Optical Fibers

OPTICAL FIBER AND ITS APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION:
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its
length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applie science an engineering
concerne !ith the esign an application of optical fibers. Optical fibers
are !iel" #se in fiber$optic co%%#nications& !hich per%its trans%ission
over longer istances an at higher ban!iths than other for%s of
co%%#nications. Fibers are #se instea of %etal !ires beca#se signals
travel along the% !ith less loss& an the" are also i%%#ne to
electro%agnetic interference. Fibers are also #se for ill#%ination& an are
!rappe in b#nles so the" can be #se to carr" i%ages& th#s allo!ing
vie!ing in tight spaces. 'peciall" esigne fibers are #se for a variet" of
other applications& incl#ing sensors an fiber lasers.(ight is )ept in the core
of the optical fiber b" total internal reflection. This ca#ses the fiber to act as
a !aveg#ie. Fibers !hich s#pport %an" propagation paths or transverse
%oes are calle %#lti$%oe fibers (**F)& !hile those !hich can onl"
s#pport a single %oe are calle single$%oe fibers ('*F).
GEETHAANJALI ALL INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
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+I'TOR, OF FI-.R O/TIC':
Daniel Collaon first escribe this 0light fo#ntain0 or 0light pipe0 in an 1234
article entitle On the reflections of a ra" of light insie a parabolic li5#i
strea%. This partic#lar ill#stration co%es fro% a later article b" Collaon& in
1223.
Fiber optics& tho#gh #se e6tensivel" in the %oern !orl& is a fairl" si%ple
an ol technolog". 7#iing of light b" refraction& the principle that %a)es
fiber optics possible& !as first e%onstrate b" Daniel Collaon an 8ac5#es
-abinet in /aris in the earl" 1239s. 8ohn T"nall incl#e a e%onstration of
it in his p#blic lect#res in (onon a o:en "ears later. T"nall also !rote
abo#t the propert" of total internal reflection inian intro#ctor" boo) abo#t
the nat#re of light in 12;9: 0<hen the light passes fro% air into !ater& the
refracte ra" is bent to!ars the perpenic#lar... <hen the ra" passes fro%
!ater to air it is bent fro% the perpenic#lar... If the angle !hich the ra" in
!ater encloses !ith the perpenic#lar to the s#rface be greater than 32
egrees& the ra" !ill not 5#it the !ater at all: it !ill be totall" reflecte at the
s#rface.... The angle !hich %ar)s the li%it !here total reflection begins is
calle the li%iting angle of the %ei#%. For !ater this angle is 32=4;>& for
flint glass it is ?2=31>& !hile for ia%on it is 4?=34>.0
Atten#ations in %oern optical cables are far less than those in electrical
copper cables& leaing to long$ha#l fiber connections !ith repeater
istances of ;9@1A9 )ilo%etres (3?@B? %i). The erbi#%$ope fiber
a%plifier& !hich re#ce the cost of long$istance fiber s"ste%s b" re#cing
or even in %an" cases eli%inating the nee for optical$electrical$optical
repeaters& !as co$evelope b" tea%s le b" Davi N. /a"ne of the
Universit" of 'o#tha%pton& an .%%an#el Des#rvire at -ell (abs in 1B2C.
The %ore rob#st optical fiber co%%onl" #se toa" #tili:es glass for both
core an sheath an is therefore less prone to aging processes. It !as
invente b" 7erhar -ernsee in 1B;? of 'chott 7lass in 7er%an".
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/rinciple of operation:
An optical fiber is a c"linrical ielectric !aveg#ie (non con#cting
!aveg#ie) that trans%its light along its a6is& b" the process of total internal
reflection. The fiber consists of a core s#rro#ne b" a claing la"er& both
of !hich are %ae of ielectric %aterials. To confine the optical signal in the
core& the refractive ine6 of the core %#st be greater than that of the
claing. The bo#nar" bet!een the core an claing %a" either be
abr#pt& in step$ine6 fiber& or gra#al& in grae$ine6 fiber
Ine6 of refraction
The ine6 of refraction is a !a" of %eas#ring the spee of light in a %aterial.
(ight travels fastest in a vac##%& s#ch as o#ter space. The act#al spee of
light in a vac##% is abo#t ?99 %illion %eters (12C tho#san %iles) per
secon. Ine6 of refraction is calc#late b" iviing the spee of light in a
vac##% b" the spee of light in so%e other %ei#%. The ine6 of refraction
of a vac##% is therefore 1& b" efinition. The t"pical val#e for the claing of
an optical fiber is 1.3C. The core val#e is t"picall" 1.32. The larger the ine6
of refraction& the slo!er light travels in that %ei#%. Fro% this infor%ation& a
goo r#le of th#%b is that signal #sing optical fiber for co%%#nication !ill
travel at aro#n 499 %illion %eters per secon. Or to p#t it another !a"& to
travel 1999 )ilo%eters in fiber& the signal !ill ta)e A %illisecons to
propagate. Th#s a phone call carrie b" fiber bet!een '"ne" an Ne! ,or)&
a 14999 )ilo%eter istance& %eans that there is an absol#te %ini%#% ela"
of C9 %illisecons (or aro#n 1D1Cth of a secon) bet!een !hen one caller
spea)s to !hen the other hears. (Of co#rse the fiber in this case !ill probabl"
travel a longer ro#te& an there !ill be aitional ela"s #e to
co%%#nication e5#ip%ent s!itching an the process of encoing an
ecoing the voice onto the fiber).
Total internal reflection
<hen light traveling in a ense %ei#% hits a bo#nar" at a steep angle
(larger than the 0critical angle0 for the bo#nar")& the light !ill be co%pletel"
reflecte. This effect is #se in optical fibers to confine light in the core.
(ight travels along the fiber bo#ncing bac) an forth off of the bo#nar".
-eca#se the light %#st stri)e the bo#nar" !ith an angle greater than the
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critical angle& onl" light that enters the fiber !ithin a certain range of angles
can travel o!n the fiber !itho#t lea)ing o#t. This range of angles is calle
the acceptance cone of the fiber. The si:e of this acceptance cone is a
f#nction of the refractive ine6 ifference bet!een the fiber>s core an
claing.
O/TICA( FI-.R T,/.':
In grae$ine6 fiber& the ine6 of refraction in the core ecreases
contin#o#sl" bet!een the a6is an the claing. This ca#ses light ra"s to
ben s%oothl" as the" approach the claing& rather than reflecting abr#ptl"
fro% the core$claing bo#nar". The res#lting c#rve paths re#ce %#lti$
path ispersion beca#se high angle ra"s pass %ore thro#gh the lo!er$ine6
peripher" of the core& rather than the high$ine6 center. The ine6 profile is
chosen to %ini%i:e the ifference in a6ial propagation spees of the vario#s
ra"s in the fiber. This ieal ine6 profile is ver" close to a parabolic
relationship bet!een the ine6 an the istance fro% the a6is
*#lti$%oe fiber
Fiber !ith large core ia%eter %a" be anal":e b" geo%etrical optics. '#ch
fiber is calle %#lti$%oe fiber& fro% the electro%agnetic anal"sis (see
belo!). In a step$ine6 %#lti$%oe fiber& ra"s of light are g#ie along the
fiber core b" total internal reflection. Ra"s that %eet the core$claing
bo#nar" at a high angle (%eas#re relative to a line nor%al to the
bo#nar")& greater than the critical angle for this bo#nar"& are co%pletel"
reflecte. The critical angle (%ini%#% angle for total internal reflection) is
eter%ine b" the ifference in ine6 of refraction bet!een the core an
claing %aterials. Ra"s that %eet the bo#nar" at a lo! angle are refracte
fro% the core into the claing& an o not conve" light an hence
infor%ation along the fiber. The critical angle eter%ines the acceptance
angle of the fiber& often reporte as a n#%erical apert#re. A high n#%erical
apert#re allo!s light to propagate o!n the fiber in ra"s both close to the
a6is an at vario#s angles& allo!ing efficient co#pling of light into the fiber.
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+o!ever& this high n#%erical apert#re increases the a%o#nt of ispersion as
ra"s at ifferent angles have ifferent path lengths an therefore ta)e
ifferent ti%es to traverse the fibre.
'ingle$%oe fiber
The str#ct#re of a t"pical single$%oe fiber
1. Core: 2 % ia%eter
4. Claing: 14A % ia.
?. -#ffer: 4A9 % ia.
3. 8ac)et: 399 % ia
Fiber !ith a core ia%eter less than abo#t ten ti%es the !avelength of the
propagating light cannot be %oele #sing geo%etric optics. Instea& it %#st
be anal":e as an electro%agnetic str#ct#re& b" sol#tion of *a6!ell>s
e5#ations as re#ce to the electro%agnetic !ave e5#ation. The
electro%agnetic anal"sis %a" also be re5#ire to #nerstan behaviors s#ch
as spec)le that occ#r !hen coherent light propagates in %#lti$%oe fiber. As
an optical !aveg#ie& the fiber s#pports one or %ore confine transverse
%oes b" !hich light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber s#pporting onl"
one %oe is calle single$%oe or %ono$%oe fiber.
'pecial$p#rpose fiber
'o%e special$p#rpose optical fiber is constr#cte !ith a non$c"linrical core
anDor claing la"er& #s#all" !ith an elliptical or rectang#lar cross$section.
These incl#e polari:ation$%aintaining fiber an fiber esigne to s#ppress
!hispering galler" %oe propagation.
/hotonic$cr"stal fiber is %ae !ith a reg#lar pattern of ine6 variation (often
in the for% of c"linrical holes that r#n along the length of the fiber). '#ch
fiber #ses iffraction effects instea of or in aition to total internal
reflection& to confine light to the fiber>s core. The properties of the fiber can
be tailore to a !ie variet" of applications
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ATT.NUATION:
Atten#ation in fiber optics& also )no!n as trans%ission loss& is the re#ction
in intensit" of the light bea% (or signal) !ith respect to istance travelle
thro#gh a trans%ission %ei#%. Atten#ation coefficients in fiber optics
#s#all" #se #nits of -D)% thro#gh the %ei#% #e to the relativel" high
5#alit" of transparenc" of %oern optical trans%ission %eia. The %ei#% is
t"picall" #s#all" a fiber of silica glass that confines the incient light bea% to
the insie. Atten#ation is an i%portant factor li%iting the trans%ission of a
igital signal across large istances. Th#s& %#ch research has gone into both
li%iting the atten#ation an %a6i%i:ing the a%plification of the optical
signal. .%pirical research has sho!n that atten#ation in optical fiber is
ca#se pri%aril" b" both scattering an absorption.
(ight scattering

'ec#lars reflection Diff#se reflection
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The propagation of light thro#gh the core of an optical fiber is base on total
internal reflection of the light !ave. Ro#gh an irreg#lar s#rfaces& even at the
%olec#lar level& can ca#se light ra"s to be reflecte in rano% irections.
This is calle iff#se reflection or scattering& an it is t"picall" characteri:e
b" !ie variet" of reflection angles.
(ight scattering epens on the !avelength of the light being scattere.
Th#s& li%its to spatial scales of visibilit" arise& epening on the fre5#enc" of
the incient light$!ave an the ph"sical i%ension (or spatial scale) of the
scattering center& !hich is t"picall" in the for% of so%e specific %icro$
str#ct#ral feat#re. 'ince visible light has a !avelength of the orer of one
%icron (one %illionth of a %eter) scattering centers !ill have i%ensions on
a si%ilar spatial scale.
Th#s& atten#ation res#lts fro% the incoherent scattering of light at internal
s#rfaces an interfaces. In (pol") cr"stalline %aterials s#ch as %etals an
cera%ics& in aition to pores& %ost of the internal s#rfaces or interfaces are
in the for% of grain bo#naries that separate tin" regions of cr"stalline orer.
It has recentl" been sho!n that !hen the si:e of the scattering center (or
grain bo#nar") is re#ce belo! the si:e of the !avelength of the light
being scattere& the scattering no longer occ#rs to an" significant e6tent.
This pheno%enon has given rise to the pro#ction of transparent cera%ic
%aterials.
UE$Eis$IR absorption
In aition to light scattering& atten#ation or signal loss can also occ#r #e
to selective absorption of specific !avelengths& in a %anner si%ilar to that
responsible for the appearance of color. /ri%ar" %aterial consierations
incl#e both electrons an %olec#les as follo!s:
1) At the electronic level& it epens on !hether the electron orbital are
space (or 05#anti:e0) s#ch that the" can absorb a 5#ant#% of light (or
photon) of a specific !avelength or fre5#enc" in the #ltraviolet (UE) or
visible ranges. This is !hat gives rise to color.
4) At the ato%ic or %olec#lar level& it epens on the fre5#encies of ato%ic
or %olec#lar vibrations or che%ical bons& ho! close$pac)e its ato%s or
%olec#les are& an !hether or not the ato%s or %olec#les e6hibit long$range
orer. These factors !ill eter%ine the capacit" of the %aterial trans%itting
longer !avelengths in the infrare (IR)& far IR& raio an %icro!ave ranges.
The esign of an" opticall" transparent evice re5#ires the selection of
%aterials base #pon )no!lege of its properties an li%itations. The
lattice
Fisa%big#ation neeeG
absorption characteristics observe at the lo!er
fre5#enc" regions (%i IR to far$infrare !avelength range) efine the long$
!avelength transparenc" li%it of the %aterial. The" are the res#lt of the
interactive co#pling bet!een the %otions of ther%all" in#ce vibrations of
the constit#ent ato%s an %olec#les of the soli lattice an the incient
light !ave raiation. +ence& all %aterials are bo#ne b" li%iting regions of
absorption ca#se b" ato%ic an %olec#lar vibrations (bon$stretching)in
the far$infrare (H19 %).
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*ANUFACTURIN7:
*aterials
7lass optical fibers are al%ost al!a"s %ae fro% silica& b#t so%e other
%aterials& s#ch as fl#oro:irconate& fl#oroal#%inate& an chalcogenie
glasses& are #se for longer$!avelength infrare applications. (i)e other
glasses& these glasses have a refractive ine6 of abo#t 1.A. T"picall" the
ifference bet!een core an claing is less than one percent.
/lastic optical fibers (/OF) are co%%onl" step$ine6 %#lti$%oe fibers !ith
a core ia%eter of 9.A %illi%eters or larger. /OF t"picall" have higher
atten#ation co$efficient than glass fibers& 1 -D% or higher& an this high
atten#ation li%its the range of /OF$base s"ste%s.
'ilica
The a%orpho#s str#ct#re of glass" silica ('iO4). No long$range orer is
present& ho!ever there is local orering !ith respect to the tetraheral
arrange%ent of o6"gen (O) ato%s aro#n the silicon ('i) ato%s.
'ilica e6hibits fairl" goo optical trans%ission over a !ie range of
!avelengths. In the near$infrare (near IR) portion of the spectr#%&
partic#larl" aro#n 1.A I%& silica can have e6tre%el" lo! absorption an
scattering losses of the orer of 9.4 -D)%. A high transparenc" in the 1.3$
I% region is achieve b" %aintaining a lo! concentration of h"ro6"l
gro#ps (O+). Alternativel"& a high O+ concentration is better for trans%ission
in the #ltraviolet (UE) region.
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Fl#ories
Fl#orie glass is a class of non$o6ie optical 5#alit" glasses co%pose of
fl#ories of vario#s %etals. D#e to their lo! viscosit"& it is ver" iffic#lt to
co%pletel" avoi cr"stalli:ation !hile processing it thro#gh the glass
transition (or ra!ing the fiber fro% the %elt). Th#s& altho#gh heav" %etal
fl#orie glasses (+*F7) e6hibit ver" lo! optical atten#ation& the" are not
onl" iffic#lt to %an#fact#re& b#t are 5#ite fragile& an have poor resistance
to %oist#re an other environ%ental attac)s. Their best attrib#te is that the"
lac) the absorption ban associate !ith the h"ro6"l (O+) gro#p (?499@
?C99 c%
J1
)& !hich is present in nearl" all o6ie$base glasses.
An e6a%ple of a heav" %etal fl#orie glass is the K-(AN glass gro#p&
co%pose of :irconi#%& bari#%& lanthan#%& al#%in#%& an soi#%
fl#ories. Their %ain technological application is as optical !aveg#ies in
both planar an fiber for%. The" are avantageo#s especiall" in the %i$
infrare (4999@A999 n%) range.
+*F7>s !ere initiall" slate for optical fiber applications& beca#se the
intrinsic losses of a %i$IR fiber co#l in principle be lo!er than those of
silica fibers& !hich are transparent onl" #p to abo#t 4 I%. +o!ever& s#ch
lo! losses !ere never reali:e in practice& an the fragilit" an high cost of
fl#orie fibers %ae the% less than ieal as pri%ar" caniates. (ater& the
#tilit" of fl#orie fibers for vario#s other applications !as iscovere. These
incl#e %i$IR spectroscop"& fiber optic sensors& ther%o%etr"& an i%aging .
Also& fl#orie fibers can be #se to for g#ie light !ave trans%ission in
%eia s#ch as ,A7 ("ttria$al#%ina garnet) lasers at 4.B I%& as re5#ire for
%eical applications (e.g. ophthal%olog" an entistr"
/hosphates
The /3O19 cage li)es str#ct#reLthe basic b#iling bloc) for phosphate
glass.
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/hosphate glass constit#tes a class of optical glasses co%pose of
%etaphosphates of vario#s %etals. Instea of the 'iO3 tetraheral observe
in silicate glasses& the b#iling bloc) for this glass for%er is /hosphor#s
pento6ie (/4OA)& !hich cr"stalli:es in at least fo#r ifferent for%s. The %ost
fa%iliar pol"%orph (see fig#re) co%prises %olec#les of /3O19.
/hosphate glasses can be avantageo#s over silica glasses for optical fibers
!ith a high concentration of oping rare earth ions. A %i6 of fl#orie glass
an phosphate glass is fl#orophosphate glass
Chalcogenies
The chalcogensLthe ele%ents in gro#p 1C of the perioic tableL
partic#larl" s#lph#r (')& seleni#% ('e) an tell#ri#% (Te)Lreact !ith %ore
electropositive ele%ents& s#ch as silver& to for% chalcogenies. These are
e6tre%el" versatile co%po#ns& in that the" can be cr"stalline or a%orpho#s&
%etallic or se%icon#cting& an con#ctors of ions or electrons.
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/ROC.'':
Ill#stration of the %oifie che%ical vapor eposition (insie) process
'tanar optical fibers are %ae b" first constr#cting a large$ia%eter
prefor%& !ith a caref#ll" controlle refractive ine6 profile& an then p#lling
the prefor% to for% the long& thin optical fiber. The prefor% is co%%onl"
%ae b" three che%ical vapor eposition %ethos: insie vapor eposition&
o#tsie vapor eposition& an vapor a6ial eposition.
<ith insie vapor eposition& the prefor% starts as a hollo! glass t#be
appro6i%atel" 39 centi%etres (1C in) long& !hich is place hori:ontall" an
rotate slo!l" on a lathe. 7ases s#ch as silicon tetrachlorie ('iCl3) or
ger%ani#% tetrachlorie (7eCl3) are inMecte !ith o6"gen in the en of the
t#be. The gases are then heate b" %eans of an e6ternal h"rogen b#rner&
bringing the te%perat#re of the gas #p to 1B99 N (1C99 =C& ?999 =F)& !here
the tetrachlories react !ith o6"gen to pro#ce silica or ger%ania
(ger%ani#% io6ie) particles. <hen the reaction conitions are chosen to
allo! this reaction to occ#r in the gas phase thro#gho#t the t#be vol#%e& in
contrast to earlier techni5#es !here the reaction occ#rre onl" on the glass
s#rface& this techni5#e is calle %oifie che%ical vapor eposition.
The o6ie particles then agglo%erate to for% large particle chains& !hich
s#bse5#entl" eposit on the !alls of the t#be as soot. The eposition is #e
to the large ifference in te%perat#re bet!een the gas core an the !all
ca#sing the gas to p#sh the particles o#t!ars (this is )no!n as
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ther%ophoresis). The torch is then traverse #p an o!n the length of the
t#be to eposit the %aterial evenl". After the torch has reache the en of
the t#be& it is then bro#ght bac) to the beginning of the t#be an the
eposite particles are then %elte to for% a soli la"er. This process is
repeate #ntil a s#fficient a%o#nt of %aterial has been eposite. For each
la"er the co%position can be %oifie b" var"ing the gas co%position&
res#lting in precise control of the finishe fiber>s optical properties.
Coatings
Fiber optic coatings are UE$c#re #rethane acr"late co%posite %aterials
applie to the o#tsie of the fiber #ring the ra!ing process. The coatings
protect the ver" elicate strans of glass fiberLabo#t the si:e of a h#%an
hairLan allo! it to s#rvive the rigors of %an#fact#ring& proof testing&
cabling an installation.
Toa"Os glass optical fiber ra! processes e%plo" a #al$la"er coating
approach. An inner pri%ar" coating is esigne to act as a shoc) absorber to
%ini%i:e atten#ation ca#se b" %icro bening. An o#ter seconar" coating
protects the pri%ar" coating against %echanical a%age an acts as a
barrier to lateral forces.
These fiber optic coating la"ers are applie #ring the fiber ra!& at spees
approaching 199 )ilo%eters per ho#r (C9 %ph). Fiber optic coatings are
applie #sing one of t!o %ethos: !et$on$r"& in !hich the fiber passes
thro#gh a pri%ar" coating application& !hich is then UE c#re& then thro#gh
the seconar" coating application !hich is s#bse5#entl" c#reP an !et$on$
!et& in !hich the fiber passes thro#gh both the pri%ar" an seconar"
coating applications an then goes to UE c#ring.
Fiber optic coatings are applie in concentric la"ers to prevent a%age to
the fiber #ring the ra!ing application an to %a6i%i:e fiber strength an
%icro ben resistance. Uner proper ra!ing an coating processes& the
coatings are concentric aro#n the fiber& contin#o#s over the length of the
application an have constant thic)ness.
/RACTICA( I''U.':
In practical fibers& the claing is #s#all" coate !ith a to#gh resin b#ffer
la"er& !hich %a" be f#rther s#rro#ne b" a Mac)et la"er& #s#all" plastic.
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These la"ers a strength to the fiber b#t o not contrib#te to its optical
!ave g#ie properties. Rigi fiber asse%blies so%eti%es p#t light$absorbing
(0ar)0) glass bet!een the fibers& to prevent light that lea)s o#t of one fiber
fro% entering another. This re#ces cross$tal) bet!een the fibers& or re#ces
flare in fiber b#nle i%aging applications..
*oern cables co%e in a !ie variet" of sheathings an ar%or& esigne for
applications s#ch as irect b#rial in trenches& high voltage isolation& an
#al #se as po!er lines& an installation in con#it& lashing to aerial
telephone poles& s#b%arine installation& an insertion in pave streets. The
cost of s%all fiber$co#nt pole$%o#nte cables has greatl" ecrease #e to
the high 8apanese an 'o#th Norean e%an for fiber to the ho%e (FTT+)
installations.
Fiber cable can be ver" fle6ible& b#t traitional fiber>s loss increases greatl" if
the fiber is bent !ith a rai#s s%aller than aro#n ?9 %%. This creates a
proble% !hen the cable is bent aro#n corners or !o#n aro#n a spool&
%a)ing FTTQ installations %ore co%plicate. 0-enable fibers0& targete
to!ars easier installation in ho%e environ%ents& have been stanari:e as
ITU$T 7.CA;. This t"pe of fiber can be bent !ith a rai#s as lo! as ;.A %%
!itho#t averse i%pact. .ven %ore benable fibers have been evelope.
-enable fiber %a" also be resistant to fiber hac)ing& in !hich the signal in a
fiber is s#rreptitio#sl" %onitore b" bening the fiber an etecting the
lea)age.
Free$space co#pling
It is often necessar" to align an optical fiber !ith another optical fiber& or
!ith an optoelectronic evice s#ch as a light$e%itting ioe& a laser ioe& or
a %o#lator. This can involve either caref#ll" aligning the fiber an placing it
in contact !ith the evice& or can #se a lens to allo! co#pling over an air
gap. In so%e cases the en of the fiber is polishe into a c#rve for% that is
esigne to allo! it to act as a lens.
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A//(ICATION' OF FI-.R O/TIC':
Optical fibers are thin transparent fibers of glass or plastic enclose b"
%aterial having a lo!er ine6 of refraction an trans%it light thro#gho#t
their length b" internal reflections. The fibers an claing are t"picall"
enclose in a protective pol"%er Mac)et. The trans%itters an receivers are
often integrate into a single co%ponent calle a transceiver. Trans%itters
are light so#rces& s#ch as lasers or light$e%itting ioes. Receivers #s#all"
incl#e a photo etector. In co%%#nications& fiber optic cables carr" p#lse
%o#late optical signals& originating fro% lasers or light e%itting ioes& for
co%%#nicating voice an ata signals. In in#str"& fiber optic sensors
trans%it over fiber optic cables signals !hose intensit" an !avelength
inicate the nat#re of a sense para%eter
Optical fiber can be #se as a %ei#% for teleco%%#nication an
net!or)ing beca#se it is fle6ible an can be b#nle as cables. It is
especiall" avantageo#s for long$istance co%%#nications& beca#se light
propagates thro#gh the fiber !ith little atten#ation co%pare to electrical
cables. This allo!s long istances to be spanne !ith fe! repeaters.
Aitionall"& the per$channel light signals propagating in the fiber can be
%o#late at rates as high as 111 gigabits per secon&
F1?G
altho#gh 19 or
39 7bDs is t"pical in eplo"e s"ste%s. .ach fiber can carr" %an"
Page | 13
inepenent channels& each #sing a ifferent !avelength of light
(!avelength$ivision %#ltiple6ing (<D*)). The net ata rate (ata rate
!itho#t overhea b"tes) per fiber is the per$channel ata rate re#ce b"
the F.C overhea& %#ltiplie b" the n#%ber of channels (#s#all" #p to
eight" in co%%ercial ense <D* s"ste%s as of 4992). The c#rrent
laborator" fiber optic ata rate recor& hel b" -ell (abs in Eillarcea#6&
France& is %#ltiple6ing 1AA channels& each carr"ing 199 7bps over a
;999 )% fiber.
Over short istances& s#ch as net!or)ing !ithin a b#iling& fiber saves space
in cable #cts beca#se a single fiber can carr" %#ch %ore ata than a single
electrical cableFiber is also i%%#ne to electrical interferenceP there is no
cross$tal) bet!een signals in ifferent cables an no pic)#p of
environ%ental noise. Non$ar%ore fiber cables o not con#ct electricit"&
!hich %a)es fiber a goo sol#tion for protecting co%%#nications e5#ip%ent
locate in high voltage environ%ents s#ch as po!er generation facilities& or
%etal co%%#nication str#ct#res prone to lightning stri)es. The" can also be
#se in environ%ents !here e6plosive f#%es are present& !itho#t anger of
ignition. <iretapping is %ore iffic#lt co%pare to electrical connections&
an there are concentric #al core fibers that are sai to be tap$proof.
Altho#gh fibers can be %ae o#t of transparent plastic& glass& or a
co%bination of the t!o& the fibers #se in long$istance teleco%%#nications
applications are al!a"s glass& beca#se of the lo!er optical atten#ation.
Fiber optic sensors
Fibers have %an" #ses in re%ote sensing. In so%e applications& the sensor is
itself an optical fiber. In other cases& fiber is #se to connect a non$fiber
optic sensor to a %eas#re%ent s"ste%. Depening on the application& fiber
%a" be #se beca#se of its s%all si:e& or the fact that no electrical po!er is
neee at the re%ote location& or beca#se %an" sensors can be %#ltiple6e
along the length of a fiber b" #sing ifferent !avelengths of light for each
sensor& or b" sensing the ti%e ela" as light passes along the fiber thro#gh
each sensor. Ti%e ela" can be eter%ine #sing a evice s#ch as an optical
ti%e$o%ain reflect %eter.
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The fiber optic sensors #se a s%all& seale fiber optic cable to vie! the target
!hile the sensor is %o#nte in a re%ote or %ore convenient location. This
provies greater #rabilit" an fle6ibilit" !ith sensor installations that involve
confine spaces or severe environ%ents. The fiber cables can range in
length fro% ? to ?9 feet (1$B %). 'o%e #ni5#e fiber optic accessories
incl#e.
Optical fibers can be #se as sensors to %eas#re strain& te%perat#re&
press#re an other 5#antities b" %oif"ing a fiber so that the 5#antit" to be
%eas#re %o#lates the intensit"& phase& polari:ation& !avelength or transit
ti%e of light in the fiber. 'ensors that var" the intensit" of light are the
si%plest& since onl" a si%ple so#rce an etector are re5#ire. A partic#larl"
#sef#l feat#re of s#ch fiber optic sensors is that the" can& if re5#ire& provie
istrib#te sensing over istances of #p to one %eter.
.6trinsic fiber optic sensors #se an optical fiber cable& nor%all" a %#lti$%oe
one& to trans%it %o#late light fro% either a non$fiber optical sensor& or an
electronic sensor connecte to an optical trans%itter. A %aMor benefit of
e6trinsic sensors is their abilit" to reach places !hich are other!ise
inaccessible. .6trinsic sensors can also be #se in the sa%e !a" to %eas#re
the internal te%perat#re of electrical transfor%ers& !here the e6tre%e
electro%agnetic fiels present %a)e other %eas#re%ent techni5#es
i%possible. .6trinsic sensors are #se to %eas#re vibration& rotation&
isplace%ent& velocit"& acceleration& tor5#e& an t!isting.
Other #ses of optical fibers
A Frisbee ill#%inate b" fiber optics
Fibers are !iel" #se in ill#%ination applications. The" are #se as light
g#ies in %eical an other applications !here bright light nees to be
shone on a target !itho#t a clear line$of$sight path. In so%e b#ilings&
optical fibers are #se to ro#te s#nlight fro% the roof to other parts of the
b#iling (see non$i%aging optics). Optical fiber ill#%ination is also #se for
ecorative applications& incl#ing signs& art& an artificial Christ%as trees.
'!arovs)i bo#ti5#es #se optical fibers to ill#%inate their cr"stal sho!cases
fro% %an" ifferent angles !hile onl" e%plo"ing one light so#rce. Optical
fiber is an intrinsic part of the light$trans%itting concrete b#iling pro#ct&
(iTraCon.
Page | 15
Optical fiber is also #se in i%aging optics. A coherent b#nle of fibers is
#se& so%eti%es along !ith lenses& for a long& thin i%aging evice calle an
enoscope& !hich is #se to vie! obMects thro#gh a s%all hole. *eical
enoscopes are #se for %ini%all" invasive e6plorator" or s#rgical
proce#res (enoscop"). In#strial enoscopes (see fiberscope or bore
scope) are #se for inspecting an"thing har to reach& s#ch as Met engine
interiors.
In spectroscop"& optical fiber b#nles are #se to trans%it light fro% a
spectro%eter to a s#bstance !hich cannot be place insie the
spectro%eter itself& in orer to anal":e its co%position. A spectro%eter
anal":es s#bstances b" bo#ncing light off of an thro#gh the%. -" #sing
fibers& a spectro%eter can be #se to st#" obMects that are too large to fit
insie& or gasses& or reactions !hich occ#r in press#re vessels.
CONC(U'ION:
The fiber optic co%%#nication is the leaing #pgro!th for the
"o#ng %oern !orl. Its scope of #tilit" is ver" high than an" other %oe of
co%%#nication . The faster it evelopes faster its #ses . One thing !e can
learn fro% o#r %oern societ" is that th#rst of even %ore prevails RRso it is
!e !ho are the processors of %oern co%%#nication. (ets Moin together for
the evelop%ent of Fiber optic co%%#nication.
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Optical Fibers

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OPTICAL FIBER AND ITS APPLICATIONS

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