Captulo II: Historia de los imanes:

El fenmeno del magnetismo ya fue advertido por los griegos varios siglos antes de Cristo en
ciertos minerales encontrados en la naturaleza, aunque los primeros estudios cientficos acerca de
tema recin se realizan en el siglo XVII. Sin embargo, mucho antes de esto la humanidad hizo
amplio uso de un trascendente invento basado en un imn permanente: la brjula. Si bien los chinos
alegan haber utilizado la brjula 2500 aos antes de Cristo, en occidente los primeros usos
documentados de la misma datan del siglo XII. Pero, recin en el siglo XVIII, con el avance de la
metalurgia y el desarrollo de los aceros aleados, aparecen las primeras generaciones imanes
permanentes especficamente fabricados como tales. El siglo XX marca un enorme progreso en el
tema ya que se desarroll un amplio conjunto de compuestos para imanes permanentes, muchos de
los cuales siguen siendo fabricados actualmente.

Se enumeran a continuacin, en orden cronolgico, los compuestos ms notables de imanes
permanentes que fue desarrollando la tecnologa:
Imanes de acero al carbono:
Los aceros de medio y alto carbono poseen la propiedad de magnetizarse por medios mecnicos o
fsicos y de retener en cierta medida este magnetismo. Golpes, de formacin plstica, tensiones
mecnicas elevadas, etc. son ejemplos de acciones mecnicas que pueden inducir magnetizacin de
aceros. La aplicacin de campo magntico externo, la circulacin de corriente, etc., son ejemplos de
acciones fsicas que pueden generar el mencionado efecto. Con el avance de la metalurgia del acero
se explor el efecto de diversos elementos aleantes, lo que permiti descubrir que la adicin de
cromo, tungsteno, etc., adems de modificar las propiedades mecnicas, tambin modificaba su
capacidad de retener la magnetizacin. Los diversos grados de imanes de acero que se desarrollaron
de esta forma en los siglos XVIII y XIX, fueron la nica alternativa tecnolgica prctica disponible,
hasta que se crearon imanes ms avanzados recin en el siglo XX. Diversas mquinas elctricas de
la poca fueron posibles merced a este tipo de imanes, como por ejemplo los llamados magnetos
(dispositivos que generaban la alta tensin para el encendido en los motores a explosin).
Ejemplos de imanes de acero:
Acero al cromo 3% Cr, 0,9%C, 0,3 % Mn.
Acero al tungsteno 6%W, 0,7% C, 0,3% Cr.
Acero 15 cobalto 15% Co, 5% Cr, 1% C, 1% W, 1 % Mo.

Imanes de Alnico:
Alnico es el nombre genrico de una familia de imanes permanentes que comenzaron a
desarrollarse en la dcada de 1930 y que recibi esta denominacin porque generalmente, adems
de hierro, estos imanes contienen aluminio, nquel y cobalto como elementos de aleacin. Existen
diversos grados de Alnico dependiendo de la tecnologa de fabricacin y de las proporciones que
guarden los elementos mencionados (pueden contener adems cobre). Su aspecto es metlico,
similar al de un acero, aunque mecnicamente son ms frgiles. Cada grado posee propiedades
particulares que son de inters para un uso determinado. Estos imanes constituyeron un importante
avance respecto a los de acero al carbono (mayor resistencia a la des-magnetizacin o sea,
coercitividad) y presentan algunas propiedades que los hacen actualmente insustituibles en ciertos
usos particulares (Ejemplo: instrumentos de medicin, donde se requiere independencia de las
propiedades magnticas con respecto a la temperatura, adems de estabilidad en el tiempo).
Ejemplos: Alnico 1 59 % Fe, 21 % Ni, 12 % Al, 5 % Co, 3 % Cu.
Alnico 4 56 % Fe, 27 % Ni, 12 % Al, 5 % Co.
Alnico 5A 50 % Fe, 15 % Ni, 8 % Al, 24 % Co, 3 % Cu.

Imanes de ferrite o cermicos:
Las ferritas o ferrites deben su nombre a la denominacin en ingls del compuesto qumico del que
estn hechas (Ej.: Barium ferrite, BaFe12O19). Presentan un color gris oscuro, son frgiles e inmunes
a la corrosin.
Estos compuestos superaron ampliamente la coercitividad del Alnico y a un costo mucho menor.
Desarrolladas a partir de 1950, son actualmente insustituibles para gran nmero de aplicaciones en
la cuales el costo es una variable importante, pero el volumen y peso no son muy limitantes.
Ejemplos de utilizacin son los parlantes, los motores de corriente continua para industria
automotriz, etc.
Ejemplos:
Ferrita de Bario BaO.6Fe2O3 (13,8 % BaO, 86,2 % Fe2O3).
Ferrita de Estroncio SrFe12O19

Generalidades sobre imanes permanentes y su caracterizacin
Pgina Informacin tcnica elaborada en INTI-Crdoba Ing. Roberto L. Muoz-
rmunoz@inti.gob.ar
Octubre 2008
12
Imanes de tierras raras:
Antes del desarrollo de esta nueva generacin de imanes, la tecnologa dispona en la prctica de
dos opciones: los diversos grados de Alnico (alta remanencia* y baja coercitividad*) y ferritas (baja
remanencia y alta coercitividad). Con los imanes de tierras raras la tecnologa logra condensar en un
solo compuesto las mejores prestaciones de las generaciones anteriores de imanes, obteniendo
imanes de alta remanencia y alta coercitividad.

Los primeros imanes de tierras raras que se desarrollaron (1960) fueron los de Samario-Cobalto,
que presentaban propiedades magnticas superlativas en relacin los Alnico y las ferritas, pero que
tenan el inconveniente de ser muy costosos. De cualquier forma, sus propiedades magnticas les
permitan reemplazar a las viejas generaciones con un peso mucho menor, lo que los hizo
particularmente aptos en aquellas utilizaciones donde la disminucin de peso (Por ejemplo en la
industria aeronutica) o la miniaturizacin (Por ejemplo, motores de Discman) son de tal
importancia que justifican el incremento del precio.

Posteriormente, en 1984 aparece comercialmente un nuevo compuesto basado en una tierra rara, el
llamado Neodimio-Hierro-Boro, que supera las propiedades magnticas del samario cobalto a
precio menor, aunque con una temperatura mxima de operacin tambin menor. El compuesto
bsico del neodimio-hierro-boro (Nd2Fe14B) presenta algunas limitaciones para su uso prctico
(adems de desmagnetizarse a temperaturas menores que otros compuestos, presenta una baja
resistencia a la corrosin) que se fueron mejorando mediante ajustes de la composicin y otros
recursos.
Tanto los imanes de samario-cobalto como los de neodimio-hierro-boro presentan diversos grados
comerciales que les permiten adaptarse a distintas condiciones de utilizacin.

Coercitividad: mayor o menor resistencia a la des-magnetizacin
What does the Grade of the magnet mean?
Magnets FAQ
The grade of a magnet directly refers to the Maximum Energy Product of the material that
composes the magnet. It in no way refers to the physical properties of the magnet.
Simplistically, grade is generally used to describe how "strong" a permanent magnet
material is. The energy product is specified in the units Gauss Oersted. One MGOe is
1,000,000 Gauss Oersted. A grade forty (Neodymium N40) would have a Maximum
Energy Product of 40 MGOe. The higher the grade the "stronger" the magnet. But
Explanation of magnet ratings
Magnet ratings provide several pieces of information. The neodymium iron boron magnets
(NdFeB) are designated with the letter "N" as the first character. Then the strength, as rated
in MGOe is given as a number. For example - N40 tells us that it is a NdFeB magnet with a
material property of 40 MGOe.
This does not tell anything about the actual surface gauss rating or strength of a magnet.
The size and shape also play a big role in determining strength. This same material would
have a Br of 12,600-12,900 gauss. This leads some people to say that this is a 12,600 gauss
magnet. The effective usefulness of a magnet is determined by its geometry.
Now we look at the letters that follow some of the magnets. For example - N42SH - The
N42 tells us that it has a material property range of 42 MGOe and it is an NdFeB magnet,
the SH indicates the maximum operating temperature. Magnet ratings without any letters
are good for 80C (176F). Using the magnet above this temperature will erase a percentage
of its total strength depending on how high the temperature is and how long it is used at the
elevated temperature. The SH means that it can be used at a temperature of 150C (302F). It
is not possible to get N50SH. The highest working temperature for N50 (the maximum
material strength available at this time) is 80C. As the maximum working temperature
increases, the strength will decrease. The maximum strength that can work at 100C (212F)
is the N48M. The max at 120C (248F) is N45H and the max at 150C (302F) is N42SH.
Higher grades are available at temperatures up to 200C (392F) upon request.
Samarium Cobalt magnets have the highest working temperature of the rare earth magnets.
SmCo magnets have a maximum operating temperature of 300C. SmCo will usually be 40-
60% weaker than NdFeB but will cost up to 5 times as much due to the high cost of Cobalt.
When you see magnets advertised as having 12,000 to 15,000 gauss do not think that these
magnets will actually measure that high. My N50 magnets which have a Br of
approximately 14,500 gauss will measure from 1,000 gauss (smallest) to 5,600 for the
center of my 2 inch square pyramid that is 1 inch thick and tapers to a 1 inch square on top.
The poles of my large spheres like the 2 inch spheres (actually 2 pieces of 2 inch
hemispheres) will measure about 8,500 gauss and the giant 4 inch pyramid that is 4 inches
tall from N45 material and tapers to a 0.75 inch square top will measure over 9,200 gauss
on the corners.
Hopefully this will answer most questions about magnet ratings. If you have any other
questions, just ask Mr. George.
Types of Permanent Magnets
Ceramic
Alnico
Samarium Cobalt
Neodymium Iron Boron
Injection Molded
Flexible
Ceramic
Ceramic, also known as Ferrite, magnets are made of a composite of iron oxide and barium
or strontium carbonate. These materials are readily available and at a lower cost than other
types of materials used in permanent magnets making it desirable due to the lower cost.
Ceramic magnets are made using pressing and sintering. These magnets are brittle and
require diamond wheels if grinding is necessary. These magnets are also made in different
grades. Ceramic-1 is an isotropic grade with equal magnetic properties in all directions.
Ceramic grades 5 and 8 are anisotropic grades. Anisotropic magnets are magnetized in the
direction of pressing. The anisotropic method delivers the highest energy product among
ceramic magnets at values up to 3.5 MGOe (Mega Gauss Oersted). Ceramic magnets have
a good balance of magnetic strength, resistance to demagnetizing and economy. They are
the most widely used magnets today.
Positive Negative
Low Cost Low Energy Product
High Coercive Force Low Mechanical Strength - Brittle
High Resistance to Corrosion

Alnico
Alnico magnets are made up of a composite of aluminum, nickel and cobalt with small
amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Alnico magnets
have good temperature stability, good resistance to demagnetization due to shock but they
are easily demagnetized. Alnico magnets are produced by two typical methods, casting or
sintering. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers
higher energy products (up to 5.5 MGOe) and allows for the design of intricate shapes.
Two very common grades of Alnico magnets are 5 and 8. These are anisotropic grades and
provide for a preferred direction of magnetic orientation. Alnico magnets have been
replaced in many applications by ceramic and rare earth magnets.
Positive Negative
High Corrosion Resistance High Cost
High Mechanical Strength Low Coercive Force
High Temperature Stability Low Energy Product

Samarium Cobalt
Samarium cobalt is a type of rare earth magnet material that is highly resistant to oxidation,
has a higher magnetic strength and temperature resistance than Alnico or Ceramic material.
Introduced to the market in the 1970's, samarium cobalt magnets continue to be used today.
Samarium cobalt magnets are divided into two main groups: Sm1Co5 and Sm2Co17
(commonly referred to as 1-5 and 2-17). The energy product range for the 1-5 series is 15 to
22 MGOe, with the 2-17 series falling between 22 and 32 MGOe. These magnets offer the
best temperature characteristics of all rare earth magnets and can withstand temperatures up
to 300 C. Sintered samarium cobalt magnets are brittle and prone to chipping and cracking
and may fracture when exposed to thermal shock. Due to the high cost of the material
samarium, samarium cobalt magnets are used for applications where high temperature and
corrosion resistance is critical.
Positive Negative
High Corrosion Resistance High Cost
High Energy Product Low Mechanical Strength - Brittle
High Temperature Stability
High Coercive Force

Neodymium Iron Boron
Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB) is another type of rare earth magnetic material. This
material has similar properties as the Samarium Cobalt except that it is more easily
oxidized and generally doesn't have the same temperature resistance. NdFeB magnets also
have the highest energy products approaching 50MGOe. These materials are costly and are
generally used in very selective applications due to the cost. Cost is also driven by existing
intellectual property rights of the developers of this type of magnet. Their high energy
products lend themselves to compact designs that result in innovative applications and
lower manufacturing costs. NdFeB magnets are highly corrosive. Surface treatments have
been developed that allow them to be used in most applications. These treatments include
gold, nickel, zinc and tin plating and epoxy resin coating.
Positive Negative
Very High Energy Product Higher Cost (Except from us!)
High Coercive Force Low Mechanical Strength - Brittle
Moderate Temperature Stability
Low Corrosion Resistance (When uncoated)

Injection Molded
Injection moldable magnets are a composite of resin and magnetic powders of different
materials allowing parts to be made in an injection molding process. Energy products are
dependent upon the magnetic powders used in fabrication. The molding process allows for
the manufacture of more complex shapes. These magnets are usually lower in magnetic
strength as there are limitations to the degree of loading.
Positive Negative
Moderate Energy Product High Cost
Moderate Coercive Force Low Temperature Stability
High Corrosion Resistance
Highly Shapeable

Flexible
Flexible magnets are very similar to the injection molded magnets but are produced in flat
strips and sheets. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength and very flexible
depending on the materials that was used in the compound with the magnetic powders.
Vinyl is often used in this type of magnet as the binder.
Positive Negative
Low Cost Low Energy Product
High Corrosion Resistance Low to Medium Temperature Stability
Moderate Coercive Force

Magnet University - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Our customers ask many questions about our products. Some of the more common questions are
listed here. Most of these questions are related to our standard stock magnets which are sintered
Neodymium-Iron-Boron magnets.
1. What does the Grade of the magnet mean?
The grade of a magnet directly refers to the Maximum Energy Product of the material that
composes the magnet. It in no way refers to the physical properties of the magnet. Simplistically,
grade is generally used to describe how "strong" a permanent magnet material is. The energy
product is specified in the units Gauss Oersted. One MGOe is 1,000,000 Gauss Oersted. A grade
forty (N40) would have a Maximum Energy Product of 40 MGOe. The higher the grade the
stronger the magnet.
2. What is the pull strength of your magnets?
Pull strength is a very subjective measure that is dependent upon many factors such as:
Type of material being pulled against;
Surface conditions;
Physical contact;
Magnet characteristics such as plating composition; and
Presence or absence of lateral and rotational forces.
All that being said, we provide pull force values for most of our magnets as a general guide.
3. Your published pull force values are less than values published by other suppliers. Why?
Pull force values are notoriously inaccurate because there is no defined standard for conducting
magnetic pull force measurement. We try to be conservative knowing that real world
circumstances generally reduce perceived pull force values.
4. What metals will magnets attract?
The elements iron, nickel, cobalt and gadolinium are ferromagnetic. These elements, including
materials that contain these elements such as steel, can be attracted by magnets.
5. What is the Gauss of your magnets?
The Remanence of Grade 40 magnetic material has a maximum value of about 12,900 Gauss (1.29
Tesla). This measurement is an indication of the strength of the magnetic material not the
individual magnet you are purchasing. The actual magnetic induction measured on the surface of a
magnet using a gaussmeter is generally much less. We specify the surface field strength of all of
our magnets on their product detail page.
6. Is one pole stronger than the other?
No. Both North and South poles of a magnet have the same strength.
7. How long will a magnet stay magnetized?
Sintered Nd-Fe-B magnets will remain magnetized indefinitely. They experience a miniscule
reduction in flux density over time. As long as their physical properties remain intact, neodymium
magnets will likely lose less than1% of their flux density over 100 years. Generally the magnet will
experience a degradation in its physical properties, such as corrosion, prior to it demagnetizing
because of age. However, heat and high magnetic fields can demagnetize these magnets.
8. Will my magnets demagnetize if I heat them?
Yes, if you heat them beyond 170 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius) the magnets will begin
to lose their magnetic properties. Sustaining these temperatures for a length of time or heating
the magnet significantly higher than this will permanently demagnetize it. Other types of magnets
such as Samarium-Cobalt have higher heat resistance. There are also other types of Nd-Fe-B
magnets that are not as susceptible to heat induced flux degradation.
9. Can Nd-Fe-B magnets be drilled and machined?
Not easily or safely. Nd-Fe-B sintered magnets behave like a ceramic. They have tendency to crack
and chip when drilled. Additionally, the powder produced when machining these magnets is
flammable. Lastly, machining causes heat to build up in the magnet which may result in it being
demagnetized.
10. Can magnets cure disease?
As far as we know, no one has definitively linked static magnetic field to the cure of any medical
ailment. You should seek qualified medical assistance if you have a health problem.
11. Is it safe to take magnets on airplanes?
Yes and no. Magnets can affect the navigational equipment on an aircraft. Most single small
magnets are not capable of significantly affecting these instruments from a moderate distance.
The US Department of Transportation and the International Air Transport Association have set
precise guidelines for the transport of magnets by air. If the magnets you are transporting exceed
certain thresholds, they will be considered Class 9 Hazardous Materials and should only be placed
on an aircraft by trained and certified personnel. We recommend that you keep all magnets on the
ground and transport them by surface transport only.
12. I would like to get a single pole magnet?
They dont exist. All magnets have at least two poles.
13. Can you provide radially magnetized magnets?
Radially magnetized magnets have a single pole on the outside of a ring or cylinder and the
opposite pole on the inside of the ring. We are unable to produce this type of magnet.
14. Can you make very large magnets?
Large magnets are very difficult to handle and transport. They are also quite dangerous because
they present a crushing hazard. For these reasons we do not manufacture very large magnets.
15. Can I levitate one magnet over another?
Static magnetic levitation is thought to be impossible but youre welcome to try.
16. Will stacking magnets make them stronger?
Yes. Stacking two identical magnets will behave similar to a solid magnet of the same dimensions
as the two stacked magnets.
17. Can I weld of solder rare earth magnets?
No. The magnets will demagnetize under heat and may catch fire.
18. Should I use a keeper (a steel piece running from North to South pole) to store my magnets?
Keepers are not necessary with neodymium magnets because of their high coercivity.
19. How is neodymium pronounced?
n--di-m-m
20. What is the Curie temperature of a magnet?
The Curie temperature of a magnet is the temperature above which it becomes paramagnetic.
Basically, the point where the magnet will completely demagnetize.
21. What is the operating temperature of a magnet?
The point at which the magnet will begin to demagnetize. The higher the temperature, the faster it
will demagnetize.
22. Can I purchase unplated neodymium magnets?
We can produce unplated neodymium magnets but the neodymium alloy is subject to corrosion.
23. Can you make a custom sized magnet?
Yes. You can fill out the custom magnet request form or call us directly to discuss your
requirement.
24. Can I use your magnets in a marine environment.?
We would not recommend it because even plated magnets will eventually oxidize in salt air.
25. What adhesive should I use to glue your magnets?
All of our stock magnets are plated in nickel. Nickel is a metal that is highly resistant to corrosive
attack. This corrosion resistance prevents the metal from reacting with most chemicals that are
commonly incorporated into adhesives to develop a bond between the adhesive and the
substrate. In addition, when nickel is used as a plating it forms an extremely smooth, hard surface
that further reduces the ability of an adhesive to bond to the metal. We recommend using a
quality two-part epoxy adhesive such as Devcon 5 Minute Epoxy Gel with the following surface
preparation before applying the epoxy:
Clean and degrease the surface of the nickel plating using an industrial solvent degreaser
(alcohol and common detergents are not effective degreasers);
Abrade the surface with 200 grit emery cloth without removing the plating;
Degrease and clean the surface again;
Test the surface with water. If the surface wets and the water does not bead, it is ready
for the application of adhesive; and
Allow to dry.
26. Can I paint your magnets?
Yes but the paint will have the same problem adhering to the nickel plating as an adhesive will.
You should try the surface preparation instructions above before painting.
27. Will painting or coating the magnets decrease their magnetic force?
Not much. Anything applied to the surface of the magnet will increase the air-gap or space
between the magnet and what it is held to. The larger the air-gap the less holding force the
magnet will have. Paint is so thin that its impact is insignificant.
History of Magnetism and Electricity
600 BC - Lodestone
The magnetic properties of natural ferric ferrite (Fe
3
O
4
) stones (lodestones) were described
by Greek philosophers.
600 BC - Electric Charge
Amber is a yellowish, translucent mineral. As early as 600 BC the Greek philosopher,
Aristophanes was aware of its peculiar property: when rubbed with a piece of fur, amber
develops the ability to attract small pieces of material such as feathers. For centuries this
strange, inexplicable property was thought to be unique to amber. This strange effect
remained a mystery for over 2000 years, until, around AD 1600, Dr William Gilbert
investigated the reactions of amber and magnets and first recorded the word 'Electric' in a
report on the theory of magnetism.
Later in, in 1895, H.A. Lorentz developed the Electron Theory. We now know that there
are three ways to generate electricity: Static, Electrochemical and Electromagnetic
Induction.
1175 - First Reference to a Compass
Alexander Neckem an English monk of St. Albans describes the workings of a compass.
1269 - First Detailed Description of a Compass
Petrus Peregrinus de Marincourt, a French Crusader, describes a floating compass and a
compass with a pivot point.
1600 - Static Electricity (De Magnete)
In the 16th century, William Gilbert (1544-1603), the Court Physician to Queen Elizabeth
I, proved that many other substances are electric (from the Greek word for amber, elektron)
and that they have two electrical effects. When rubbed with fur, amber acquires resinous
electricity; glass, however, when rubbed with silk, acquires vitreous electricity. Electricity
repels the same kind and attracts the opposite kind of electricity. Scientists thought that the
friction actually created the electricity (their word for charge). They did not realize that an
equal amount of opposite electricity remained on the fur or silk. Dr. William Gilbert,
realized that a force was created, when a piece of amber (resin) was rubbed with wool and
attracted light objects. In describing this property today, we say that the amber is
"electrified" or possesses and "electric charge". These terms are derived from the Greek
word "electron" meaning amber and, from this, the term "electricity" was developed. It was
not until the end of the 19th century that this "something" was found to consist of negative
electricity, known today as electrons.
Gilbert also studied magnetism and in 1600 wrote "De magnete" which gave the first
rational explanation to the mysterious ability of the compass needle to point north-south:
the Earth itself was magnetic. "De Magnete" opened the era of modern physics and
astronomy and started a century marked by the great achievements of Galileo, Kepler,
Newton and others.
Gilbert recorded three ways to magnetize a steel needle: by touch with a loadstone; by cold
drawing in a North-South direction; and by exposure for a long time to the Earth's magnetic
field while in a North-South orientation.
1660 - Static Electricity Generator
Otto von Guericke invents a crude machine for producing static electricity.
1729 - Conductors and Nonconductors
Stephen Gray describes that power possessed by one electrified body could be passed to
another by connecting them.
1734 - Electrical Attraction and Repulsion
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay first to recognize two kinds of electricity.
1730 - Compound Magnet
Servigton Savery produces the first compound magnet by binding together a number of
artificial magnets with a common pole piece at each end.
1740 - First Commercial Magnet
Gowen Knight produces the first artificial magnets for sale to scientific investigators and
terrestrial navigators.
1745 - Electric Force, Capacitor
Leyden Jar is one of the earliest and simplest forms of electric capacitor, invented
independently about 1745 by the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek of the
University of Leyden and Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania. The original Leyden jar
was a stoppered glass jar containing water, with a wire or nail extending through the
stopper into the water. The jar was charged by holding it in one hand and bringing the
exposed end of the wire into contact with an electrical device. If contact was broken
between the wire and the source of electricity, and the wire was touched with the other
hand, a discharge took place that was experienced as a violent shock.
If a charge Q is placed on the metal plates, the voltage rises to amount V. The measure of a
capacitor's ability to store charge is the capacitance C, where C = Q/V. Charge flows from a
capacitor just as it flows from a battery, but with one significant difference. When the charge
leaves a capacitor's plates, no more can be obtained without recharging. This happens because the
electrical force is conservative. The energy released cannot exceed the energy stored. The ability to
do work is called electric potential.
A type of conservation of energy is also associated with emf. The electrical energy
obtainable from a battery is limited by the energy stored in chemical molecular bonds. Both
emf and electric potential are measured in volts, and, unfortunately, the terms voltage,
potential, and emf are used rather loosely. For example, the term battery potential is often
used instead of emf.
1747 - Vitreous Electricity, Conservation of Charge
Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) was an American printer, author, philosopher, diplomat, scientist,
and inventor.
After Gilbert's discovery that a force of electric charge is created by friction of different
materials, Benjamin Franklin in 1747, improved on this by announcing that this electric
charge exists of two types of electric forces, an attractive force and a repulsive force.
(William Watson (1715-87) in England independently reached the same conclusion.) To
identify these two forces, he gave the names, positive and negative charges and to
symbolize them, he used the + and - signs the + being for positive and the - for negative.
Benjamin Franklin realized that all materials possess a single kind of electrical "fluid" that
can penetrate matter freely but that can be neither created nor destroyed. The action of
rubbing merely transfers the fluid from one body to another, electrifying both. Franklin and
Watson originated the principle of conservation of charge: the total quantity of electricity in
an insulated system is constant. Franklin defined the fluid, which corresponded to vitreous
electricity, as positive and the lack of fluid as negative. Therefore, according to Franklin,
the direction of flow was from positive to negative--the opposite of what is now known to
be true. A subsequent two-fluid theory was developed, according to which samples of the
same type attract, whereas those of opposite types repel.
Franklin was acquainted with the Leyden jar (a glass jar coated inside and outside with
tinfoil), how it could store a charge and how it caused a shock when it was discharged.
Franklin wondered whether lightning and thunder were also a result of electrical
discharges. During a thunderstorm in 1752, Franklin flew a kite that had a metal tip. At the
end of the wet, conducting hemp line on which the kite flew he attached a metal key, to
which he tied a non conducting silk string that he held in his hand. The experiment was
extremely hazardous, but the results were unmistakable: when he held his knuckles near the
key, he could draw sparks from it. The next two who tried this extremely dangerous
experiment were killed.
1750 - First Book on Magnet Manufacture
John Mitchell publishes the first book on making steel magnets.
1757 - Power, Steam Engine
James Watt (1736-1819) conducted no electrical experiments. He was an instrument maker
by trade and set up a repair shop in Glasgow in 1757. Watt measured the rate of work
exerted by a horse drawing rubbish up an old mine shaft and found it amounted to about
22,000 ft-lbs per minute. He added a margin of 50% arriving at 33,000 ft-lbs is equal to one
horse-power.
James Watt, also invented the steam condensing engine. His improvements to steam engines
were patented over a period of 15 years, starting in 1769 and his name was given to the electric
unit of power, the Watt. When Edison's generator was coupled with Watt's steam engine, large
scale electricity generation became a practical proposition.
1767 - Electrical Force
It was known as early as 1600 that the attractive or repulsive force diminishes as the
charges are separated. This relationship was first placed on a numerically accurate, or
quantitative, foundation by Joseph Priestley, a friend of Benjamin Franklin. In 1767,
Priestley indirectly deduced that when the distance between two small, charged bodies is
increased by some factor, the forces between the bodies is reduced by the square of the
factor. For example, if the distance between charges is tripled, the force decreases to one-
ninth its former value. Although rigorous, Priestley's proof was so simple that he did not
strongly advocate it. The matter was not considered settled until 18 years later, when John
Robinson of Scotland made more direct measurements of the electrical force involved.
1780 - Electric Current
Because of an accident the 18th-century Italian scientist Luigi Galvani started a chain of
events that culminated in the development of the concept of voltage and the invention of
the battery. In 1780 one of Galvani's assistants noticed that a dissected frog leg twitched
when he touched its nerve with a scalpel. Another assistant thought that he had seen a spark
from a nearby charged electric generator at the same time. Galvani reasoned that the
electricity was the cause of the muscle contractions. He mistakenly thought, however, that
the effect was due to the transfer of a special fluid, or "animal electricity," rather than to
conventional electricity.
Experiments such as this, in which the legs of a frog or bird were stimulated by contact
with different types of metals, led Luigi Galvani in 1791 to propose his theory that animal
tissues generate electricity. In experimenting with what he called atmospheric electricity,
Galvani found that a frog muscle would twitch when hung by a brass hook on an iron
lattice.
1792 - Electrochemistry, Voltaic Cell
By 1792 another Italian scientist, Alessandro Volta, disagreed: he realized that the main factors in
Galvani's discovery were the two different metals - the steel knife and the tin plate - upon which
the frog was lying. The different metals, separated by the moist tissue of the frog, were generating
electricity. The frog's leg was simply a detector.
In 1800, Volta showed that when moisture comes between two different metals, electricity
is created. This led him to invent the first electric battery, the voltaic pile, which he made
from thin sheets of copper and zinc separated by moist pasteboard (felt soaked in brine).
In this way, a new kind of electricity was discovered, electricity that flowed steadily like a
current of water instead of discharging itself in a single spark or shock. Volta showed that
electricity could be made to travel from one place to another by wire, thereby making an
important contribution to the science of electricity.
1820 - Electromagnetism, Current
In 1820, a physicist Hans Christian Oersted, learned that a current flowing through a wire
would move a compass needle placed beside it. This showed that an electric current
produced a magnetic field.
Andre Marie Ampere, a French mathematician who devoted himself to the study of
electricity and magnetism, was the first to explain the electro-dynamic theory. He showed
that two parallel wires, carrying current, attracted each other if the currents flowed in the
same direction and opposed each other if the currents flowed in opposite directions. He
formulated in mathematical terms, the laws that govern the interaction of currents with
magnetic fields in a circuit and as a result of this the unit of electric current, the amp, was
derived from his name. An electric charge in motion is called electric current. The strength
of a current is the amount of charge passing a given point per second, or I = Q/t, where Q
coulombs of charge passing in t seconds. The unit for measuring current is the ampere or
amp, where 1 amp = 1 coulomb/sec. Because it is the source of magnetism as well, current
is the link between electricity and magnetism.
1822 - Fourier Transforms
Baron Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) was a French mathematician. His method of analyzing
waves, published in 1822, was a spinoff of his work on the flow of heat. It shows how any
wave can be built up from simpler waves. This powerful branch of mathematics, Fourier
Transforms has contributed to important modern developments like electronic speech
recognition.
1826 - Resistance - Currents Causing Heat
In 1826, the German Physicist Georg Simon Ohm, examined Volta's Principle of the
electric battery and Ampere's relationship of currents in a circuit. He noted that when there
was a current in a circuit, there was at times, heat, and the amount of heat was related to
different metals. He discovered that there was a relationship between current and heat, there
was some "resistance" to the flow of current, in the circuit. By discovering this, he found
out that if the potential difference (volts), remained constant, the current was in proportion
to the resistance. This unit of electrical resistance - the ohm - was named after him. He also
formulated a law, showing the relationship between volts, amps and resistance and this law
was called "Ohm's Law" also named after him. This law, as we know it today, is the basis
of electricity.
1830 - Inductance
In 1830, Joseph Henry (1797-1878), discovered that a change in magnetism can make
currents flow, but he failed to publish this. In 1832 he described self-inductance - the basic
property of inductor. In recognition of his work, inductance is measured in henries. The
stage was then set for the encompassing electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell.
The variation of actual currents is enormous. A modern electrometer can detect currents as
low as 1/100,000,000,000,000,000 amp, which is a mere 63 electrons per second. The
current in a nerve impulse is approximately 1/100,000 amp; a 100-watt light bulb carries 1
amp; a lightning bolt peaks at about 20,000 amps; and a 1,200-megawatt nuclear power
plant can deliver 10,000,000 amps at 115 V.
1836 - Daniell Cell
In 1836, John Daniell (1790-1845) proposed an improved electric cell that supplied an even
current during continuous operation. The Daniell cell gave new impetus to electric research
and found many commercial applications. In 1837 Daniell was presented the highest award
of the Royal Society, the Copley Medal, for the invention of the Daniell cell.
1837 - Telegraph, Electromagnet
After the electric battery and the electromagnet were discovered, Samuel Morse (1791-
1872) introduced the electric telegraph. Coded messages were sent over wires, by means of
electrical impulses (identified as dots and dashes) known as Morse code. This was really
the beginning of commercially used electricity. The electric telegraph is known as the first
practical use of electricity and the first system of electrical communication. It is interesting
to note here, that the Post Office in Australia, played an important part at that time, in the
organizing of the communication.
1840 - Mechanical Computer
Charles Babbage (1791-1871), a British mathematician, designed several machines to
generate error-free tables for navigation. The mechanical devices would serve as models for
the later electronic computers.
1850 - Thermoelectricity
Thomas Seebeck a German physicist was the discover of the "Seebeck effect". He twisted
two wires made of different metals and heated a junction where the two wires met,
producing a small current. The current is the result of a flow of heat from the hot to the cold
junction. This is called thermoelectricity. Thermo is a Greek word meaning heat.
1854 - Boolean Algebra
George Boole was entirely self taught. He published a way of using symbols that perfectly
expresses the rules of logic. Using this system, complicated rules can be written clearly and
often simplified.
1855 - Electromagnetic Induction
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) an Englishman, made one of the most significant discoveries
in the history of electricity: Electromagnetic induction. His pioneering work dealt with how
electric currents work. Many inventions would come from his experiments, but they would
come fifty to one hundred years later. Failures never discouraged Faraday. He would say;
"the failures are just as important as the successes." He felt failures also teach. The farad,
the unit of capacitance is named in the honor of Michael Faraday.
Faraday was greatly interested in the invention of the electromagnet, but his brilliant mind
took earlier experiments still further. If electricity could produce magnetism, why couldn't
magnetism produce electricity. In 1831, Faraday found the solution. Electricity could be
produced through magnetism by motion. He discovered that when a magnet was moved
inside a coil of copper wire, a tiny electric current flows through the wire. H.C. Oersted, in
1820, demonstrated that electric currents produce a magnetic field. Faraday noted this and
in 1821, he experimented on the theory that, if electric currents in a wire can produce
magnetic fields, then magnetic fields should produce electricity. By 1831, he was able to
prove this and through his experiment, was able to explain, that these magnetic fields were
lines of force. These lines of force would cause a current to flow in a coil of wire, when the
coil is rotated between the poles of a magnet. This action then shows that the coils of wire
being cut by lines of magnetic force, in some strange way, produces electricity. These
experiments, convincingly demonstrated the discovery of electromagnetic induction in the
production of electric current, by a change in magnetic intensity.
1860 - Arc Lights
As the practical use of electricity became evident and the electric telegraph was in
operation, it was not long before scientists were looking towards making further use of this
electricity. The next advance of great importance, was the introduction of the electric
carbon arc light, which was exhibited in experimental form in 1808, by Sir Humphry
Davey. He used a large battery to provide current for his demonstration, as these arc lights
require a heavy current and no means of mechanically generating electricity had as yet been
developed. The principle of this arc light, is that when two carbon rods in a circuit are
brought together, an arc is created. This arc, which gives off a brilliant incandescence, is
maintained as long as the rods are just separated and keep mechanically fed this way, to
maintain the arc. As the arc lights took a heavy current from these batteries, it was not until
about 1860, that practical use was made of them. By this time adequate generating sources
were developed and then they were only used mainly for street lighting and in picture
theaters. Although arc lighting was still used until the early 1900's they were eventually
superseded by the incandescent light, except that most picture theaters use them in their
projectors even today.
1860 - DC Motor
The history of the electric motor begins with Hans Christian Oersted, who discovered in
1820, that electricity produced a magnetic field, as mentioned before. Faraday followed up
this in 1821, by devising the principle of the electric motor of his own design. Some of
those worth mentioning are Jacobi in 1834, Elias in 1842, Froment in 1844 and Pacinotti in
1860. Pacinotti used a ring wound armature which was used in 1860 and was an
outstanding advance on any previous attempts. Most of these motors were in the
experimental stage but it was not until 1871, that Zenobe Theophile Gramme introduced his
motor, which was really a development of Pacinotti's machine. This motor was said to be
the first electric motor of commercial significance. During this period the scientists
concentrated on the "motor", but meanwhile, experiments with machines producing
electricity dynamically were under way.
1866 - LeClanche Cell
Leclanche (1839-1882) is a French engineer who in about 1866 invented the battery that
bears his name. In slightly modified form, the Leclanch battery, now called a dry cell, is
produced in great quantities and is widely used in devices such as flashlights and portable
radios. This cell consists of a zinc case filled with a moist paste containing ammonium
sulfate. In the center of this electrolyte paste is a carbon rod coated with manganese
dioxide, which is a strong oxidizing agent.
1871 - DC Generator
With the development of the carbon filament lamp by Edison in 1879, the DC generator
then became one of the essential components of the constant-potential lighting systems.
Previous to this only arc lights were used for street lighting. Then commercial lighting and
residential lighting, as the inventors were aiming at, became practical and so the electric
light and power industry was born. When H. C. Oersted in 1820, discovered that an electric
current produces magnetic fields, the DC motor was developed. In 1831, Michael Faraday
discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction. He found that moving a magnet
through a coil of wire, caused an electric current to flow in the wire, thus the electric
generator could now be developed. But it was not until 1871, when Gramme introduced his
motor and generator, that the electric generator was used commercially. By 1872, Siemens
and Halske of Berlin improved on Gramme's generator, by producing the drum armature.
Other improvements were made, such as the slotted armature in 1880 but by 1882, Edison
had completed the design of the system we still use to distribute electricity from power
stations.
1876 - Telephone
Since the telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse in 1837, great advances had been made
in its utilization, but it continued as a telegraph system using Morse Code for its
communication. Alexander Graham Bell in 1875, was interested in telegraphy and realized
that in using Morse Code over telegraph wires there should be other ways to this form of
communication using electricity. He was also interested in acoustic and sound and worked
on the principle that if Morse Code created electrical impulses in an electrical circuit, some
means of sound causing vibration in the air, could also create electrical impulses in a
circuit. In an experiment he use a "diaphragm" associated with an electrical circuit and any
sound reaching the diaphragm, would cause electrical impulses and these were carried on to
the other end of the circuit. These then would cause vibrations to another diaphragm at this
end and would be in relation to the first diaphragm, hence the sound was electrically
transmitted from one end of the circuit to the other end. He continued working on these
experiments and on March 7th, 1876 his telephone was officially patented and a successful
demonstration was made at an Exhibition Hall in Philadelphia. Graham Bell was just in
time to patent his telephone, as another inventor Elisha Gray, was experimenting also on a
similar invention. Later, Edison improved on the diaphragm - then called transmitters - but
Bell won the day, by being given the honor of inventing the "telephone".
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) born in Scotland, was raised in a family that was
interested and involved in the science of sound. Bell's father and grandfather both taught
speech to the deaf. A unit of sound level is called a bel in his honor. Sound levels are
measured in tenths of a bel, or decibels. The abbreviation for decibel is dB.
1879 - DC Generation, Incandescent Light
Thomas Alva Edison, (1847-1931) was one of the most well known inventors of all time
with 1093 patents. Self-educated, Edison was interested in chemistry and electronics.
During the whole of his life, Edison received only three months of formal schooling, and
was dismissed from school as being retarded, though in fact a childhood attack of scarlet
fever had left him partially deaf.
Nearly 40 years went by before a really practical DC (Direct Current) generator was built
by Thomas Edison. Edison's many inventions included the phonograph and an improved
printing telegraph. In 1878 Joseph Swan, a British scientist, invented the incandescent
filament lamp and within twelve months Edison made a similar discovery in America.
Swan and Edison later set up a joint company to produce the first practical filament lamp.
Prior to this, electric lighting had been my crude arc lamps.
Edison used his DC generator to provide electricity to light his laboratory and later to
illuminate the first New York street to be lit by electric lamps, in September 1882. Edison's
successes were not without controversy, however - although he was convinced of the merits
of DC for generating electricity, other scientists in Europe and America recognized that DC
brought major disadvantages.
1880 - Heaviside Layer
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) The British mathematician realized that information travels
along a cable as a wave in the space between the conductors, rather than through the
conductors themselves. His concepts made it possible to design long-distance telephone
cables. He also discovered why radio waves bend around the Earth. This led to long-range
radio reception.
1880 - Absolute Temperatures, Kirchoff's Laws, Coulomb's Laws, Magnetic Flux,
Microphone
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) was best known in his invention of a new
temperature scale based on the concept of an absolute zero of temperature at -273C (-
460F). To the end of his life, Thomson maintained fierce opposition to the idea that energy
emitted by radioactivity came from within the atom. One of the greatest scientific
discoveries of the 19th century, Thomson died opposing one of the most vital innovations
in the history of science.
The German physicist, Gustav Kirchoff (1824-1887) extended Ohm's Laws to deal with
situations where more than one resistor was connected to more than one battery. His circuit
laws state that all the current flowing into any point must also flow out of it, and that the
total voltage driving current around any loop must equal the total of the voltages opposing
it.
The French physicist Charles A. de Coulomb, whose name is used as the unit of electrical
charge, later performed a series of experiments that added important details, as well as
precision, to Priestley's proof. He also promoted the two-fluid theory of electrical charges,
rejecting both the idea of the creation of electricity by friction and Franklin's single-fluid
model. Today the electrostatic force law, also known as Coulomb's Law, is expressed as
follows: if two small objects, a distance r apart, have charges p and q and are at rest, the
magnitude of the force F on either is given by F = Kpq/rr, where K is a constant.
According to the International System of Units, the force is measured in newtons (1 newton
= 0.225 lb), the distance in meters, and the charges in coulombs. The constant K then
becomes 8.988 billion. Charges of opposite sign attract, whereas those of the same sign
repel. A coulomb C is a large amount of charge. To hold a positive coulomb (+ C) 1 meter
away from a negative coulomb (- C) would require a force of 9 billion newtons (2 billion
pounds). A typical charged cloud about to give rise to a lightning bolt has a charge of about
30 coulombs.
James Maxwell (1831-1879) a Scottish mathematician translated Faraday's theories into
mathematical expressions. Maxwell was one of the finest mathematicians in history. A
maxwell is the electromagnetic unit of magnetic flux, named in his honor. Today he is
widely regarded as secondary only to Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein in the world of
science.
David Hughes (1831-1900) was a professor of music and invented a successful telegraph.
Back in London, experimenting with sound, he discovered an effective transducer, so
sensitive that he though of it as a sound microscope, and called it a microphone.
1883 - The Alternating Current System
Nikola Tesla was born of Serbian parents July 10, 1856 and died a broke and lonely man in
New York City January 7, 1943. He envisioned a world without poles and power lines.
Referred to as the greatest inventive genius of all time. Tesla's system triumphed to make
possible the first large-scale harnessing of Niagara Falls with the first hydroelectric plant in
the United States in 1886. With the DC generator being in operation by 1882, it was not
long before the first direct-current central power station built in the United States, in New
York, was in operation in 1882. Around this period however, the scientists were still active,
as they realized that with DC current, they could not transmit it over long distances. Nikola
Tesla , was experimenting on generators and he discovered the rotating magnetic field in
1883, which is the principle of alternating current. This rotating magnetic field changes in
opposite directions fifty time a second and is called 50 Hertz. The alternating current
generator has a rotating magnetic field and is referred to as a A.C. current. The direction
current generator generates current in the one direction hence DC current. He then
developed plans for an induction motor, that would become his first step towards the
successful utilization of alternating current.
George Westinghouse was awarded the contract to build the first generators at Niagara
Falls. He used his money to buy up patents in the electric field. One of the inventions he
bought was the transformer from William Stanley. Westinghouse invented the air brake
system to stop trains, the first of more than one hundred patents he would receive in this
area alone. He soon founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company in 1869.Westinghouse
was a famous American inventor and industrialist who purchased and developed Nikola
Tesla's patented motor for generating alternating current. The work of Westinghouse, Tesla
and others gradually persuaded American society that the future lay with AC rather than
DC (Adoption of AC generation enabled the transmission of large blocks of electrical,
power using higher voltages via transformers, which would have been impossible
otherwise). Today the unit of measurement for magnetic fields commemorates Tesla's
name.
1885 - AC Generation
In 1885, George Westinghouse, head of the Westinghouse Electric Company, bought the
patent rights to Tesla's polyphase system of alternating current. In America, in 1886 the
first alternating current power station was placed in operation, but as no AC motor was
available, the output of this station was limited to lighting. Although Tesla developed the
polyphase AC induction motor in 1883, it was not put into operation until 1888 and from
then on, this AC motor became the most commonly used motor for supplying large
amounts of power.
Faraday's, discovery of electromagnetic induction, was used to create the transformer. The
transformer is a simple device, mainly consisting of two separate coils of wire. When a
moving current is applied to the first coil, a current is "induced" into the second coil. By
this induction, the magnitude of the voltage in the second coil depends on the number of
turns in the coil. If the number of turns in the second coil is greater than the first coil, the
voltage is increased and vice versa. The first transformer was announced by L. Caulard and
J. D. Gibbs in 1883 and so this device revolutionized the systems of power transmission.
By generating at a low voltage, the transformer steps it up to a high voltage for
transmission and then to a lower voltage where required.
Probably the first generating station in the world to serve private consumers was the
Holborn Viaduct in London, which started up in 1882, supplying about 60 kilowatts of
power. Also in 1882, Brighton in England had its first public supply and that year the
Crystal Palace London, had its first demonstration of electric light. The Pearl Street Central
Power Station in New York, was the first recorded station in America in 1882. One of the
first transmission lines, was between Miesbach to Munich in Germany in 1882.
1890 - Electric Frequency
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) a German physicist, laid the ground work for the vacuum tube.
He laid the foundation for the future development of radio, telephone, telegraph, and even
television. He was one of the first people to demonstrate the existence of electric waves.
Hertz was convinced that there were electromagnetic waves in space.
1890 - Fission
Otto Hahn (1879-1968), a German chemist and physicist, made the vital discovery which
led to the first nuclear reactor. He uncovered the process of nuclear fission by which nuclei
of atoms of heavy elements can break into smaller nuclei, in the process releasing large
quantities of energy. Hahn was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1944.
1906 - Vacuum Tube Triode
Lee De Forest (1873-1961) made the first electronic amplifier - the triode(1906)
1910 - Theory of Relativity
Albert Einstein (1879-1955). Einstein's formula proved that one gram of mass can be
converted into a torrential amount of energy. To do this, the activity of the atoms has to
occur in the nucleus. E = energy, M = mass, and C = the speed of light which is 186,000
miles per second. When you square 186,000 you can see it would only take a small amount
of mass to produce a huge amount of energy.
1917 - Cobalt Steel Magnets
K. Honda and T. Takai add cobalt to tungsten steel to dramatically increase the coercive
force of permanent magnets.
1919 - Commercial Steel Magnets
The first commercially available quench-hardened steel magnets were made available.
1920 - FM Radio
Edwin Armstrong (1890-1954)invented two essential building blocks of the radio -
oscillators and frequency changers.
1930 - Alnico Magnets
I. Mishima produces the first Alnico magnet containing an alloy of iron, nickel, and
aluminium.
1950 - Transistor
The transistor was invented in 1956 by John Bardeen, Walter Brittain and William
Shockley.
1952 - Ceramic Magnets
J.J. Went, G.W.Rathenan, E.W. Gorter, and G.W. Van Oosterhout from the Phillips
Company develop the first commercial ceramic magnets based on barium, strontium, and
lead-iron oxides.
1953 - The Integrated Circuit
In 1953, Jack Kilby created the integrated circuit.
1963 - Quarks
In 1963, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig of the California Institute of Technology
proposed a theory according to which the electronic charge e might not be the fundamental
charge after all. In their theory, heavy particles such as protons and neutrons consist of
various combinations of particles called quarks. One quark is supposed to have charge (-
1/3)e and another (-2/3)e. This theory has prompted a major search for quarks.
1966 - Rare-Earth Magnets
Dr. Karl J. Strnat at the U.S. Air Force Materials Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base discovers the high energy product (18 MGOe) of the Samarium-Cobalt (SmCo5)
compound.
1972 - Advanced Rare-Earth Magnets
Dr. Karl J. Strnat and Dr. Alden Ray develop a higher energy product (30 MGOe)
Samarium-Cobalt (Sm2Co17) compound.
1983 - Neodymium-Iron-Boron Magnets
General Motors, Sumitomo Special Metals and the Chinese Academy of Sciences develop a
high energy product (35 MGOe) Neodymium-Iron-Boron (Nd2Fe14B) compound.
__Sources:
Manchester Community College
Lee, E. W.:Magnetism, An Introductory Survey, Dover Publications Inc. (1970)
Moskowitz, L. R.: Permanent Magnet Design and Application Handbook, Cahners Books
International, Inc. (1976)
Orientation
A magnet can be magnetized in a variety of directions. The diagrams below depict various
magnetic orientations available during the manufacture of magnets. These orientations may be
available in isotropic and some anisotropic materials.


Glossary
Anisotropic Magnet
A magnet having a preferred direction of magnetic orientation.
Coercive force, Hc
The demagnetizing force, measured in Oersteds necessary to reduce the induction, B to
zero after a magnet has been previously saturated.
Curie temperature, Tc
The transition temperature above which a material loses its magnetic properties.
Flux
The condition existing in a material subjected to magnetizing force. The unit of flux is the
Maxwell.
Gauss
Lines of magnetic flux per square centimeter. This is a measure of flux density.
Induction, B
The magnetic flux per unit area of a section normal to the direction of flux. This is
measured in Gauss.
Intrinsic Coercive Force, Hci
This is a measure of a materials ability to resist demagnetization. This is measured in
Oersteds.
Irreversible Loss
This is defined as the partial demagnetizing of a magnet caused by external factors.
Isotropic magnet
A magnet material whose magnetic properties are the same in any direction.
Magnetic Field strength, H
A measurement of the magnetic ability to induce a magnetic field at a given point. This is
measured in Oersteds.
Magnetic Flux
The total magnetic induction over a certain area.
Magnetizing Force, H
The magnetomotive force per unit length at any point in the magnetic circuit. This is
measured in Oersteds.
Magnetomotive Force, F
The magnetic potential difference between any two points.
Maxwell
A unit of magnetic flux. One Maxwell is one line of magnetic flux.
Oersted, Oe
A unit of magnetic field strength or magnetizing force.
Orientation Direction
The direction in which an anisotropic magnet should be magnetized in order to optimize
the magnetic properties.
Saturation
This is a condition where all magnetic moments have become oriented in one direction.
Stabilization
Exposing a magnet to demagnetizing influences which are expected in the application in
order to prevent irreversible loss during the operation of the magnet.