurs in the crankshaft
because of the radial as well as tangential forces.
+. %orsional )ibration
!orsional ibration occurs in the crankshaft of the engine mainly because of the tangential forces
acting on the crankshaft when rotating at some *#=.
+ll the above vibrations may cause wear down of internal components, loosening of holding
bolts, damage to the engine structure, and even failure of the crankshaft.
*easures to Counter )ibrations in *arine Engine
/) -ongitudinal )ibration
2or counter acting on the longitudinal vibration of the ship, engine bracings is used. <ne end of
the bracing is attached to the top part of the engine and the other to the ship>s structure. !his stiff
connection dampens and transmits the engine>s rocking vibration to the ship>s hull.
,racing are used to counter longitudinal vibration and are of two types?
? 2rictional type bracing
? .ydraulic bracing

.# Axial and %orsional )ibrations
!hese are crankshaft generated vibrations, and hence to counter act them, dampers are fitted in
the crankshaft. !his arrangement dampens harmful and excess vibration. !o understand the
complete working of +xial and !orsional -amper
/ampers 0 /e1tuners: 2educing )ibration
of *arine Engines
It is a known fact that every running machine has a tendency to vibrate because of
several moving parts incorporated within it. When in motion, the machine will have
an oscillatory motion around an e&uilibrium point. #his is the basic de,nition of
vibration, a phenomenon common with all kinds of mechanical e&uipment.
!he main propulsion systems of ships are one of the biggest engines ever made in the history.
!hese monstrous machines have several components fixed together to generate tremendous
amount of power for propelling the ship.
!he natural fre'uency of vibration is always present in marine engines, but the effect can be
dangerous when the vibration fre'uency reaches high levels. !his happenswhen the natural
fre'uency of vibration from an external source integrates with the engine vibration or when there
are out?of?balance forces generated inside the engine which create /
st
and 0
nd
order movements.
(uch effects can result in severe damage to the marine engine>s internal moving parts, cracks in
the structure, loosening of bolts and securing and damage to bearings. ibration of =arine
Engines is mainly due to? +xial and !orsional ibration or combination of both.
In this article we will discuss aboutimportant e'uipment and arrangementspopularly known as
-ampers @ -e?tuners that used to reduce marine engine vibrations.

/ampers
+s the name suggests, dampers are used to damp or reduce the fre'uency of oscillation of the
vibrating components of the machine by absorbing a part of energy evolved during vibration.

Axial /amper; !he +xial damper is fitted on the crankshaft of the engine to dampen the shaft
generated axial vibration i.e. oscillation of the shaft in forward and aft directions, parallel to the
shaft hori)ontal line.
It consists of a damping flange integrated to the crankshaft and placed near the last main bearing
girder, inside a cylindrical casing. !he casing is filled with system oil on both side of flanges
supplied via small orifice. !his oil provides the damping effect.
"hen the crankshaft vibrates axially, the oil in the sides of damping flange circulates inside the
casing through a throttling valve provided from one side of the flange to the other, which gives a
damping effect.
!he casing is provided with high temperature alarm and pressure monitoring alarms located on
both sides of damping flanges. !hey give alarm if one side oil pressure drops more than the set
value as a result of low A< supply, sealing ring failure etc.
%orsional /amper; It is a twisting phenomenon in the crankshaft which spreads from one end
to other due to uneven tor'ue pulses coming from different units Bpistons.
!he most famous type of torsional damper used on marine engine of a ship is iscous type
dampers, which consist of an inertia ring added to the crankshaft enclosed in a thin layer of
highly viscous fluid like silicon. !he inertia ring is free to rotate and applies a lagging tor'ue on
the crankshaft due to its lagging torsional motion.
"hen the crankshaft rotates, the inertia ring tends to move in radial direction but the counter
effect is provided by the silicon fluid damping the vibration.

/e1tuners
-e?tuners are used to alter the fre'uency of the vibrating machinery reducing the vibration of the
engine.
3ide 4racing: Cormally fitted on the top of the engine which increases the stiffness and raises
the natural fre'uency beyond the working range. 2or detailed information read ?"hat is a ,race
or 3trut for =arine EnginesD
5lexible Coupling; If the engine has a #ower turbine connected to its crankshaft via a reduction
gear, then flexible coupling are used to compensate for the vibration occurring during motion
transfer. !he 2lexible elements are mainly spring or special material rubber for de tuning the
vibration.
What is a 4race or 3trut for *arine
Engines6
Effects of )ibration
ibration is naturally present in every mechanical machine because of the internal moving parts
of the machine. In ship>s main engine, the internal parts are producing tremendous power by fuel
combustion which produces vibration.
If the vibration level or amplitude increases more than normal, then following will result;
Eracks in attached piping.
Effect inturbo charger as it>s a high speed machinery.
2retting in the engine structure joints (between + frame and entablature).
Aoosen of engine chocks and holding down bolts.
-amage in the intermediate shaft, its bearing or bearing support structure.
-amage to the thrust bearing.
-amage to the main bearings.

Engine 3truts and 4racing
Engine strut or brace are stud like structure usually incorporated with hydraulic or mechanical
systems to transmit engine vibration to ship>s hull.
<ne end is fitted at the upper part of the main engine and other end is attached at very stiff
location in the ship>s hull. !his strut or brace acts as a de?tuner which increases the natural
fre'uency of the system, so that resonance occurs above the engine rotational speed.

5rictional t$pe 4racing or 3trut
2riction type strut is one of the common types used for 0 stroke slow speed marine engines.
!he working of these type of struts depends upon the friction between the pads that brace the
engine at the top so that the resonances with critical orders are above the speed range of the
engine.
!here is a frictional grip which is responsible for the main functioning of the struts, which are
hydraulically tightened.
7mportant -ube &il 8roperties to be
Considered While Choosing *arine -ube
&il for 9our 3hip
-ube oil is a one of the essential elements for
operating an$ kind of machiner$ on board
ship. -ube oil is responsible for lubrication
and cooling of the parts which are
operating relative to each other, giving rise
to frictional and other t$pes of stresses on
the machiner$. Without the use of lube oil,
we cannot imagine an$ machiner$
operation on ship.
-ifferent types and grades of lube oils are available for machinery, depending upon the working
condition, operation, and re'uirements of the machinery itself. "hen it comes to marine engines,
it is very critical to select the best grade of lube oil that can be used as crank case oil or cylinder
oil. !he lube oil is selected based on the properties which will improve the engine operation and
reduce the wear down rate and hence the maintenance cost of the machine.
7mportant 8roperties of -ube &il
!he following are the most common and re'uired properties of the lube oil used for marine
machinery;
Alkalinit$
!he lube oil alkalinity plays an important part in marine engines. "hen fuel burns, the fumes
carry sulphuric acid which can cause acidic corrosion. 2or a trunk piston engine or four stroke
engines, the main lube oil is responsible for piston and liner lubrication4 hence it comes directly
in contact with the combustible fuel. !herefore alkalinity of lube oil is important for controlling
acidic corrosion.
2or two stroke engines, separate grade of lube oil is used as cylinder oil and its alkalinity
depends on the engine fuel grade (.2< or A(2<).

&xidation resistant
Aube oil is always in contact with air and thus oxygen presence in oil is inevitable. =oreover, at
high temperature of the oil, the oxidation rate increases. +fter $ degree 55 E temperature, the
increase in every / degree E of oil oxidation rates doubles itself leading to sludge formation, 05
acid production and bearing corrosion. .ence additives are added to maintain keep these things
in check. Aube oil temperature is controlled by passing it through lube oil cooler.

-oad carr$ing capacit$
It is also one of the important characteristics of lube oil which mainly depends upon the viscosity
of the oil. !he load subjected to different internal parts of the marine engine is very high4 hence
the load carrying capacity must be enough to withstand the pressure inside the engine. If this is
not achieved then oil will be forced out and metal to metal contact will result in wiping out and
wear down of the machine.
%hermal conductivit$
!he internal parts of marine engine are always in movement producing heat energy. !his heat
energy has to be carried away or else it might lead to wear down due to thermal stresses. !he
lube oil must cool down the internal parts to avoid such a situation and must have a good thermal
conductivity.

/etergenc$
-etergency of the oil is obtained by adding some metallic based additives which will prevent the
build up of small deposits in the metal surface. In two stroke engine, the cylinder oil detergency
is very important as it removes the deposits from the ring pack area and keeps the combustion
space as clean as possible

/isperenc$
It is the property of the lube oil which prevents impurities to mix up with itself and keeps them
suspended on the surface. !his makes it easy for the separator or clarifier to remove it from the
oil.

High 5lash 8oint
!he flash point is the minimum temperature at which the oil vapori)es to give an ignitable
mixture of air. !he flash point should always be on the higher side so that in case of increase in
temperature of the oil, fire ha)ard can be avoided. Cormally for marine engine lube oils, the flash
point is always higher than 00 E. 05

-ow /emulsification :umber
It is not practically impossible to completely avoid contamination of oil with water. !he low
demulsification number of the oil helps in easy separation of water from the oil in the separator
or when stored in the settling tank.
The Basics
How The Engine Is Cooled
+lthough there is an abundance of free sea water available, marine diesel engines do not use it
directly to keep the hottest parts of the engine cool. !his is because of the corrosion which
would be caused in the cooling water spaces, and the salts which would be deposited on the
cooling surfaces interfering with the heat flow.
Instead, the water circulated around the engine is fresh water ( or better still, distilled water)
which is then itself cooled using sea water. !his fresh water is treated with chemicals to keep it
slightly alkaline ( to prevent corrosion) and to prevent scale formation. <f course, if distilled
water, which some ships can make from sea water using evaporators, is used then there is a
reduced risk of scale formation.
!he cooling water pump which may be engine driven or be a separate electrically driven pump
pushes the water around the circuit. +fter passing through the engine, where it removes the
heat from the cylinder liners, cylinder heads, exhaust valves and sometimes the turbochargers,
it is cooled by seawater and then returns to the engine. !he temperature of the cooling water is
closely controlled using a three way control valve. If the water is allowed to get too cold then
it will cause thermal shocking which may lead to component failure and will also allow water
and acids to condense on the cylinder bores washing away the lubricating film and causing
corrosion. If it gets too hot then it will not remove the heat effectively causing excessive wear
and there is a greater danger of scale formation. 2or this reason the cooling water outlet
temperature is usually maintained at about F$?$0GE. ,ecause it is at a higher temperature than
the cooling water used for other purposes (known as the A! cooling), the water for cooling the
engine is known as the .! (.igh !emperature) cooling water.
Eooling can be achieved by using a dedicated cooler or by mixing in some of the water from
the A! cooling circuit. !he A! cooling water is then cooled in the sea water coolers. !he
temperature is controlled using cascade control which monitors both the inlet and outlet
temperatures from the engine. !his allows a fast response to any change in temperature due to
a change in engine load.
!o make up for any leaks in the system there is a header tank, which automatically makes up
any deficiency. ents from the system are also led to this header tank to allow for any
expansion in the system and to get rid of any air (if you are familiar with a domestic central
heating system then you will see the similarities). !he header tank is relatively small, and
usually placed high in the engine room. It is deliberately made to be manually replenished, and
is fitted with a low level alarm. !his is so that any major leak would be noticed immediately.
:nder normal conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and if it needs topping up, then
the amount logged.
!he system will also contain a heater which is to keep the cooling water hot when the engine
is stopped, or to allow the temperature to be raised to a suitable level prior to starting. (ome
ships use a central cooling system, whereby the same cooling water is circulated through the
main engine(s) and the alternator engines. !his system has the advantage whereby the engines
which are stopped are kept warm ready for immediate starting by the engines which are
running.
+ fresh water generator (2"H) which is used to produce fresh water from sea water is also
incorporated.
+ drain tank has been included. !his is for when the engine is drained down for maintenance
purposes. ,ecause of the 'uantities of water involved and the chemical treatment, it is not
economically viable or environmentally responsible to dump the treated water overboard each
time. !his way the water can be re used.
2or photos and description of components click on the items in the picture.

!his system shows a typical cooling water circuit
for a single medium speed engine with an engine
driven main pump and an electrically driven
auxiliary circ pump and heater for keeping the
engine warm when stopped.

Cascade Control
l Cascade control can provide improved
performance for unmeasured
disturbances
l 4asic characteristics
I A second measurement and a second
controller are used in an inner
feedback loop
I %he setpoint for the inner control loop
is provided b$ an outer control loop
designed to regulate the controlled
output
I %he disturbance can be more rapidl$
identified with the secondar$
measurement than with the primar$
measurement
l 8articularl$ useful when the disturbance
is associated with the manipulated input
l Control problem
I 2egulate flow rate through control
value despite changes in upstream
and;or downstream pressures
l Control alternatives
I 3pecif$ the value position to indirectl$
achieve the desired flow rate
I (tili<e a measurement of the flow rate
to design a feedback controller that
explicitl$ regulates the flow rate
l Applications
I An$ control problem in which a flow
rate is used as a manipulated variable
I &uter controller provides the setpoint
for the inner flow controller in a
cascade arrangement
&n;off controller and its example
A ver$ simple on;off control example is a
tank, a pair of float switches and a pump.
%his tank has a low level float switch, a
high level float switch and a pump that has
a pumping capacit$ rate greater than the
tank=s maximum inlet flow rate.
%he tank is allowed to fill until the high
level float is triggered. &nce the high float
triggers, the pump call state is latched true
and the pump starts. %he pump will
continue to pump down the tank level until
the low level float is triggered. &nce the
low level float triggers, the pump call state
is latched false and the pump stops.
%he dead band in this case is the level
between the two floats. &nce the pump
stops, the tank is allowed to refill and no
control action is taken.
What are %ie 2ods and Wh$ /o %he$ 4reak6
*arine engines are fabricated with different
components, which are held and tied
together to complete the engine structure
with the help of tie rods. As the name
suggest, tie rods are long metal rods that
are generall$ found at the peripher$ of the
engine.
5unctioning of %ie 2ods
!ie rod is a long strong rod with bolts or tie bolts at both the end. !his rod holds the three major
engine components i.e. Eylinder block or entablature, J+K frame, and crankcase in compression
and transmits the firing load to the bedplate.
!he tie rods are fitted through the above mentioned components and are hydraulically tightened
so that the whole engine can be held in compression.
!ie rods are placed as close to the centreline of the crankshaft of the engine to minimise the
bending movement in the transverse girder.
Effect of loose or broken tie rod
If the tie rod bolts are loosen or broken, then the marine engine will show the following
abnormalities;
It will lead to vibration of the marine engine.
It will lead to fretting of mating surface of the engine.
It can lead to crank shaft misalignment.
(uch prolong condition may lead to bearing damage.
2oundation bolts and chocks may get loose.
!urbocharger of the engine will be affected as it>s a high speed machine. + little vibration
in the machine can damage or misalign the rotor or damage the bearing.

What are the Causes of %ie12od 4reaking6
!ie rods are not properly tightened.
!he material and threading of tie rod are under rated and not properly machined.
+ging of tie rod leading to failure or breakage.
!ie rods bolts are over tightened by hydraulic pressure crossing its elasticity limit.
Engine is over loaded or peak pressures of the cylinders are very high.
#revious fretting of engine mating surface.
2oundation bolts have become loose or chocks are damaged leading to transmission of
vibration in to tie rods.
(cavenge fire loosen the rods as they pass from the scavenge space and the heat leads to
the expansion of the rods.
!ie rods consist of 'uenching screws, if they are loose it will lead to heavy vibration
leading to loose or crack in the rod.
If the ship face very heavy weather, the fluctuation in the marine engine load may cause
loosening or breakage of the rods.
Removing a Broken Tie rod
!he tie bolts (tierods) on a 0 stroke marine diesel engine hold the components of the engine
together in compression and transmit the firing loads to the bedplate. ,reakage, usually due to
a fatigue fracture, can be caused by incorrect tightening, misalignment between the mating
surfaces, overloading of the engine etc. (ods law dictates that often the bolt will fail at mid
length. !he top half can be removed by lifting it out, however the removing the bottom half
will present a challenge, due to the restriction in headroom in the crankpit.

,roken tie bolt (above) and right, detail of fatigue
fracture.


!he most obvious method of removal may seem to be to cut the tierod out in small pieces
using a grinding wheel8 burning gear. !his is not recommended. !wo alternatives are
available; !he first involves passing a wire loop down the tierod tube to the bottom of the
tiebolt and lifting the bolt out. !he second method outlined below involves jacking the bolt out
from below.

In the first stage a clamp is secured to the tie bolt as shown.
!wo pull blocks are fixed as shown and the bottom nut
removed

+ hydraulic jack is placed under the tierod with a plank
underneath it to distribute the load. +fter lifting and
securing, a spacer is fitted between the jack and the bottom
of the tierod.

+ series of spacers are progressively fixed under the tie rod
until the tierod emerges at the top of the entablature.
!he clamp is fixed around the top of the tie rod as shown
right with a welded bead to prevent slipping. !he engine
room crane is used to lift the broken piece clear.



!he photo shows a broken section of the tierod alongside the new tie bolt which is to be fitted.
In the case of restricted head height, the tierod can be supplied in screwed sections.
" Wa$s to *easure *ain 4earing Clearance
of %wo 3troke *arine Engine
A marine engine comprises of several t$pes of
bearings which support the rotating and
reciprocating crankshaft, camshaft, and
cross head of the engine, enabling the
marine engine to perform the desired
operation of power generation. 7t is ver$
important to maintain a good 'ualit$ and
'uantit$ of lubricating oil to all these
bearings in order to avoid breakdown of
the engine.
!he main bearing of a marine engine supports the long running crankshaft throughout the engine
length. !his makes it imperative to check the condition of the bearing at regular interval of time.
!he clearance measurement of the main bearing determines the amount of wear down the
bearing has been subjected to. !here are various types of methods adopted by different marine
engine manufacturers to measure the clearance of main bearing of marine engine. 2ollowing are
some of the most prominent methods used onboard ships to measure the clearance of main
bearing;
,# 4ridge with /epth >auge
!his method is used in (:ALE* 0 stroke marine engines where the bearingBs shell is removed
along with the keep (the bearing shell is lined with the keep). +fter that a bridge is fitted over the
top of journal pin, from port to starboard, making a bridge over the crankshaft with two ends
supported on the cross girder.
+ simple vernier type depth gauge is then inserted in the hole provided on the bridge and the
scale of depth gauge is rested on the crankshaft pin. !he total depth on the scale is measured and
compared with the previous reading and the reading in the manual for calculating the wear down
of bearing.
In old model (:ALE* engines, a collar is provided in the bearing shell along with a small hole.
!hus without removing the keep, the bridge is fitted adjacent to the keep and the depth gauge is
used from the hole provided in the shell to measure the shell wear down.

.# 4ridge With 5eeler >auge
In some engines, after removing the shell and the keep, the bridge is installed as explained in the
above point. +lso, in place of depth gauge, a feeler gauge is used to measure the clearance
between the journal pin top and the bridge bottom. !he bridge used here is different in terms of
height and the gap between the pin and the bridge is very less as compared to that of the bridge
used in the above mentioned method.

+# %elescopic or 3wedish 5eeler >auge
In engines like =+C ,@", this is the most common method used to measure the bearing
clearance of the top shell. In this method there is no need to remove any connection or keep for
measuring the clearance.
!he telescopic gauge is inserted between the gap of the crank web and the bearing keep. "hen
the tip reaches the shell top, the feeler is inserted between the shell and the pin to check the
clearance.


"# /ial t$pe /epth >auge
!his method is used in new =+C ,@" engines ((=E?E) which does not re'uire the top keep
to be removed. !he lube oil pipe connection screw hole is in the bearing keep which can be
accessed from the hole on the bearing shell.
!he dial gauge is inserted in this screw hole and the reading is taken as the clearance for upper
shell. 2or complete bearing overhaul procedure pleased read? 8rocedure for 2emoving *ain
4earing of *A: 40W
8rocedure for 2emoving *ain 4earing of
*A: 40W *C1C Engine
!he procedure for opening of the main bearing is as follows;
/) Inform company and take permission.
0) !ake immobili)ation certificate from port state +uthority stating that the main engine will
not be available for a particular period of time.
6) *ead the manual and have a toll box meeting with everyone involved in the job. -iscuss
the procedure.
3) #repare important tools and spares to be used in operation.
%) #repare risk assessment with the personnel involved in operation.
9) (hut starting air valve for main engine.
F) <pen indicator cocks of all the units.
$) Engage turning gear and put it in remote control. !he remote control switch to be operated
by in charge of the operation.
M) (top main lube oil pump.
/7) <pen crank case doors.
//) #ut blower and ventilate it thoroughly.
/0) #repare enclosed space entry checklist.
/6) +fter sufficient ventilation, wearing proper ##E enter the E8E.
/3) =ake sure that the main bearing measuring tool (depth gauge) is calibrate and set to >7N.
/%) <pen the screws of lube oil pipe connection and insert the depth gauge and measure the
clearance between upper bearing keep and journal.
/9) Eompare this reading with the earlier reading in the record or the new bearing reading.
/F) Cow disconnect the lube oil pipe line.
/$) !urn the crank throw so that it is towards the exhaust side.
/M) Cow mount the hydraulic jacks and loosen the main bearing stud nuts.
07) =ount the lifting tool for main bearing keep and lift the keep using a pulley and a wire
rope.
0/) Cote the marking on the main bearing keep before lifting for correct direction of the keep.
00) Huide the keep safely outside with a help of another chain block and place it on a wooden
base once it is out.
06) =ount the tool for lifting the upper bearing shell and place it safely outside.
03) #lace the strong back (cross piece) support on the bed plate so that its ends rest on the cross
girders.
0%) =ount the hydraulic jack on the cross piece placing it such that it lies beneath the crank
webs.
09) =ount a dial gauge on the adjacent main bearing so that the lift of the crank shaft can be
recorded.
0F) Cow with hydraulic pressure (/%77?/9%7 bar) lift the crankshaft corresponding to the main
bearing clearance to the adjacent main bearing, and check the lift with the help of a dial gauge.
0$) *emove the lock screws from the lower shell.
0M) #lace the dismantling tool on the lower bearing shell such that the flap enters the oil
groove.
67) #ull the bearing shell round and up so that it lies on the journal and take it out safely.
Ostextbox idPQgreyQ captionPQCoteQR!op =ain bearing clearance; max? 7.%$mm, min?
7.37mmO8stextboxR
%$pes of *ain 4earings of *arine Engines
and their 8roperties
!his is achieved by choosing special materials for manufacturing main bearings which floats the
journal pin of the rotating crankshaft when lube oil is supplied to it.
8roperties of main bearing materials
It must be anti friction resistant
It must be of anti corrosive type
Hood running in and grinding in ability
Hood load carrying capacity
Hood embadibility property
=ust support the oil film
Hood tensile and compressive strength
=ust not react with the lube oil
It must have thermal resistant property to avoid any damage in case it>s running hot

%$pes of *ain 4earing
In maritime industry, there are three famous types of =ain bearings used for both propulsion
engines which are normally 0 stroke engines and power generation engines which are 3 stroke
engines, they are as follows;
/. -ead 4ron<e 4earing; !his bearings consist of the following layers
5lash la$er; It is the top most layer with thickness of 7.76%mm made up of tin and lead.
It is used to protect the bearing from corrosion and dust when not in use. !his layer
flashes off when bearing is running.
:ickle 4arrier; It is the second layer made up of nickel with thickness of 7.70mm. Its
main function is to prevent corrosion and avoid diffusion of tin into bearing metal.
-ead 4ron<e; !he third layer composed of lead bron)e which has an excellent anti
sei)ing property and is the principle component which acts as a bearing out of all layers.
3teel back; (teel back is the last and backing part of the bearing used for shape and
support over which all the layers are bonded together.
Hudgeon #in bearing in a 3 stroke engine is usually made of lead bron)e bearing and also used
for main bearing for smaller engines.
0. 4i1metal 4earing; !his bearing consists of following layers
Aluminium %in; !he first layer of bi metal consists of +l and (n with thickness of 7.% to
/.6mm and this is the main element of this type of bearing.
4onding -a$er; !he bonding layer consists of aluminium and it is 7./mm thick. !he
main function of the bonding layer is to obtain a good bond between the shell and the top
layer.
3teel 4ack; !he backing part used for shape and support.
!his type of bearings are used in 3 stroke engine main bearings
6. %ri *etal 4earing; !hese bearings are called tri metal bearing because they consist of three
main layers (excluding
flash layer as it flashes off) and a steel back. It consists of?
5lash -a$er: It is the top most layer with thickness of / micron made up of tin and lead
and used to protect the bearing from corrosion and dust when not in use. !his layer
flashes off when bearing is in *unning in period.
&verla$: !he second layer made up of white metal (!in +ntimony Eopper) which is the
main component in this type of bearing. Its thickness is 07 microns.
7nterla$; It is the third layer used as anti corrosive layer for overlay. It is of % microns
thickness.
-ining: It is the lining layer between interlay and steel back with thickness of / mm
made up of lead and bron)e.
3teel 4ack: !he backing part used for shape and support.
Thrust Bearing
The thrust from the propeller is taken up by the main
thrust bearing, which transmits the thrust to the
ship's hull and causes the ship to be propelled in the
direction of the thrust.
The thrust bearing is always fitted at the aft end of the
main engine crankshaft. The main thrust bearing
controls the correct location of the crank pins relative
to the center of the cylinders.
In propulsion machinery, the thrust bearing most
commonly used is tilting-pad type.
In tilting pad type of bearing a thrust collar is forged
integrally with the thrust shaft. on the forward and aft
side of the thrust collar, the thrust pads are fitted.
The thrust pads are lined with white metal and face on
to the finally machined and polished surface of the
thrust collar. The back of the pad has a radial ridges,
which forms a fulcrum on which the pad can tilt. The
tilting fulcrum on the back of the pad comes in
contact with a solidly constructed housing. The
housing is rigidly held in the thrust bearing casing.
this type of bearing builds up an oil pressure between
the white metal face of the thrust pad and the thrust
collar when the shaft revolves. The oil pressure is due
to the formation of an oil wedge, which can build up
only when the thrust collar is supplied with the oil and
is revolving. As the pad is able to tilt it becomes self
adjusting to the shape of the wedge.
The thrust acting on the thrust collar is balanced by
the oil pressure created by the tilting pad and thus
transmitting the thrust to ship hull via tilting pad and
housing.
The radial ridge on the back of the pad, which
becomes the fulcrum for the tilting action is often
made off center. If the thrust pads are viewed from
the top,the tilting point is always from the center
moving in the direction of rotation of the collar.

Pump Shaft Alignment Method And Procedure

>>> Straight edge and filler gauge method
Check gap at 12 &6 oclock position.
Check straight edge at top.
Use shims to adjust the motor height & gap at 12 & 6 oclock position.
Then check straight edge and gap at 3 & 9 oclock position.
Use the motor jack to adjust it.
>>Face and periphery method
Good or large diameter hu! "ith short distance shat end.
>>>Reverse periphery method
#etter than laser sighting method.
How to use hydraulic jack in tie rod
The tie rod is put into position and nut is screwed up
hand tight.
A sleeve or collar is then placed around the nut.
ydraulic jack is screwed onto the thread above the
nut and collar until it sits just above the collar. !If
screw the jack tight onto the collar then it will be
impossible to unscrew the jack after tightening".
#hen hydraulic pressure is applied to the jack it pulls
the stud up and pushes the collar down onto the
engine. The entire length of tie rod is stretched.
#hen you achieve the correct hydraulic pressure.
$mall Tommy bar is placed through cut outs in the
collar into holes drilled in the nut with this we tighten
the nut.
%ow hydraulic pressure is then released and due to
elasticity of tie rod the nut is pulled against the
engine.
After completely releasing hydraulic pressure the
hoses are disconnected.
Lube oil Properties of main engine crankcasecylinder!au"iliry engine!air
compressor!refrigeration
Main #ngine $rankcase oil Property
low #-.
good detergency
good thermal and o/idation steability
good water separable property
Main #ngine $ylinder oil Property
0igh #-. and #-. retention capability
high o/idation and thermal stability
good anti wear property
good detergency
should burn without forming residues
Au"iliary #ngine Lube oil Property
high o/idation and thermal stability
high anti wear property
0igh #-. and high #-. retention capability
high detergency and high dispersity
it should be 'inc free in order to protect silver
bearing
high viscosity inde/
good water separable property
Air $ompressor Lube oil Property
low ash and carbon formation
high o/idation and thermal stability
e/cellent water separable property
viscosity higher than refrigeration compressor
oil
"ash point higher than refrigeration
compressor oil
%efrigeration $ompressor Lube oil Property
good chemical and thermal stability
low wa/ content and pour point
low foaming
high "ash point
should not be miscible with refrigerant
&hat is 'ra(ity )isc *f Puri+er, Selection and fuctions of Puri+er 'ra(ity
)isc
Gravity Disc or Dam Ring
$uriiers ha%e great role in marine ships.& ring itted at the top o disc
stack rom "here "ater is passing out is called gra%it' disc.(il "hich is or
puriication ma' not !e o same t'pe it is o dierent densities or %iscosit') so the
interace change. To create the correct interace !et"een "ater and oil it is %er'
important to select correct gra%it' disc si*e
Functions of Gravity Disc
+Gra%it' disc in puriier is the one "hich controls the output o the ,ualit' o the
uel.
+-am ring is responsi!le or creating the interace !et"een the oil and "ater
+#ack pressure is maintain !' gra%it' disc
Purifier Gravity Disc Size Selection
+.election o gra%it' disc is depends on .peciic Gra%it')Temperature and eed rate
+There are 2 method to ind the correct si*e o -am ring
1.Using /onogram
2.#' trial and 0rror method
1.Using onogram
To ind the correct gra%it' disc monograms are using on !oard ship here it
is gi%en an e1ample o monogram graph
/ethod ( Using /onogram
2or !etter understanding "e can e1plain "ith the help o an e1ample
3 .peciic gra%it' o treated oil 4.925 at151
Treating temperature 641
2eed rate 3444 78h
.election method
+2rom an intersection !et"een alling cur%e 9 o speciic gra%it' o 4.925 and the
%ertical line o 641) dra" hori*ontal line 99 to reach the %ertical line o 1441.
+Connect !et"een the right end o line 99 and the point o 3444 78h on the treating
capacit' scale using straight line 999.
+:ead "ithin "hich section o gra%it' disc 9nside diameter scale the intersection
made !' line 999 alls.
+2or this select a gra%it' disc ha%ing an 9nside diameter o ;69.

!."y trial and #rror method
9n this method use dierent .i*e o gra%it' disc use one !' one
and check the "ater and oil side or an' leakage o oil in "ater side and "ater in oil
side. 9 one particular gra%it' disc suits ie) no "ater in oil side and no "ater in "ater
side "hich can !e considered as a perect one.
$hat %ill happen if %e use &ig Diameter'smaller gravity disc
#igger the diameter o the disc) the possi!ilit' o ha%ing "ater mi1 "ith
uel is high "hile i the diameter o the disc is smaller then the more good uel 'ou
get.9 "e are to use so small diameter disc) this "ill cause some good uel oil to !e
thro"n to the sludge tank.There is also a dra"!ack i 'ou use to much large
diameter disc !ecause there is a possi!ilit' that the "ater "ill !e mi1ed "ith uel..o
it is %er' important that the si*e grait' disc should !e correct.
&hat is -ndicated Power! Shaft Power And Break Power calculation formula
(ndicated Po%er or (ndicated )orse Po%er ")P Definition
>$o"er produced on the c'linder !ecause o the e1pansion o gas is called
9ndicated <orse $o"er) negating an' riction) heat loss or entrop' "ithin the
s'stem.
+9t is kno"n as the theoretical %alue o po"er o a reciprocating engine.
+9t is calculated rom the pressure de%eloped inside the c'linder) measured
!' an instrument called #ngine indicator.
(ndicated )orsepo%er Formula
(ndicated po%er *Pi+ , Pm - . - / - 0
Pm 1/ean indicated pressure
. = &rea o $iston
/ = 7ength o stroke
0 =>o.o po"er stroke8sec
9n this ormula "e kno" the %alues o &)7 and >) $m ?mean indicated
pressure@ can !e calculated !' the use o engine indicator.
"rea2 )orsepo%er *"p+ or Shaft )orsepo%er*Sp+
> $o"er a%aila!le at the propeller shat is kno"n as .hat
horsepo"er ) as this measured !' means o a !reak is kno"n as !reak po"er.
+(nl' a part o indicated po"er is a%aila!le at the shat !ecause o the
%arious rictional losses such as piston ring)cross head) top end !earing etc
)o% "rea2 )orsepo%er is measured3
>> 9t is measured !' appl'ing a resistance tor,ue as a !reak on the shat the heat
generated !' the riction is carried a"a' !' circulating "ater.
"rea2 )orsepo%er Formula
"p,!40FR
01re%olution per second o the engine
F=:esisting orce o !reak
R=:adius at "hich the orce is applied

)o% Shaft )orsepo%er*Sp+ is measured3
++5orsion meter is the instrument used to measure the tor,ue o the engine
shat.
Shaft )orsepo%er*Sp+ Formula Sp,!405
51 tor,ue "hich is measured !' torsion meter
01re%olution per second o the engine
Speci+c .uel *il $onsumption )e+nition!.ormula And $alculation
Specific Fuel 6il 7onsumption Definition
Consumption o uel oil per unit energ' at out put shat is kno"n as .peciic
uel oil consumption.Unit o speciic uel oil consumption is Ag8kBh or g8!hph .(r
"e can deine in another "a' ie) mass o uel oil consumed per a%erage shat po"er
de%eloped !' the engine at the same time
Specific Fuel 6il 7onsumption Formula for diesel engine
SF67 , * 7o 8 D 8 19:; +'*h 8 Pe+

"hereC
Co D 2uel oil consumption o%er the period ?mE3@
- D Corrected gra%it' ?t8m3@
h D /easuring period) hours
$e D#rake horse po"er) !hp
Specific Fuel 6il 7onsumption 7alculation
2or inding .peciic uel oil consumption "e should kno" all the %alues "hich is
re,uired or the a!o%e ormula
+Take uel oil lo" meter reading or speciic time inter%al usuall' take one hour
period. ie h,1hr
+-ierence !et"een t"o reading gi%es 'ou the Folume ie 7o
+-ensit' o uel oil is in !unker deli%er' note or in sample test result using this
%alue calculate the densit' o uel oil at the temperature near the lo" meter D
Temperature corrected -ensit' DD ?-ensit' o 2uel (il G 15 degree Celsius@ H I1=
J?T=15@ H 4.4446KLM
+Calculate the shat po"er at the gi%en inter%al Pe
For e8ample
h D1hr
Co D1.3m3
-119 D4.9Kt8m3
$e DN)244 !hp
.2(C D ? Co 1 - 1 14E6 @8?h 1 $e@
D1K9.43g8!hph
Speci+c .uel *il $onsumption )e+nition!.ormula And $alculation
Specific Fuel 6il 7onsumption Definition
Consumption o uel oil per unit energ' at out put shat is kno"n as .peciic
uel oil consumption.Unit o speciic uel oil consumption is Ag8kBh or g8!hph .(r
"e can deine in another "a' ie) mass o uel oil consumed per a%erage shat po"er
de%eloped !' the engine at the same time
Specific Fuel 6il 7onsumption Formula for diesel engine
SF67 , * 7o 8 D 8 19:; +'*h 8 Pe+

"hereC
Co D 2uel oil consumption o%er the period ?mE3@
- D Corrected gra%it' ?t8m3@
h D /easuring period) hours
$e D#rake horse po"er) !hp
Specific Fuel 6il 7onsumption 7alculation
2or inding .peciic uel oil consumption "e should kno" all the %alues "hich is
re,uired or the a!o%e ormula
+Take uel oil lo" meter reading or speciic time inter%al usuall' take one hour
period. ie h,1hr
+-ierence !et"een t"o reading gi%es 'ou the Folume ie 7o
+-ensit' o uel oil is in !unker deli%er' note or in sample test result using this
%alue calculate the densit' o uel oil at the temperature near the lo" meter D
Temperature corrected -ensit' DD ?-ensit' o 2uel (il G 15 degree Celsius@ H I1=
J?T=15@ H 4.4446KLM
+Calculate the shat po"er at the gi%en inter%al Pe
For e8ample
h D1hr
Co D1.3m3
-119 D4.9Kt8m3
$e DN)244 !hp
.2(C D ? Co 1 - 1 14E6 @8?h 1 $e@
D1K9.43g8!hph
Air $ompressor Trouble Shooting
1. 2$34$56$2 35753I#! 89 38:74$6684
2amaged valves
2amaged piston rings
6afety valve leaking
2efective cylinder head gasket
3logged air ,lter
). ;.7 659$#! %5;%$ -;8W6
0.p suction valve damaged
0.p suction valve seal leaking
;.p safety valve damaged.
<. 0.7 659$#! %5;%$ -;8W6
6top valve will be closed
0.p safety valve damaged
3logged non return valve
=. ->46#I.? 2I63 4>7#>4$
3ooling water temperature too high
3ooling water pressure too high
Inter cooler or after cooler tubes leaking.
@. 748-;$:6 35>6$2 -! 2$9$3#I%$ 7I6#8. 4I.?6
Increased oil consumption
8il emission from crankcase ventilation
4educed compressor capacity.
$entrifugal Pump $omponents And .unctions
6ome of the most common components found in
centrifugal pumps are wearing rings, stuAng
bo/es, packing, and lantern rings.
&earing %ings
Wearing rings are replaceable rings that are
attached to the impeller andBor the pump casing to
allow a small running clearance between the
impeller and the pump casing without causing
wear of the actual impeller or pump casing
material. 3entrifugal pumps contain rotating
impellers within stationary pump casings. #o allow
the impeller to rotate freely within the pump
casing, a small clearance is designed to be
maintained between the impeller and the
pump casing. #o ma/imi'e the eAciency of a
centrifugal pump, it is necessary to minimi'e the
amount of li&uid leaking through this clearance
from the high pressure or discharge side of the
pump back to the low pressure or suction side.
Wearing rings are designed to be replaced
periodically during the life of a pump and prevent
the more costly replacement of the impeller or the
casing.
stu/ng bo"
8ne of the simplest types of shaft seal is the
stuAng bo/. #he stufng box is a cylindrical space
in the pump casing surrounding the shaft. 4ings of
packing material are placed in this space. Packing
is material in the form of rings or strands that is
placed in the stuAng bo/ to form a seal to control
the rate of leakage along the shaft. #he packing
rings are held in place by a gland. 6tuAng bo/es
are normally designed to allow a small amount of
controlled leakage along the shaft to provide
lubrication and cooling to the packing. #he leakage
rate can be adCusted by tightening and loosening
the packing gland.
Lantern %ing
5 lantern ring is a
perforated hollow ring located near the center of
the packing bo/ that receives relatively cool, clean
li&uid from either the discharge of the pump or
from an e/ternal source and distributes the li&uid
uniformly around the shaft to provide lubrication
and cooling. #he "uid entering the lantern ring can
cool the shaft and packing,
Mechanical Seals
If packing material is not ade&uate for sealing the
shaft. :echanical seals are used as an alternative
method for sealing the shaft. :echanical seals
consist of two basic parts, a rotating element
attached to the pump shaft and a stationary
element attached to the pump casing. $ach of
these elements has a highly polished sealing
surface. #he polished faces of the rotating and
stationary elements come into contact with each
other to form a seal that prevents leakage along
the shaft.
Troubleshoot Presence *f Air -n The %efrigeration System! #"plain The
Procedure .or Purging Air
-ndications of presence of air in refrigeration
system
D0igh condenser pressure
D6mall bubbles in the sight glass
D3ompressor discharge pressure highBrunning hot
D:ore super heat
D7ressure "uctuations
DIneAcient working
P%*$#)0%# .*% P0%'-1' A-%
a. In the normal operation of the system, measure
the li&uid refrigerant pressure, temperature at the
outlet of the condenserBreservoir
b. 3heck the corresponding saturation temperature
for the recorded pressure of the li&uid refrigerant
from the 7*# chart for the same refrigerant
c. 3ompare the measured temperature with the
determined saturation temperature for any sub*
cooling and adCust the "ow of the cooling water
through the condenser to achieve near saturation
condition inside the condenser,
#hen,
d. With the condenser li&uid refrigerant outlet
valve closed, circulate cooling water, start the
compressor and pump down the li&uid to the
condenserBreservoir, checking the pressure in the
suction line. If this pressure is allowed to drop
down below the atmospheric pressure then there
could be chances of air ingress into the system
e. 3irculate the cooling water till the cooling water
outlet and the inlet temperatures e&ual, a check to
ensure complete pump down operation
f. 3heck the condenser sea water out let
temperature, check the refrigerant pressure
corresponding to its temperature from the 7*# chart
of same refrigerant
g. 2ue to the presence of air they donEt agree
h. 4elease air from the condenser, through the
vent cock until the pressure of the refrigerant in
the condenser corresponds to the saturation
pressure at the sea water outlet temperature
&hat is %udder )rop or %udder wear down and How it measures,
&hat is %udder )rop or %udder wear down,
F4udder dropF * is actually the wear down of the
rudder carrier bearing.It is measured by a Gtrammel
gaugeG.
How %udder )rop measures,
4udder drop is measured by a Gtrammel
gaugeG.
How trammel gauge works
#rammel gauge is an ; shaped
instrument.-asically a point marked on the rudder
stock and another point is marked on the hull
inside the steering gear room(0ere it is on the
2eck head girder+. #he distance between these
points is measured and recorded at the time of
construction.#he diference between original
and measured is called rudder drop or rudder wear
down as shown in ,g.
&hat -s Propeller )rop and How to measure propeller drop,
&hat is propeller drop,
#he propeller shaft is having inboard and
outboard seals. It seals against the bron'e liner
shrunk ,t around the cast iron propeller shaft.5fter
some years it creates groves on them and naturally
looses sealing and sea water can come inside.
#hese reduces the lubrication and create wear if
the bron'e liner have enough clearance the shaft
will come down by certain amount
because of the propeller weight. #his drop in propeller shaft is termed as propeller
drop.
How measure propeller drop,
7ropeller dropG is actually amount the
stern tube bearing wears down and is measured by
a poker gauge which is placed between the last
and second last stern tube seals (aft* near the
propeller+. the reading is taken every dry dock and
recorded. 5 hole is provided on top of the seal
which is closed by a plug. this plug is removed the
poker gauge is inserted and a reading taken. 6o
since the propeller is connected to the shaft and
the poker gauge measures how much the shaft has
GdroppedG due to the wear down of the bearing on
which the shaft runs.
Procedure for taking Main #ngine Bottom #nd Bearing $learance
Lead &ire Method H Its the traditional method,
but re&uires that bearing are tightened Cust to
obtain clearance. the procedure for taking
clearance is as follows
1. #urn the crank shaft and set the crank at #23
position.
). 4emove locking arrangements, mark the nut
position.
<. 6lacken the nut and lower the bottom half with
bolts.
=. #hen three lengths of lead wires would be laid
circumferentially in the bottom half at three
places.
@. 7lace the bottom half into position and tighten
the nut to its tightening tor&ue.
I. ;ower down the bottom half again.

J. 4emove the lead wires and take the
measurement.
K. It must have within the limit, if out of limit, the
bearing shell must be replaced with new ones or
readCust the clearance by adCusting shims.
.eeler 'auge MethodH Its a &uick method, but
more diAcult to be accurate when using the long
feelers. #he procedure for taking clearance is as
follows
1. #urn the crank shaft and set the crank at -23.
). Insert the feeler gauge between lower half and
crank pin.
<. #ake the measurement readings.
Procedure for taking Main #ngine Bottom #nd Bearing $learance
Lead &ire Method H Its the traditional method,
but re&uires that bearing are tightened Cust to
obtain clearance. the procedure for taking
clearance is as follows
1. #urn the crank shaft and set the crank at #23
position.
). 4emove locking arrangements, mark the nut
position.
<. 6lacken the nut and lower the bottom half with
bolts.
=. #hen three lengths of lead wires would be laid
circumferentially in the bottom half at three
places.
@. 7lace the bottom half into position and tighten
the nut to its tightening tor&ue.
I. ;ower down the bottom half again.

J. 4emove the lead wires and take the
measurement.
K. It must have within the limit, if out of limit, the
bearing shell must be replaced with new ones or
readCust the clearance by adCusting shims.
.eeler 'auge MethodH Its a &uick method, but
more diAcult to be accurate when using the long
feelers. #he procedure for taking clearance is as
follows
1. #urn the crank shaft and set the crank at -23.
). Insert the feeler gauge between lower half and
crank pin.
<. #ake the measurement readings.
&HAT -S B0MP-1' $L#A%#1$# -1 A-% $*MP%#SS*%! H*& T* M#AS0%# -T
2 H*& T* A)30ST -T
The adjustment of &umping 'learance is a very critical
adjustment of the clearance volume. If more the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor suffers and if less
the unloaded piston may hit the cylinder head and damage
both. In this article we discuss the need of this clearance
and its adjustment.
What is Bumping Clearance
&umping clearance as the name signifies is a clearance
given so that the piston of the marine reciprocating
compressor would not bump into its cylinder head. In new
compressors the manufacturers adjust this clearance and
the marine engineers are blissfully unaware of its
importance. owever the ship does not remain new
forever and every machine demands overhauling and that
is where the problems start. (ven routine jobs like lifting
the cylinder head to change the low pressure or first stage
valves can change the bumping clearance if the correct
thickness gaskets are not used or if the head is over
tightened thus s)uee*ing out the gaskets. +any engineers
miss this vital adjustment during overhaul of the
compressors and efficiency and free air delivery of the
compressor suffers.
Bumping Clearance Changes over Time
The bumping clearance in a new machine is set
properly by the manufacturers during construction
but over a period of time the clearance changes
because of the following reasons.
#ear at the crankpin bearing. The crankpin bearing
wears down due to use and this clearance can travel
right up to the piston and an unloaded piston can hit
the cylinder head. This type of wear can be recogni*ed
when the compressor makes impact sounds running
unloaded at the starting and stopping operations. This
type of wear would also be accompanied by a slow
decrease in oil pressure over a period of time.
,pening up of cylinder heads. In certain types of
reciprocating compressors the cylinder head have to
be removed for the changing of the first stage suction
and discharge valves. #hen the cylinder head is put
back the correct thickness of the cylinder head gaskets
should be used otherwise it would change the
bumping clearance.
#ear on the main bearings. ,ver all wear on the main
bearings would lower the crankshaft and would thus
lower the piston and increase the bumping clearances.
Significance of Bumping Clearance
The bumping clearance must be adjusted properly
otherwise there is risk of damage and loss of
efficiency. If the bumping clearance were less the
volumetric efficiency would increase but there is risk
of the piston hitting the cylinder head, especially
when the compressor is unloaded during start and
stopping.
,n the other hand to play safe, the engineer gives few
millimeters of e-tra clearance, the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor would decrease, the free
air delivery will fall and there will be a fall in pressure.
The e-tra clearance would result in a small volume of
air being re-e-panded every time causing increase in
air temperature, fall in efficiency and overheating of
the compressors. This would endanger the ship during
maneuvering by sudden loss of propulsion.
How to Check Bumping Clearance
The bumping clearance can be checked by the following
methods.
In case a suitable opening is available the piston can
be barred to the top dead centre and then feeler
gauges can be put inside and the clearances checked
at two three points.
The more convenient method is to take lead wire from
the engine store and make a small ball based on the
e-pected clearance and put it between the piston and
the head from the valve opening. Then the piston is
slowly turned to the top dead centre with the help of a
Tommy bar. After that the piston is again turned
down and the lead wire ball is e-tracted and the
thickness measured with the help of a micrometer.
This measurement would give the bumping clearance.
The caution, which must be observed in these
methods, is that, the clearances of the main and the
crank pin bearing have not been taken into account.
The correct method is thus that after turning the
piston to top dead centre the piston connecting rod
must be jacked up with the help of a crow bar. It is
only after this hidden clearance has been accounted
for, will the correct bumping clearance be found.
How to Adjust the Bumping Clearance
The bumping clearance once found to be incorrect would
have to be adjusted. The methods of adjusting the
bumping clearances are as follows.
The cylinder head gaskets can be changed to a
different thickness thus altering the bumping
clearance.
The shims between the foot of the connecting rod and
the bottom end bearing can be changed thus changing
the bumping clearance.
owever after adjusting the bumping clearance the
clearance should be checked once again to make sure
that there is no error and the clearance is within the
range as specified by the manufacturers. It must be
stressed that compressors are unforgiving and
incorrectly maintained compressors have claimed
many a lives
How to maintain Lubricating *il on board ,
/., on board test is carried out regularly.
0egular cleaned /., line filter.
/., purifier should be run during ship is in sea.
+aintain /., purifier performance.
1eriodic batch purification must be carried out 2
cleaned /., sump tank once a year.
+aintain /., temperature within receptacle limit.
+aintain good /., cooler efficiency.
3eep good fuel combustion system.
Main #ngine .ull .ormAbbre(iation of MA1 B2&
(g. +ain (ngine -MAN BW !S"!MC#C
+A% -+A$'I%(% 4A&0I3 A56$&(06
%50+&(06
&2# -&50+(I$T(0 A%7 #(I%
8 - %,. ,4 '9/I%7(0$
$ -$51(0/,%6 $T0,3(
:8 -'9/I%7(0 &,0( I% cm
+ -(%6I%( 10,60A++(
' -'A+$A4T ',%T0,//(7!,T(0 5$(7 I$
(-(/('T0,%I'A//9 ',%T0,//(7"
' -',+1A'T
&hy Back Pressure 4al(e -n %efrigeration System
1501,$( ,4 &A'3 10($$50( ;<; I%<,#
7I44(0(%T 0,,+ T(+1(0AT50($ A0(
+AI%TAI%(7 I% 0(40I6(0ATI,% $9$T(+=
&A'3 10($$50( ;<;s are maintaining the
different room temperatures in refrigeration system.
&ack pressure valve is fitted at the outlet of veg room. The
reason being that the veg room is maintained at
a temperature of >: -? degress while fish room is at about
-@A to -@? degrees and the flow and amount of refrigerant
at fish room and meat room is greater as compared to that
of veg room. hence if back pressure valve is not fitted then
when
refrigerants will come at the outlet of all the three rooms
then the refrigerant will tend to flow towards veg room.
hence to avoid it a back pressure valve is fitted which will
allow refrigerant to flow out only if the pressure inside the
veg room outlet will be greater than the outlet from the
main line.$o back pressure valve increase the
back pressure in veg, room line which increase the
saturation temperature
-ntercooler 4s Aftercooler -n Air $ompressor
7ifference &etween Intercooler And Aftercooler In Air
'ompressor
Intercooler
$%itted intermediate stages
$&ncrease in volumetric efficienc'
$(educe temperature for ne)t stage and it can
avoid a
danger of e)plosion in compressor c'linder*
$No car+oni,ed material form of discharge
valve
$Moisture separation is easier through
intercooler drain
$Saves power
$Can provide good lu+rication of the
compressor piston
Aftercooler
$%itted at the final stage discharge side
$&ncrease volumetric efficienc'
$(educe final discharge air temperature to
room temperature
$Help to reduce air#+ottle si,e
$Moisture sep$rank $ase -nspection $hecks .or 56Stroke
Main #ngine
In this section you can read the checks to be carried out in
crank case inspection
#hite metal particles or foreign particles in the
lubricating oil.
'olour of lubricating oil and oil flow.
'heck for white metal s)uee*ing at bearings.
'heck the crankcase walls for carbon deposits, leaking
from diaphragm.
'heck the crankpin and web alignment mark.
All bolts, nuts and locking marks.
'rankcase relief door.
Any discolouraisation signifying hot spots.
'learances of bearings
Simple #"planation *f $rankshaft )e7ections! Measurement Procedure!
%eadings!$ur(es
wh' crankshaft deflections are taken-
B'onsider one section for better understanding i.e. two
crank webs, a crank pin and two journals.
BIf a straight length of shaft is supported at either end and
is subjected to a central load
BThe effect in shaft is upper material in compression and
the lower in tension.
BThis effect is applicable to the section of crankshaft
described above with the bearings supporting the
assembly at the journals and the point loading being effect
by the weight of the piston and conrod assembly ! ignoring
other loads found operational conditions such as
combustion and centrifugal ".
Effect on Crankshaft
BIt can be seen that the effect is to increase the distance
between the webs at top dead centre !T7'" and reduce the
distance at bottom dead centre !&7'".
BThis deflection is normally found in all crankshafts
although for smaller engines with very rigid cranks this
may be very small.
BA set of measurements taken from an engine will reveal
this deflection which should be constant through each
crank<piston unit.
BThe caveat to this is that increase deflection is seen at the
fly wheel and cam chain gear wheel sections due to the
increased loading.
Finding faults
BAfter initial installation and alignment a set of
deflections are taken. These then form the datum line to
which all other recordings are measured against.
C It should be noted that changes in circumstances will
effect the deflections are not indicative of faults. These
includeD
C Ambient temperature
C (ngine temperature
C vessel hull loading !hogging, sagging etc"
C vessel afloat, dry docked ! again vessel hull loading can
cause effects even in drydock due to movement of blocks,
which tanks are full etc"
C these effects are well known and an e-perienced
engineer will take into account these factors when looking
at a set of recordings
BIf a situation now occurs where a bearing becomes more
worn than an adjacent one the effects will be shown as a
change in the pattern of delections.
B#hen the cranks is turned from &7' to T7' the weight
of the running gear causes the crank webs and crackpins to
bend in such a manner that the distance between the webs
decreases, and continues to decrease until the bearing is
no longer in contact with the journal
BThe deflection when the crankshaft is approaching T7'
will then go from its normal positive reading to *ero and
then to negative readings at which point the assembly is
supporting the weight without the assistance from the
lowered main bearing.
Thus, any changes from natural deflections can be related
to main bearing misalignement and is proportional to the
differences in height of the bearings
Crankshaft Deflection Measurement
Procedure
BThese are generally taken using a spring loaded dial
gauge. And fit as shown in fig.
BThe crank webs are punch marked to ensure that the
readings are taken in the same place each time.
B 4ive measuring points are taken- T7', EF' either side of
T7' and GF' either side of &7'. The latter two
measurements are re)uired as it is not possible to measure
at &7' due to the 'on rod.
BThe measurements are always taken starting at the same
starting point.
BIn this case we will say 1ort side near &7'. The gauge is
fitted and *eroed.
B0otate the engine continuusly and the readings read off
during rotation.
BAfter the final reading the egine is rotated back to the
start point. If the reading is not *ero then it indicates that
the gauge is moved and the readings are re-taken.
Crankshaft Deflection Readings Example
These readings were taken from a &2# 83H8(4 ! It's the
one with the rocker arms and the self adjusting tappets
that make you crap yourself when they fail"
'rank 1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
1ort near &7' I F F F F F F
1ort ori*ontal 1 8 @ H -E -: :
T7' T @A G @G -@8 -@A ?
$tbd ori*ontal $ 8 G 8 -H -J G
$tbd near &7' 9 -@ A -A A @ -:
corrected &7'
K!I>9"<AL&M
F @ -@ @ F -A
Vertical Alignement
'rank 1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
;ertical
alignement KT-
&L;M
@A A @: -@H -@A
H

Crankshaft .eflection Curve
These figures may now be used to draw a misaligement
curve similar to the one below and may be analysed to see
which bearings are in need of adjustment. he assistance
from the lowered main bearing.
Horizontal Alignement
'rank 1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
ori*ontal
alignement K1-$LM
F -A @ -A : @
Gauge reading Check
'rank
1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
T>&L' @A : @A -@? -@A G
1>$L7 @A : @G -@8 -@A H
' 2 7 should be practically the same, hence the readings
from %o8 'yl may be suspect
Image 'redit.brighthubengineering.com,
Simple #"planation *f $rankshaft )e7ections! Measurement Procedure!
%eadings!$ur(es
wh' crankshaft deflections are taken-
B'onsider one section for better understanding i.e. two
crank webs, a crank pin and two journals.
BIf a straight length of shaft is supported at either end and
is subjected to a central load
BThe effect in shaft is upper material in compression and
the lower in tension.
BThis effect is applicable to the section of crankshaft
described above with the bearings supporting the
assembly at the journals and the point loading being effect
by the weight of the piston and conrod assembly ! ignoring
other loads found operational conditions such as
combustion and centrifugal ".
Effect on Crankshaft
BIt can be seen that the effect is to increase the distance
between the webs at top dead centre !T7'" and reduce the
distance at bottom dead centre !&7'".
BThis deflection is normally found in all crankshafts
although for smaller engines with very rigid cranks this
may be very small.
BA set of measurements taken from an engine will reveal
this deflection which should be constant through each
crank<piston unit.
BThe caveat to this is that increase deflection is seen at the
fly wheel and cam chain gear wheel sections due to the
increased loading.
Finding faults
BAfter initial installation and alignment a set of
deflections are taken. These then form the datum line to
which all other recordings are measured against.
C It should be noted that changes in circumstances will
effect the deflections are not indicative of faults. These
includeD
C Ambient temperature
C (ngine temperature
C vessel hull loading !hogging, sagging etc"
C vessel afloat, dry docked ! again vessel hull loading can
cause effects even in drydock due to movement of blocks,
which tanks are full etc"
C these effects are well known and an e-perienced
engineer will take into account these factors when looking
at a set of recordings
BIf a situation now occurs where a bearing becomes more
worn than an adjacent one the effects will be shown as a
change in the pattern of delections.
B#hen the cranks is turned from &7' to T7' the weight
of the running gear causes the crank webs and crackpins to
bend in such a manner that the distance between the webs
decreases, and continues to decrease until the bearing is
no longer in contact with the journal
BThe deflection when the crankshaft is approaching T7'
will then go from its normal positive reading to *ero and
then to negative readings at which point the assembly is
supporting the weight without the assistance from the
lowered main bearing.
Thus, any changes from natural deflections can be related
to main bearing misalignement and is proportional to the
differences in height of the bearings
Crankshaft Deflection Measurement
Procedure
BThese are generally taken using a spring loaded dial
gauge. And fit as shown in fig.
BThe crank webs are punch marked to ensure that the
readings are taken in the same place each time.
B 4ive measuring points are taken- T7', EF' either side of
T7' and GF' either side of &7'. The latter two
measurements are re)uired as it is not possible to measure
at &7' due to the 'on rod.
BThe measurements are always taken starting at the same
starting point.
BIn this case we will say 1ort side near &7'. The gauge is
fitted and *eroed.
B0otate the engine continuusly and the readings read off
during rotation.
BAfter the final reading the egine is rotated back to the
start point. If the reading is not *ero then it indicates that
the gauge is moved and the readings are re-taken.
Crankshaft Deflection Readings Example
These readings were taken from a &2# 83H8(4 ! It's the
one with the rocker arms and the self adjusting tappets
that make you crap yourself when they fail"
'rank 1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
1ort near &7' I F F F F F F
1ort ori*ontal 1 8 @ H -E -: :
T7' T @A G @G -@8 -@A ?
$tbd ori*ontal $ 8 G 8 -H -J G
$tbd near &7' 9 -@ A -A A @ -:
corrected &7'
K!I>9"<AL&M
F @ -@ @ F -A
Vertical Alignement
'rank 1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
;ertical
alignement KT-
&L;M
@A A @: -@H -@A
H

Crankshaft .eflection Curve
These figures may now be used to draw a misaligement
curve similar to the one below and may be analysed to see
which bearings are in need of adjustment. he assistance
from the lowered main bearing.
Horizontal Alignement
'rank 1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
ori*ontal
alignement K1-$LM
F -A @ -A : @
Gauge reading Check
'rank
1osition
%o@
'yl
%oA
'yl
%oG
'yl
%o:
'yl
%o?
'yl
%o8
'yl
T>&L' @A : @A -@? -@A G
1>$L7 @A : @G -@8 -@A H
' 2 7 should be practically the same, hence the readings
from %o8 'yl may be suspect
Image 'redit.brighthubengineering.com,
How $rankcase #"plosion -n Marine )iesel #ngine, How To Pre(ent -t,
'rankcase e-plosions are also the result of high
operating temperatures of the engine
The main cause of crankcase e-plosions is the
development of hot spots at various places in the
crankcase.
7ue to the reciprocating motion of the piston the
lubricating oil in the crankcase is splashed in the air.
%ow it is necessary that the flash point of the
lubricating oil be maintained at around AFF degree
'elsius. If this is not done then there are high chances
for the lubricating oil to catch fire.
Hot spots are created in the crankcase as a result
of/
igh temperature due to the reciprocating movement
of the piston
Increase in bearing temperatures,
$parks entering the crankcase due to leaky piston
rings or piston blow past,
4ires in the adjacent scavenge trunks
Bwhen these hot spots come in contact with the oil in the
crankcase, the oil gets vapori*ed.
B#hen these vapori*ed particles travel to the cooler part
of the crankcase they get condensed into a white mist,
which has oil particles properly dispensed in it. The
process that takes place is somewhat similar to
atomi*ation.
BThis white mist when again travels to the hot spot area,
can easily catch fire, which might also lead to an e-plosion.
The fire or the e-plosion creates immense pressure inside
the crankcase and if this pressure crosses the permissible
limit, crankcase e-plosion takes place.
0re#1)plosion Signs of crank case e)plosion
$udden increase in the e-haust temperature
$udden increase in the load on the engine
Irregular running of the engine
Incongruous noise of the engine
$mell of the white mist.
In case of these indications, engine speed should
be brought down immediately and the supply of fuel and
air should be stopped. The system should then be allowed
to cool down by opening the indicator cocks and turning
on the internal cooling system.
How To 0revent Crankcase 1)plosion
1reventing the generation of hot spots can do prevention
of crankcase e-plosion.
1roper lubrication which avoid metal to metal
contact.
Avoid sudden change in engine load and overloading
5se oil mist detector in crankcase with alarms
1ressure 0elief valve fitted on crank case should be
tested 1eriodicaly
'rankcase doors should be made of strong and
durable material.
;ent pipes shouldn't be too large and should be
checked for any choke up.
'rankcase doors should be made of strong and
durable material.
&hat is Tappet $learance, How to check And Adjust tapper clearance,
$hat is 5appet 7learance 6r <alve tappet clearance ad=ustment3
+Tappet clearance is a space !et"een the top o the %al%e stem and the rocker
arm.
+9ts purpose is to allo" or some mechanical e1pansion and lengthening o the
%al%e stem and push rods as the engine "arms up. This clearance is also called
%al%e lash.
$hy 5appet 7learance (s Given3
+Tappet clearance is taken to ensure positi%e closing o the %al%e and or thermal
e1pansion o the %al%e.
)o% 5o 7hec2 5appet 7learance
1. Taking all saet' precautions.
2. /ake sure the piston is on T-C.
i. 2rom the marking on the l'"heel.
ii. 2rom the uel cam.
iii. $ush rod should !e ree. ?!oth the %al%e should !e close at this stage ie at the end o
compression stroke@
3. /ake sure the engine has cooled do"n.
K. 7oosen the lock nut o the rocker arm.
5. >o" adjust the tappet clearance !et"een the rocker arm & %al%e stem !' tightening or
loosing the nut !elo" the lock nut.
6. Use eeler gauge to adjust the suction %al%e clearance as .35mm an e1haust %al%e
clearance as .K5mm
$hat %ill happen if tappet clearance is less>
i. Fal%e "ill open earl' & close late
ii. &ir induced through inlet %al%e ma' leak out. .o) less air or com!ustion.
iii. $o"er "ill !e reduced.
i%. 2uel consumption "ill increase) engine ma' !ecome un!alanced) e1haust temp. "ill !e
%er' high.
%. 9n "orst condition) %al%e ma' remain open) resulting in loss o compression pressure)
!urning o e1haust %al%e) T8C ouling "ill increase.
$hat %ill happen if tappet clearance is more>
i. Fal%e "ill open late & close earl'.
ii. 7esser heat energ' to T8C) so reduction in sca%enge air & hence po"er.
iii. >o proper remo%al o gases.
i%. <ammering o %al%e stem=ma' cause damage to %al%e stem.
Boiler Au"iliary $omponents
Boiler components
S8ST#M $*MP*1#
1TS
.01$T-*1
9orced drought fan Draws air from the top of the boiler room and
$ombust
ion
air
system
discharges it through ducting into the air heater.
5ir heater It situated in the flue gas ducting from the boiler and
transfer heat into combustion air before it ducted to
the air register
5ir register
The heated air is now ducted into the furnace register,
a circular cowling which swirls the air blowing it into
the furnace combustion area at an air ratio of between
10 and 0!
Boiler
feed
water
system
$conomi'er
It is a heat e"changer situated in the e"haust gas
ducting and it transfers heat to the boiler feed water
on it wa# bac$ to boiler
-oiler feed control
valve
Controls the suppl# of feed water to the top drum. This
%al%e opens and closes as the steam pressure and
steam flow %aries.
-oiler feed check
valve
It is a non return %al%e situated before the drum used
to isolate the feed water flow to the boiler
.uel oil
system
9uel oil pump Transfers fuel oil from the storage to the fuel oil heater
9uel oil heater Heats the fuel oil to a high temperature to maintain
%iscosit#
9uel oil duple/
,lters
&rom the heater the oil is pumped through the duple"
fine mesh filters
9uel oil burners It is located in the air register, it atomises the fuel
spra#ing it into the furnace
Steam
system
6team superheater This is an enclosed nest of pipes located in the hottest
section of the e"haust gases, usuall# to the underside
of the steam drum
6oot blowers
long perforated pipe which rotates spra#ing steam or
compressed air onto the boiler tubes remo%ing the
coating of soot deposited b# the combustion gases.
'ocated around the water tubes economiser and air
heater tubes.
two high pressure safet# %al%es fitted to the steam
6afety
valves
drum outlet piping and one safet# %al%e fitted to the
superheater outlet header.
P01$T0%# 4AL4#
1uncture valve is provided on the delivery side of the fuel pump and is used to cut of the
fuel injector
The puncture valve consists of a piston which communicates with the control air system
of the engine.
In the event of actuation of the shut-down system, and when '$T,1' is activated,
compressed air causes the piston with pin to be pressed downward and 'puncture' the oil
flow to the fuel valve.
As long as the puncture valve is activated, the fuel oil is returned through a pipe to the
pump housing, and no injection takes place.
4apour Absorption %efrigeration System
The vapour absorption refrigeration system consists of
Absorber. Absorption of refrigerant vapour by a suitable
absorbent or adsorbent, forming a strong or rich solution
of the refrigerant in the absorbent< adsorbent
1ump. 1umping of the rich solution and raising its
pressure to the pressure of the condenser
6enerator. 7istillation of the vapour from the rich solution
leaving the poor solution for recycling
The absorption chiller is a machine, which produces
chilled water by using heat such as steam, hot water, gas,
oil etc. 'hilled water is produced based on the principle
that li)uid !i.e. refrigerant, which evaporates at a low
temperature" absorbs heat from its surroundings when it
evaporates. 1ure water is used as refrigerant and lithium
bromide solution is used as absorbent.
eat for the vapour absorption refrigeration system can be
provided by waste heat e-tracted from the process, diesel
generator sets etc. In that case absorption systems re)uire
electricity for running pumps only. 7epending on the
temperature re)uired and the power cost, it may even be
economical to generate heat <steam to operate the
absorption system.
1vaporator
The refrigerant !water" evaporates at around :o' under a
high vacuum condition of H?: mm g in the evaporator.
'hilled water goes through heat e-changer tubes in the
evaporator and transfers heat to the evaporated
refrigerant.
The evaporated refrigerant !vapor" turns into li)uid again,
while the latent heat from this vapori*ation process cools
the chilled water !in the diagram from @A o' to H o'". The
chilled water is then used for cooling purposes.
A+sor+er
In order to keep evaporating, the refrigerant vapor must
be discharged from the evaporator and refrigerant !water"
must be supplied. The refrigerant vapor is absorbed into
lithium bromide solution, which is convenient to absorb
the refrigerant vapor in the absorber. The heat generated
in the absorption process is continuously removed from
the system by cooling water. The absorption also
maintains the vacuum inside the evaporator.
High 0ressure 2enerator
As lithium bromide solution is diluted, the ability to
absorb the refrigerant vapor reduces. In order to keep the
absorption process going, the diluted lithium bromide
solution must be concentrated again.
An absorption chiller is provided with a solution
concentrating system, called a generator. eating media
such as steam, hot water, gas or oil perform the function of
concentrating solutions.
The concentrated solution is returned to the absorber to
absorb refrigerant vapor again.
Condenser
To complete the refrigeration cycle, and thereby ensuring
the refrigeration takes place continuously, the following
two functions are re)uired
@. To concentrate and li)uefy the evaporated refrigerant
vapor, which is generated in the high pressure generator.
A. To supply the condensed water to the evaporator as
refrigerant !water"
4or these two functions a condenser is installed.
&hy Liners are 'enerally Thinner at the Bottom than at the Top ,
The hoop stress on the liner is independent on the gas
pressure within the cylinder, as the piston progresses
downwards the gas pressure decreases. Any section of the
liner has therefore to be strong enough to resist gas
pressure above the top piston ring as the piston descents
on the power stroke. The liner may therefore be made
progressively thinner in sectional thickness to suit the
lower gas pressure towards its lower part.
&y making the liner progressively thinner, the rate of heat
transfer from the thicker section is increased as the heat
flows downwards to the thinner section which is cooler,
both by reasons of gas temperature and because the
thinner section transfers heat more easily to the cooling
water.
Thermostatic #"pansion 4al(e 9 T#4 :
The working of the thermostatic e-pansion valve can
be e-plained with the help of the attached image of
the valve. The valve comprises of e-ternal body inside
which various parts as shown in the figure are
enclosed.
There are three pressures acting inside the
thermostatic e-pansion valve. 1@ is the pressure at the
top of the thermostatic e-pansion valve acting inside
the power element above the diaphragm. 7ue to this
pressure the diaphragm tends to move down due
which the needle also moves down and the valve tends
to open. #hen the evaporator temperature becomes
higher the gas in the feeler bulb e-pands due to which
the gas pressure inside the power element increases.
This causes the downward movement of the needle to
open the valve.
The pressure 1A is the pressure acting on the lower
side of the diaphragm due to the refrigerant pressure
inside the evaporator. This pressure tends to move the
diaphragm upwards and close the opening of the
valve.
The pressure 1G is the spring pressure that tends to
close the opening of the valve. This pressure remains
constant.
The pressures 1A and 1G act against the pressure 1@.
The pressure 1@ tends to open the valve while the
pressure 1A and 1G tend to close the thermostatic
e-pansion valve. Thus if the valve has to open 1@
should be greater than combined forces of 1A and 1G.
7uring the normal working of the refrigeration plant
the thermostatic e-pansion valve remains opened in
certain position. #hen the refrigeration load
increases, the temperature inside the evaporator also
increases. In such cases there is need of the more
refrigerant to take care of the increased load. The
increased temperature in the evaporator is sensed by
the feeler bulb of the thermostatic e-pansion valve.
This leads to the e-pansion of the gas in the feeler
bulb and also in the power element of the T(; leading
to the increase in pressure 1@. 7ue to this the
diaphragm of the T(; moves down and tends to open
the valve further to increase the flow of the refrigerant
to the evaporator.
At the same time the pressure 1A below the
diaphragm also increases due to superheating of the
refrigerant inside the evaporator. This pressure tends
to close the valve. There is also spring pressure 1G
below the diaphragm that opposes the opening of the
valve. If the increase in the refrigeration load is much
higher the pressure 1@ overcomes pressure 1A and 1G
leading to the further opening of the thermostatic
e-pansion valve. This allows for the increased flow of
the refrigerant to the evaporator to take care of the
e-tra load.
#hen the refrigeration load reduces, the magnitude of
pressure 1@ reduces and the combined pressures 1A
and 1G overcome pressure 1@ that allows for partial
closing of the valve so the flow of the refrigerant to the
evaporator reduces. Thus the T(; maintains the flow
of the refrigerant inside the evaporator as per the
refrigeration or air conditioning load. The T(;
constantly modulates the flow to maintain the
superheat for which it has been adjusted by the
spring.
Basic -deal $ycles for -$ #ngine
*tto $ycle
#he 8tto cycle is used as a basis of comparison for
6I engines
#he cycle consists of four processes,
1 L ) isentropic compression from %1 to %)
) L < addition of heat M)< at constant volume
< L = isentropic e/pansion to the original volume
= L 1 reCection of heat M=1 at constant volume
)iesel cycle
#he 2iesel cycle is used as a basis of comparison
for 3I engines
#he cycle consists of four processes,
1 L ) isentropic compression from %1 to %)
) L < addition of heat M)< at constant pressure
< L = isentropic e/pansion to the original volume
= L 1 reCection of heat M=1 at constant volume
)uel $ycle
#he cycle consists of four processes,
1 L ) isentropic compression from %1 to %)
) L <G addition of heat M)<G at constant volume
<GL< addition of heat M<G< at constant pressure
< L = isentropic e/pansion to the original volume
= L 1 reCection of heat M=1 at constant volume
Mu; $oupling #"plained
This coupling consists o t"o slee%es one inner and one outer slee%e.
The inner slee%e has a !ore diameter slightl' more than shat diameter
surace o inner slee%e is tapered and this tapper is matched on the !ore o
the outer slee%e.
>ut and sealing ring is used to close the annular space at the end o outer
slee%e.
Bhen the coupling is in position the outer slee%e is h'draulicall' dri%en on
the inner slee%e. 2or that) oil is supplied 244 !ar oil at t"o points or orced
lu!rication and 344 !ar oil or dri%ing the outer slee%e.
Bhen the outer slee%e reaches re,uired position the orced lu!rication
pressure is released and drained. >o" hoses are disconnected and plugs are
itted.
Be can check the coupling !' measuring the outside diameter o the outer
slee%eO it should match "ith igure stamped on slee%e.
)i;erence Between Safety 4al(e And %elief 4al(e
Safet' 3alve
B7irectly open when the pressure reaches at set pressure.
B'an open manually.
B$etting pressure is just above the working and not more
than GN above the approved working pressure.
B7ue to its popping up action wire draw effect due to
steam is reduced.
BIn this valve opening is sudden when the set pressure is
reached.
(elief valve
B,pening is proportion to the increase in pressure.
B'an not be open manually.
B$etting pressure is @FN above working pressure.
BThere is no popping up action so wire draw effect can be
seen between valve and valve seat.
BIn this valve opening is proportional to increase in
pressure, so the valve opening is gradual if increase in
pressure is gradual.
Safety Arrangements in $rank $ase
2evices such as crank case relief door, "ame
trap, crankcase oil mist detector 38
)
drenching
system are ,tted to crank case for prevention
and protection from crank case e/plosion.
3rank case doors are robust in construction
and non return relief valves are ,tted to crank
case of each cylinder.
#he total clear area through the relief valves is
normally greater than N.1< cm
<
Bm
<
of gross
crank case volume
3rank case relief doorGs outlets are so guarded
that personnel are protected from "ame
discharge in case of an e/plosion
;ubricating oil drain pipes from engine sump to
drain tank should e/tend to below the working
oil level in the tank
2rain and vent pipes in multi cylinder engine
are arranged so that the "ame of an e/plosion
cannot pass from one cylinder to another
Principles of %efrigeration
The principle of heat transfer, evaporation and
condensation are applied in refrigeration. 4igure
illustrates the basic components and operating cycles
of a refrigerator.
'old li)uid refrigerant is evaporated in an evaporator
coil which, being colder than its surroundings draws
heat from them to latent heat of vapori*ation.
The cool vapour is drawn off by a compressor which
rises both the pressure and temperature of the vapour
and passes it to condenser.
The pressure of the vapour having been increased, the
vapour now has a temperature of condensation
substantially greater than the temp of the condenser
coolant li)uid.
The vapour is condensed to a high pressure li)uid and
the sensible heat of desuper heating the vapour
together with intent heat of condensation is removed
via the condenser coolant which is warmed up in the
process.
The high pressure li)uid then passes through a
e-pansion valve to the low pressure side of the
refrigerator and, in doing so, flash evaporates to a
two-phase mi-ture of cold li)uid and vapour.
The mi-ture then passes to the evaporator to continue
the cycle.
)i;erence Between *il $ooled and &ater $ooled Piston<
4&5 C4451. 0&ST4N
%o risk of contamination.
%o e-tra pump or pipes re)uired.
'ostly, e-cess oil re)uired.
/ow specific heat capacity.
/ow temp difference with piston crown.
'arbon deposits at high temperature.
,il o-idi*ed at high temperature.
%o hardness scale formation.
WAT1( C4451. 0&ST4N
'hance of water contamination in oil.
(-tra pump and pipes re)uired.
%o cost for water.
igh specific heat capacity.
igh temperature gradient with crown.
%o chance of deposits if cooling water is treated.
'an operate at high temperature.
+ay form hardness scale.
Sul=er Air Start )istributor
The air start distributor is driven from the main camshaft.
The pilot valves, one for each cylinder, are arranged
radially
around a cam profile. #hen not in use, the pilot valve
followers are held off the cam by springs.
#hen an ahead start signal is given, air at GF bar enters
the space above the servomotor piston, and passes through
the start cut off valve to actuate the pneumatic valve,
which allows air from the air start manifold to the pilot
valves. The air pushes the pilot valves against the cam, and
when each pilot valve is on the base of the cam, air can
pass through to operate the main air start valve. As the
cam pushes the pilot valve into the closed position, the line
to the main air start valve is vented
List *ut Lube *il Properties
Lubricating *il Properties
#he main function of a lubrication oil is to create
and maintain a lubrication ,lm between two
moving metal surfaces. #he basic properties of
lubricant used in ship are
4iscosityH it is the most important property of
lubricating oil which depends upon the
temperature. %iscosity can be de,ned as
measurement of "uid internal resistance to "ow at
a speci,ed temperature. #here are two ways to
measure a "uidEs viscosity,
namely 2ynamic (5bsolute+ %iscosity and
Oinematic %iscosity.
$arbon residueH it is the property of lubricating
oil to form carbon residues at elevated
temperatures.
.lash pointH it is the tendency of oil vapours to
ignite. 9lash point is important for crank case lube
oil which is contaminated by fuel oil leaks.
*ilnessH it is the tendency of oil to adhere to the
moving surfaces.
)etergency and dispersancyH it is the tendency
to colloidally suspend, disperse and wash away any
harmful combustion products in the oil.
)e6emulsi(ityH it is the tendency of oil to separate
from water in a non misible emulsion.
.oamingH when oil mi/ing with air resulting in
cavitation an over heating.
Pour pointH it is the lowest temperature at witch
the oil starts to "ow by gravity. #he oil should be
preheated if it is used below its pour point
temperature.
Base numberH it is the capacity of the oil to
neutrali'e the sulphuric compounds which are
formed while using sulphur rich fuel.
Total base numberH it is the measure of the
alkaline oils. #-. J0 mg O80Bg for cross
head engines and <0 mg O80Bg for trunk engines.
$orrosi(enessH it is the tendency of the
lubricating oil to o/idi'e due to the presence of
o/ygen in the high temperature gaseous
surroundings
List *ut Lube *il Properties
Lubricating *il Properties
#he main function of a lubrication oil is to create
and maintain a lubrication ,lm between two
moving metal surfaces. #he basic properties of
lubricant used in ship are
4iscosityH it is the most important property of
lubricating oil which depends upon the
temperature. %iscosity can be de,ned as
measurement of "uid internal resistance to "ow at
a speci,ed temperature. #here are two ways to
measure a "uidEs viscosity,
namely 2ynamic (5bsolute+ %iscosity and
Oinematic %iscosity.
$arbon residueH it is the property of lubricating
oil to form carbon residues at elevated
temperatures.
.lash pointH it is the tendency of oil vapours to
ignite. 9lash point is important for crank case lube
oil which is contaminated by fuel oil leaks.
*ilnessH it is the tendency of oil to adhere to the
moving surfaces.
)etergency and dispersancyH it is the tendency
to colloidally suspend, disperse and wash away any
harmful combustion products in the oil.
)e6emulsi(ityH it is the tendency of oil to separate
from water in a non misible emulsion.
.oamingH when oil mi/ing with air resulting in
cavitation an over heating.
Pour pointH it is the lowest temperature at witch
the oil starts to "ow by gravity. #he oil should be
preheated if it is used below its pour point
temperature.
Base numberH it is the capacity of the oil to
neutrali'e the sulphuric compounds which are
formed while using sulphur rich fuel.
Total base numberH it is the measure of the
alkaline oils. #-. J0 mg O80Bg for cross
head engines and <0 mg O80Bg for trunk engines.
$orrosi(enessH it is the tendency of the
lubricating oil to o/idi'e due to the presence of
o/ygen in the high temperature gaseous
surroundings
List *f Boiler Mountings
'ertain fittings are necessary on a boiler to ensure its safe
operation. They are usually referred to as boiler
mountings.
The mountings usually found on a boiler are.
$Safet' valves.
These are mounted in pairs to protect the boiler against
overpressure. ,nce the valve lifting pressure is set in the
presence of a $urveyor it is locked and cannot be changed.
The valve is arranged to open automatically at the pre-set
blow-off pressure.
$Main steam stop valve.
This valve is fitted in the main steam supply line and is
usually of the non-return type.
$Au)iliar' steam stop valve*
This is a smaller valve fitted in the au-iliary steam supply
line, and is usually of the non-return type.
$%eed check or control valve*
A pair of valves are fitted. one is the main valve, the other
the au-iliary or standby. They are non-return valves and
must give an indication of their open and closed position.
$Water level gauge.
#ater level gauges or 'gauge glasses' are fitted in pairs, at
opposite ends of the boiler. The construction of the level
gauge depends upon the boiler pressure.
$0ressure gauge connection*
#here necessary on the boiler drum, superheater, etc.,
pressure gauges are fitted to provide pressure readings.
$Air release cock.
These are fitted in the headers, boiler drum, etc., to release
air when filling the boiler or initially raising steam.
$Sampling connection.
A water outlet cock and cooling arrangement is provided
for the sampling and analysis of feed water. A provision
may also be made for injecting water treatment chemicals.
$Blow down valve*
This valve enables water to be blown down or emptied
from the boiler. It may be used when partially or
completely emptying the boiler.
$Scum valve*
A shallow dish positioned at the normal water level is
connected to the scum valve. This enables the blowing
down or removal of scum and impurities from the water
surface.
$Whistle stop valve*
This is a small bore non-return valve which supplies the
whistle with steam straight from the boiler drum.
B4&51( M46NT&N2S 7WAT1(#T6B1 B4&51(S8
#atertube boilers, because of their smaller water content
in relation to their steam raising capacity, re)uire certain
additional mountings.
$Automatic feed water regulator.
4itted in the feed line prior to the main check valve, this
device is essential to ensure the correct water level in.the
boiler during all load conditions. &oilers with a high
evaporation rate will use a multiple-element feed water
control system.
$5ow level alarm.
A device to provide audible warning of low water level
conditions.
$Superheater circulating valves*
Acting also as air vents, these fittings ensure a flow of
steam when initially warming through and raising steam
in the boiler.
$Soot+lowers/
,perated by steam or compressed air, they act to blow
away soot and the products of combustion from the tube
surfaces. $everal are fitted in strategic places. The soot
blower lance is inserted, soot is blown and the lance is
withdrawn.
4ariable -njection Timing 94-T: -n Marine )iesel #ngine
In the variable injection timing !;IT" pump used in +A%
&2# engines the governor output shaft is the controlling
parameter. Two linkages are actuated by the regulating
shaft of the governor.
The upper control linkage changes the injection timing by
raising or lowering the plunger in relation to the cam. The
lower linkage rotates the pump plunger and thus the heli-
in order to vary the pump output.
In the $ul*er engines variable injection timing system the
governor output is connected to a suction valve and
a spill valve. The closing of the pump suction valve
determines the beginning of injection. ,peration of the
spill valve will control the end of injection by releasing fuel
pressure. %o heli- is therefore present on the pump
plunger.
Advantages9#
@. 0educed fuel consumption especially in the
important 8?-J?N power range
A. Adjustments to fuel timing can be easily carried out,
and without stopping engine, which can.-
i" allow balancing of individual engine
cylinder p
ma-
levels,
ii" allow fuel )uality effects to be
countered.
.isadvantages9#
A. +ore comple- pump unit, re)uiring greater amount of
maintenance. +ost ;IT pump units do not operate,
&. If incorrectly adjusted, p
ma-
will become
e-cessive, which results in high
mechanical stresses and shock
)iference between P Alkalinity T Alkalinity and M Alkalinity
In this article you can read 7ifference between p alkalinity
t alkalinity and m alkalinity in simple words
B Alkalinities are classified accordion to the endpoint of
the titration with acid
BThere are three species of alkalinityD bicarbonate,
carbonate and hydro-ide. The concentration of each
species will vary with p.
BTotal alkalinit' or T alkalinit' is the measurement of
all species of alkalinity in the water.
B It is the final endpoint for the alkalinity titration.
BThe concentration of each of the three species can be
determined by titrating a water sample with acid of a
known concentration and using chemical indicators,
phenolphthalein !1 indicator",methyl orange !+
indicator", or a p meter to determine OendpointsO. The
chemical indicators change color at a certain p
points!the endpoint".
BM alkalinit' is same as total alkalinity. ere, P+Q refers
to the p indicator methyl orange !endpoint of about :.A
to :.?"
$0 alkalinit' or 0henolphthalein alkalinit' is the
measurement of amount carbonate and hydro-ide using
titrating water sample with acid of a known concentration
and using 1henolphthalein indicator.
Bere, P1Q refers to the p indicator 1henolphthalein
indicator
B1-alkalinity is measured down to a p of J.G.
Automatic Master Air Start 4al(e Sul=er &ith a Simple )iagram
6se of Automatic air start valve
BAct as stop valve which supplies and shut off main start
air into the main start air line
BAct as non return valve which prevent the blow black of
e-haust gas if the starting air valve is leaky
B1revent flame by the use of a flame trap incorporated
with it.
B$hutoff starting air supply automatically, if the engine is
on fuel or when the engine is on stop
Working of Automatic air start valve
Bere in figure shows a simple diagram of a automatic
start air valve

7uring the normal condition ie engine is at stop, the

valve spindle is screwed up into the closed position,
holding the valve closed against the seat.
#hen the engine is prepared for starting, the valve
spindle is moved to the automatic position. The spring
holds the valve shut.
#hen the start air valve at the air receivers is opened,
air enters the valve body !here it shows 'start air
in'"and Rows to the underside of the valve through the
balancing bores. The air pressure on the underside of
the valve prevents the valve opening.
#hen an air start signal is given, the control valve
opens and the space under the valve is vented. The air
pressure acting on the top surfaces of the valve
overcomes the spring force and the valve opens.
The valve can be tested by opening the test valve. In
an emergency it can be manually operated.
The valve outlet incorporates a non return valve. A
pressure gauge connection and a manual venting
valve are Stted to the valve body.
-)#AL P%*P#%T-#S .*% A %#.%-'#%A1T
0e)uirements for a fluid used as a refrigerant.
A high latent heat of vapori*ation
A high density of suction gas
%on-corrosive, non-to-ic and non-flammable
'ritical temperature and triple point outside the
working range
'ompatibility with component materials and
lubricating oil
0easonable working pressures !not too high, or below
atmospheric pressure"
igh dielectric strength !for compressors with
integral motors"
/ow cost
(ase of leak detection
(nvironmentally friendly
-)#AL P%*P#%T-#S .*% A %#.%-'#%A1T
0e)uirements for a fluid used as a refrigerant.
A high latent heat of vapori*ation
A high density of suction gas
%on-corrosive, non-to-ic and non-flammable
'ritical temperature and triple point outside the
working range
'ompatibility with component materials and
lubricating oil
0easonable working pressures !not too high, or below
atmospheric pressure"
igh dielectric strength !for compressors with
integral motors"
/ow cost
(ase of leak detection
(nvironmentally friendly
>inematic And )ynamic 4iscosity
What is viscosit'-
7efined as the resistance of fluids to change of shape,
being due to the internal molecular friction of molecule
with molecule of the fluid producing the frictional drag
effect.
.'namic 3iscosit'
BAbsolute !7ynamic" viscosity is numerically e)ual to the
force to shear a plane of fluid surface of area of a unit
s)uare meter, over another plane surface at the rate of one
meter per sec, when the distance between the surfaces is
one meter.
B,r it is the tangential force per unit area re)uired to
move one hori*ontal plane with respect to the other at
unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the
fluid.
BThe $I unit of 7ynamic viscosity is % s<mA
B 7ynamic viscosity formula
= dc/dy
where
= shearing stress
= dynamic viscosity
:inematic viscosit'
B3inematic viscosity is the ratio of the absolute viscosity
to the density at the temperature of viscosity
measurement.
BThe $I unit of kinematic viscosity is m
A
<s.
BThe cgs physical unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes
B#ater at AF T' has a kinematic viscosity of about @ c$t
B3inematic viscosity formula
= / !
where
= kinematic viscosity
= a"solute or dynamic viscosity
! = density

3iscosit' inde)
;iscosity inde- is a numerical value which measures the
ability of the oil to resist the change in viscosity with the
change in temperature. A high viscosity inde- shows a
good resistance to the change in viscosity with change in
temperature.
$A0S#S *. SH0T)*&1 A1) SL*& )*&1 *. MA-1 #1'-1#
Main engine safeties
'auses of shut down
(ngine over speed.
+ain and thrust bearing low low oil pressure.
Thrust bearing high temperature.
'auses of slow down
igh temperature of
a" /ube oil inlet
b" 1iston cooling oil
c" +ain and thrust bearing
d" 'ooling water inlet
e" $cavenge air
f" (-haust gas
/ow pressure of
a" 1iston cooling oil
b" +ain and thrust bearing oil
igh oil mist
MA-1 #1'-1# MAT#%-ALS
.o #1'-1# $*MP*1#1T MAT#%-AL
1 $/haust valve
$/haust valve seat
$/haust valve cage
.imonic
:o*6teel with stellite coating
7earlite 3ast Iron
) 3ylinder head cover ;amellar 3ast Iron
< 7iston crown
6kirt
4od
4ing
3ast 6teel
3ast Iron
9orged 6teel
%ermicular 3ast Iron
= ;iner 6pheroidal 3ast Iron
@ #ie rod :ild steel
I $ntabulature 3ast Iron
J 6tuAng -o/ 4ings -ron'e
K 3rosshead -earing #in*5l white metal thin shell bearing
N 3onnecting 4od :ild or medium steel
10 3rank pin bearing White metal bearing
11 3rank shaft web 0.) to 0.= P 3arbon mild steel
1) :ain bearing #hin shell white metal bearing
1< 6addle 3ast 6teel
1= -ed plate 3ast Iron or 9orged 6teel
1@ 5*9rame 9orged steel
)i;erent types of Sca(enging
(fficient scavenging is essential to ensure a sufficient
supply of fresh air for combustion.
In the four-stroke cycle engine there is an ade)uate
overlap between the air inlet valve opening and the
e-haust valve closing.
#ith two-stroke cycle engines this overlap is limited
and some slight mi-ing of e-haust gases and incoming
air does occur.
A number of different scavenging methods are in use
in slow-speed two-stroke engines.
In each the fresh air enters as the inlet port is
opened by the downward movement of the
piston and continues until the port is closed by
the upward moving piston.
The flow path of the scavenge air is decided by the
engine port shape and design and the e-haust
arrangements.
Three basic systems are in use. the cross flow/ the
loop and the uniflow*
All modern slow-speed diesel engines now use the
uniflow scavenging system with a cylinder-head
e-haust valve.
In cross scavenging the incoming air is directed
upwards, pushing the e-haust gases before it. The
e-haust gases then travel down and out of the e-haust
ports.
In loop sca(enging the incoming air passes
over the piston crown then rises towards the
cylinder head. #he e/haust gases are forced
before the air passing down and out of e/haust
ports located Cust above the inlet ports.
In uni7ow sca(enging the incoming air
enters at the lower end of the cylinder and
leaves at the top. #he outlet at the top of the
cylinder may be ports or a large valve.
(ach of the systems has various advantages and
disadvantages.
'ross scavenging re)uires the fitting of a piston skirt
to prevent air or e-haust gas escape when the piston is
at the top of the stroke.
/oop scavenge arrangements have low temperature
air and high temperature e-haust gas passing through
adjacent ports, causing temperature differential
problems for the liner material.
5niflow is the most efficient scavenging system but
re)uires either an opposed piston arrangement or an
e-haust valve in the cylinder head.
All three systems have the ports angled to swirl the
incoming air and direct it in the appropriate path.
Main #ngine Start Air System
#he receiver stop valve is opened and air passes to
the automatic valve and to the master valve,
assuming turning gear is disengaged. -oth valves
remain closed at this stage. When the start lever is
moved to the start position the master valve opens
allowing control air to the distributor slide valve
loading chambers and to the automatic valve
operating chamber<
MA-1 #1'-1# A-% STA%T-1'
S8ST#M
#he receiver stop valve is opened and air passes to
the automatic valve and to the master valve,
assuming turning gear is disengaged. -oth valves
remain closed at this stage. When the start lever is
moved to the start position the master valve opens
allowing control air to the distributor slide valve
loading chambers and to the automatic valve
operating chamber.
#he automatic valve is now open and air passes to
each cylinder air start valve and to the distributor.
2epending upon distributor position, pilot air will
pass to either one or two of the cylinder air start
valve operating chambers opening the valves and
allowing start air to enter the cylinders.
&hat is super heating in refrigeration system,
Super heating is the process of increasing
the temperature abo(e saturation
temperature
Super heating is pro(ided in low pressure
side of the refrigeration cycle because
li?uid refrigerant should not go to the
inlet of compressor<Li?uid
is incompressible if it reaches the
compressor it damages the crank shaft<
Super heating is doing in refrigeration by
placing outlet line from the e(aporator is
placed adjecent to the outlet line form
the condenser< So due to the
high temperature in HP side compared to
LP side! heat transfer is happening<
Simply this act as a heat e" changer<