Prevalence and Mechanisms of Malnutrition in Patients With Advanced
Liver Disease, and Nutrition Management Strategies
KALLY CHEUNG,* SAMUEL S. LEE,
and MAITREYI RAMAN
*Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Alberta, Canada;
Liver Unit, and
Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada This article has an accompanying continuing medical education activity on page e18. Learning ObjectiveAt the end of this activity, the learner will appreciate that morbidity and mortality is related to nutritional status in patients with advanced liver disease; recognize the multifactorial nature of malnutrition in patients with cirrhosis; and appreciate the importance of the liver in the many derangements of nutritional status in patients with cirrhosis. Malnutrition is prevalent among cirrhotic patients and is an important prognostic factor. Etiologic factors include hypermetabolism, malabsorption, altered nutrient metabo- lism, and anorexia. It is a challenge to manage nutrition in cirrhotic patients because of alterations to metabolic and storage functions of the liver; use of traditional assessment tools, such as anthropometric and biometric measures, is difcult because of complications such as ascites and in- ammation. In addition to meeting macro- and micronutri- ent requirements, the composition and timing of supplements have been proposed to affect efcacy of nutrition support. Studies have indicated that branched chain aromatic acid can be given as therapeutic nutrients, and that probiotics and nocturnal feeding improve patient outcomes. Keywords: Liver Disease; Nutrient Therapies; Diet; Cirrhosis; Malnutrition. N utrition status is recognized as a predictor of morbidity and mortality in patients with advanced liver disease. 13 The liver is an important regulator of metabolism, storage, synthesis, and absorption of nutrients. Accordingly, the severity of malnutrition increases with decreases in liver function. 4 The mechanisms involved in the pathogeneses of malnutrition are not fully understood, though it is important to continue to explore this relationship; improvements in nutritional status can improve outcomes of patients with advanced liver disease. We review the prevalence and mechanisms of malnutrition and provide recommendations for nutrition management. Prevalence of Malnutrition Patients with chronic diseases frequently become mal- nourished; they have an inability to meet macronutrient and micronutrient requirements through oral intake. 5 Inadequate intake and/or associated malabsorption alters body composi- tion and diminishes biological functions. 5 Parameters used to assess malnutrition in patients with liver disease include an- thropometric and serum measurements and qualitative data on weight history and food intake. 6,7 Malnutrition is common in patients with advanced liver disease; the prevalence is reported to be 50%90% among cir- rhotic patients. 711 In a study of 300 patients, more than 75% of those with advanced liver disease presented with some degree of malnutrition, and almost 40% presented with moderate or se- vere malnutrition, based on anthropometric and serum mea- surements. 7 In the same study, 95% of patients of ChildPugh class C presented with malnutrition, compared with 84% and 46% of classes B and A, respectively. 7 The prevalence of malnutrition among patients with even early-stage cirrhosis is concerning, given that nutrition status is associated with mortality and complications. 12,13 In a large nationwide analysis of hospitalized patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension, patients with protein calorie malnutrition had greater incidences of complications such as ascites (65%, compared with 48% without malnutrition) and hepatorenal syndrome (5% vs 3%). 12 Malnourished patients also had longer hospital stays and had a 2-fold increase in in-hospital mortality, compared with well-nourished patients. 12 The incidence of mal- nutrition in this study was 6% among patients with cirrhosis, compared with 2% of general medical patientscaptured using International Classication of Diseases, 9th Version (ICD-9) coding, which might have led to underreporting of malnutri- tion; rates of malnutrition were signicantly lower compared with those reported in other studies. 12 The impact of malnu- trition on mortality and complications might have been larger in magnitude if a more sensitive measure of malnutrition was used. A study of patients of ChildPugh class A demonstrated that malnutrition, even in early stages of cirrhosis, had large effects on patient outcomes. Among a cohort of patients that were primarily ChildPugh class A, those that were malnourished had a 1-year mortality rate of about 20%, whereas none of the patients that received sufcient amounts of nutrients died within the 1-year period. 13 Complications such as infections, hepatic encephalopathy, ascites, and hepatorenal syndrome also Abbreviations used in this paper: AAA, aromatic amino acid; ASPEN, American Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; BCAA, branched chain aromatic acid; ESPEN, European Society of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism; HE, hepatic encephalopathy; MHE, minimal hepatic en- cephalopathy; PBC, primary biliary cirrhosis; REE, resting energy ex- penditure; SGA, subjective global assessment; TPN, total parenteral nutrition. 2012 by the AGA Institute 1542-3565/$36.00 doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2011.08.016 CLINICAL GASTROENTEROLOGY AND HEPATOLOGY 2012;10:117125 increased with malnutrition; in the same study, 65% of mal- nourished patients developed complications compared with 11% of well-nourished patients. 13 After liver transplantation, malnutrition has been associated with higher rates of infectious complications, longer stays in the intensive care unit, and higher mortality. 6,8 Additionally, patients with more severe malnutrition have longer postopera- tive hospital stays. 6 Etiology of Malnutrition The etiology of malnutrition is multifactorial and pri- marily related to reduced liver function; poor oral intake and complications of cirrhosis such as ascites and hepatic enceph- alopathy also contribute. Hypermetabolism Resting energy expenditure (REE) is the amount of energy an individual uses to perform vital organ functions, free of activity and digestion. 14 A commonly used predictive equa- tion for REE is the Harris Benedict Equation, which factors weight, height, and sex in the calculation. Whereas most cir- rhotic patients have a REE that is similar to predicted values, 15%30% of patients are hypermetabolic. 15,16 Hypermetabolism is dened as REE 120%compared with the predicted value. 15,16 The causes of hypermetabolism are unclear; a recent study of 268 patients did not associate hypermetabolism with sex, etiology, severity of disease, protein depletion, presence of ascites, or tumors. 16 This nding is inconsistent with results from older studies that reported that energy expenditure increased among patients with ascites or hepatocellular carcinoma. 17,18 The increase in REE among patients with cirrhosis might result from infections or immune compromise. Plasma concentrations of catecholamines are increased in cirrhotic patients, indicating activation of the sympathetic nervous system. 19 Sympathetic over- activity could induce systemic responses such as tachycardia and increases in cardiac output and blood glucose levels, 20 which could all increase energy expenditure. 15 Proposed causes for the increased levels of catecholamine include gastrointestinal bacterial translo- cation, an inammatory phenotype of chronic liver failure, or central neural dysregulation of the circulation. 21,22 Malabsorption There are multiple mechanisms that can lead to mal- absorption of nutrientsparticularly of fatin cirrhotic pa- tients (Figure 1). One complication that affects nutrient absorp- tion in patients with cirrhosis is portosystemic shunting. As cirrhosis progresses, portosystemic shunting causes nutrients to bypass the liver, without metabolic processing. 2,23 In addition, many patients with cirrhosis that is secondary to alcohol abuse have chronic pancreatitis, which contributes to malabsorption. An analysis of autopsy results found that 18% of cirrhotic patients also had chronic pancreatitis. 24 Figure 1. Possible factors contributing to lipid maldiges- tion or malabsorption in pa- tients with cirrhosis or chronic pancreatitis. 118 CHEUNG ET AL CLINICAL GASTROENTEROLOGY AND HEPATOLOGY Vol. 10, No. 2 Another factor that leads to fat malabsorption in patients with cirrhosis is intraluminal bile acid deciency, which results from the decreased capacity for bile production and portosys- temic shunting; intraluminal bile acid deciency impairs for- mation of micelles and absorption of long chain fatty acids through the usual lymphatic route. 25 Portal absorption of long chain fatty acids might also occur in patients with cirrhosis; Cabre et al showed that the incorporation of radiolabeled fatty acid in chylomicron and very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)- associated plasma tricylglycerols was lower and less sustained in cirrhotic patients compared with healthy controls. 26 This nd- ing is consistent with reports of impaired lipoprotein export in cirrhotic patients, probably from decreased synthesis of tri- aclyglycerols. 27,28 The ndings of Cabre et al indicate an alter- nate route for fat absorption in cirrhotic patients, which by- passes standard lymphatic transport. A portal route for fat absorption has pathophysiologic implications; it could result in excess hepatic storage of fat, which can reduce liver function and the systemic availability of fat for organic functions. Altered Macronutrient Metabolism Glucose metabolism has been well studied in patients with liver disease. Those with cirrhosis have increased levels of gluconeogenesis and protein catabolism and decreased levels of glycogenlysis, compared with healthy individuals. 29,30 The al- tered rates of metabolism reect a signicant depletion in protein and fat reserves, reported in about 50% of cirrhotic patients. 6,16 Patients with chronic liver disease have increased rates of gluconeogenesisa number of factors contribute to this. First, cirrhosis reduces the ability of hepatocytes to store, synthesize, and break down glycogen. These defects promote gluconeogen- esis from fats and protein as alternate fuel sources. Following a short overnight fast, the rate of fat and protein catabolism in patients with cirrhosis is similar to that of healthy subjects who underwent 2 to 3 days of starvation. 31 Second, cirrhosis and insulin resistance are related; patients with cirrhosis have high serum levels of insulin after fasting and postprandial levels of glucose. 32 Fasting plasma levels of insulin, among 31 patients with cirrhosis, were 3-fold higher than those of healthy individuals. 32 Insulin resistance decreases peripheral glucose utilization and contributes to decreased hepatic glucose production and hepatic glycogen reserves. 33 Increased serum levels of glucagon, which result from impaired degradation by the liver, increases the rate of gluconeogenesis. Third, infection can increase rates of protein catabolism. The production of cytokines and other infection mediators activate proteolysis and increase oxidation of branched chain aromatic acids (BCAAs). This can promote the breakdown of muscle cells for substrates, if dietary protein intake is insufcient. In pa- tients with cirrhosis, the utilization of oxidative fuels is associ- ated with an increased rate of lipid oxidationparticularly in the fasting state. 34 Anorexia As in other chronic illnesses, anorexia makes a signi- cant contribution to malnutrition. Anorexia can be caused by physical symptoms of discomfort such as nausea, bloating, fatigue, and vomiting. Patients with ascites often experience early satiety resulting from the mechanical effects of ascitic uid, which compress the stomach. 35 Additionally, loss of appetite can be related to the up-regu- lation of inammation and appetite mediators. 16,36 Levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- and leptin correlate with satiety and energy expenditure; patients with cirrhosis have increased serum levels of this cytokine. 37 Tumor necrosis factor- might affect appetite and metabolism by acting on the central nervous system, altering the release and function of neurotransmitters. 38 Leptin is an appetite-regulating hormone that is secreted by adipose tissue. 39 Cirrhotic patients had a 2-fold increase in fasting levels of leptin compared with healthy individuals; this might contribute to anorexia in these patients. 32 Ghrelin, which stimulates appetite, is produced primarily by the stomach. Although some cirrhotic patients have been ob- served to have abnormal fasting levels of this hormone, the relationship between ghrelin and anorexia is unclear; some studies have reported increases and others reported de- creases. 32,40 Changes in ghrelin levels might be related to the systemic response to liver disease and state of anorexia or a consequence of the livers role in hormone regulation. 32,40 Aside from hormonal inuences and physical discomfort, disinterest in food can result from dietary restrictions and taste alterations. Dietary limitations, such as sodium restriction for ascites management, preoperative fasting, and limitation of protein intake for severe hepatic encephalopathy can reduce food variety; many patients do not accept the allowable foods. Although taste alterations have been commonly attributed to micronutrient deciencies, researchers have questioned whether they are a consequence of cirrhosis itself. 41,42 It is also important to consider alcohol-related anorexia. According to the American Liver Foundation, 10%20% of chronic users of alcohol develop cirrhosis. Poor and irregular feeding is common among patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. Before hospital admission, 53% of alcoholic patients reported anorexia, 40% reported irregular feeding, and 36% ate only 1 meal per day. 43 In a study of middle-income patients with alcoholic cirrhosis, although their energy intake was similar to that of nonalcoholics, their overall intake of nutrients was lower, because they acquired most of their energy from alcohol rather than nutrient-rich foods. 44 The socioeconomic status of patients can also affect oral intake; patients who have alcoholic cirrhosis and low socioeconomic status are prone to poor and irregular feeding. As a result, they develop nutrient deciencies, such as low serum levels of folate, B12, and B6, and macronu- trient deciencies. 45 Micronutrient Status Patients with advanced liver disease have an increased risk of micronutrient deciencies that arise from anorexia, diuretic use, fat malabsorption, and hepatitis C. Because pa- tients with ascites have restricted intake of animal protein and are treated with diuretics, they commonly acquire zinc de- ciency. 46 Similarly, magnesium deciency can result from de- creased oral intake of nutrients and use of diuretics. Although rates of deciencies in fat-soluble vitamins vary among studies, vitamin A and vitamin D deciencies are most commonly reported. 47 More than 90% of patients with cirrhosis have some level of vitamin D deciency and 29% have severe vitamin D deciency (17.5 nmol/L). 48 Low serum levels of fat-soluble vitamins can impair absorption of other nutrients, such as vitamin D and calcium. In patients with primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), reduced concentrations of intraluminal bile February 2012 MALNUTRITION IN ADVANCED LIVER DISEASE 119 increase the risk of malabsorption and deciencies in fat and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). 23,4749 In a study of 180 patients with PBC, 33%, 13%, 2%, and 8% had deciencies in vitamins A, D, E, or K, respectively. 47 Although these differences were not statistically signicant (likely due to the small sample size), the authors associated the stage of PBC with the degree of vitamin deciency. 47 Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been associated with decreased levels of vitamin B6 and folate; therapy with pegy- lated interferon and ribavirin further decreased the levels of vitamin B6 and reduced plasma levels of vitamins B1 and B2. Many B-complex vitamins are cofactors for enzymatic reactions, so standard antiviral therapy for hepatitis C might impair physiological functions and cause complications. 50 In this study, dietary intake of B-complex vitamins did not differ be- tween patients with hepatitis C and healthy individuals, indi- cating that hepatitis C virus might compete with human cells for vitamins; therapy might therefore affect nutrient utilization. Nutrition Assessment Because nutrition is correlated with outcome of pa- tients with liver disease, it is important to accurately assess nutritional status and provide timely nutritional support. This task is challenging, due to the complications of altered rates of protein metabolism and presence of ascites and edema. The European Society of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) 2006 guideline recommends the use of the subjective global assessment (SGA), anthropometry analysis, or the hand- grip strength test to identify patients with cirrhosis who are at risk of malnutrition. 51 SGA is a bedside assessment tool used to collect information on dietary intake, weight change, and gastrointestinal symp- toms; it includes an examination for subcutaneous fat loss, muscle wasting, edema, and ascites. 14 The SGA is commonly used to assess patients with liver disease because it is simple and cost-effective. 14 Although traditional anthropometric measures such as weight, midarm circumference, and triceps skin-fold thickness are considered to be adequate for determination of nutritional status of cirrhotic patients, efforts to document these parame- ters in patients with advanced liver disease should be made on a regular basis. Determination of body mass with weight scales, or body composition with bioelectric impedance analysis, is not always accurate, due to the prevalence of ascites or edema in this population. 51 Albumin levels are poor nutritional markers because they are typically reduced in patients with advanced liver disease and uctuate during periods of inammation. 14 The handgrip strength test measures the strength of hand and forearm muscles. Subjects are classied as malnourished if their grip strength is less than 2 standard deviations from the mean of the age and sex groups. 13 This is a simple and quick tool to assess nutritional status, though its use as a sole assess- ment technique is not widespread. The handgrip test has been compared with the SGA in patients with cirrhosis and found to be a superior predictor of clinical complications such as uncon- trolled ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal syndrome. 13 Complications devel- oped in 65% of patients who were classied as malnourished using the handgrip strength test, compared with 35.7% of patients classied as malnourished using the SGA. 13 Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, in vivo neutron activation analysis, and isotope dilution are other methods used to mea- sure nutritional status. 51 Though they provide relevant and accurate information, their widespread application has been limited by cost and technical complexity. 52 So, the SGA, anthro- pometric measures, and the handgrip test are most commonly used in routine nutritional assessments. Although the SGA is adequate as a stand-alone nutrition as- sessment tool, some studies have shown it can underestimate the frequency and severity of malnutrition of patients in the initial stages of the disease. 14,52,53 Figueiredo et al 52 suggested that nutri- tional intervention should be automatically initiated in patients with cirrhosis of ChildPugh class B or C, due to the prevalence of malnutrition in these groups, with more extensive nutritional assessment for patients of class A, to provide timely support. Therefore, a combination of subjective and objective data indicate the need for a comprehensive analysis of patients nutritional status. 52,54 Diabetes is associated with poor prognoses for cirrhotic patients; because of the prevalence of impaired glucose toler- ance among these patients, physicians should consider screen- ing them for glucose intolerance. 55 Often, diabetes presents in patients with subclinical cirrhosis who have normal fasting glucose levels; the 75 g oral glucose tolerance test might be a better diagnostic tool. 55 Studies do not support routine assess- ment of serum levels of insulin or glucagon, or use of homeo- stasis model assessment scores, to identify patients with im- paired glucose tolerance or hepatogenous diabetes. Table 1. Nutrition Recommendations Energy requirement, based on dry weight or determined ideal body weight, for patients with ascites 2540 kcal per d ASPEN Without encephalopathy 2535 kcal/kg per d With acute encephalopathy 35 kcal/kg per d Stable and malnourished 3040 kcal/kg per d ESPEN All stable cirrhosis patients 3540 kcal/kg per d Macronutrients Carbohydrate 45%65% of daily caloric intake per DRI Protein All patients, except acute encephalopathy 1.01.5 g/kg per d Acute encephalopathy 0.60.8 g/kg per d Fat 25%30% of daily caloric intake per DRI Micronutrients Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K); all patients with compensated liver disease Up to RDA levels a Zinc Up to RDA levels a Selenium Up to RDA levels a Folic acid and thiamine; patients with history of alcohol abuse Up to RDA levels a Sodium; patients with ascites and edema Restricted to 2 g per d DRI, daily recommended intake; RDA, recommended dietary allow- ance. a For patients without signs of deciency. 120 CHEUNG ET AL CLINICAL GASTROENTEROLOGY AND HEPATOLOGY Vol. 10, No. 2 Nutrition Recommendations Current nutritional recommendations aim to provide patients with cirrhosis with sufcient energy intake for daily activities, the increased energy requirements associated with liver disease, to prevent further protein catabolism for energy, and to meet nutritional requirements, based on recommended daily intake. The recommendations proposed in the literature reect the higher nutritional needs of patients with advanced liver disease, who have impaired nutrient absorption, and al- tered micro- and macronutrient metabolism (Table 1). These are the basic recommendations for patientschanges might be necessary based on trends in body composition, deciencies detected in serologic analyses, and further deterioration of liver function. Energy requirements determined for patients are based on the severity of cirrhosis and the presence of ascites, hyperme- tabolism, or malnutrition. 56 It is important to continuously monitor weight trends and maintain nutritional status. The energy recommendation, based on the American Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN) and ESPEN guide- lines, ranges from 25 to 40 kcal/kg per day. 51,56 The ASPEN guideline recommends 25 to 35 kcal/kg per day for patients without encephalopathy and 35 kcal/kg per day in those with acute encephalopathy. The 2006 ESPEN guidelines recommend a much higher energy intake, at 35 to 40 kcal/kg per day for all patients with stable cirrhosis. 51 The ESPEN recommendation appears to focus on prevention and treatment, due to the prevalence of malnutrition among cirrhotic patients; the AS- PEN guideline also recommends 30 to 40 kcal/kg per day for stable and malnourished patients. 51,56 Energy recommendations are created based on patients dry weight or, in the presence of ascites, their determined ideal body weight. The ESPEN guideline recommends use of oral supple- ment or overnight enteral feeds if patients cannot maintain adequate intake from food. 51 Carbohydrate restriction is not recommended for patients with cirrhosis despite the high prevalence of insulin resistance and diabetes in this population. 51 With impaired glycogen syn- thesis and limited glycogen stores in the liver, regular intake of carbohydrates can help prevent hypoglycemia. Patients are ad- vised to have frequent meals and snacks to reduce the risk of hypoglycemia, which might subsequently improve oral intake among patients with poor appetites. 56,57 Some studies investi- gated the use of low glycemic and high-ber carbohydrate sources to manage hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia; these were either small or case studies, so their ndings cannot be generalized to all cirrhotic patients. 5860 It has been recom- mended that carbohydrates account for 45%65% of caloric intake, based on the dietary reference intake. 61 Historically, protein restriction was recommended in pa- tients with liver disease. The practice originated from the 1970s and 1980s, when uncontrolled observational studies reported improvements in hepatic encephalopathy following protein re- striction. 62 Studies have shown that high-protein diets are not only well-tolerated in patients with cirrhosis and/or moderate hepatic encephalopathy, but can also improve their prognosis and mental status. 63 Conversely, protein restriction can lead to increased protein catabolism, which worsens hepatic encepha- lopathy, because of the release of ammonia, a by-product of catabolism. A randomized study showed that patients with protein intake of 0.5 g/kg per day had an increase in muscle breakdown compared with patients with 1.2 g/kg per day pro- tein intake. 63 The current protein recommendation for patients with cir- rhosis is 1.0 to 1.5 g/kg per day. 51,56 This amount is higher than the 0.8 g/kg per day recommended for healthy individuals, because of increases in gluconeogenesis, muscle catabolism, and decreased absorption as in cirrhotic patients. Patients with acute encephalopathy are placed on temporary protein restric- tion (0.60.8 g/kg per day) until the cause of encephalopathy is diagnosed and eliminated; then normal protein intake can be resumed. 56 Although several mechanisms appear to contribute to fat malabsorption, there are no guidelines to support the use of medium chain triglycerides for patients with cirrhosis. How- ever, if patients appear to have overt fat malabsorption, based on an abnormal, 72-hour fecal fat test result following a chal- lenge with 100 g fat, it is reasonable to consider this approach. For patients with advanced liver disease, diet supplementa- tion with fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K), zinc, and selenium are recommended; deciencies in these nutrients are frequently observed in patients with compensated liver dis- ease. 49,56 The recommended intake levels of fat-soluble vitamins are substantially higher for patients with chronic cholestasis; when these patients are suspected of having deciencies in fat-soluble vitamins, serum levels of vitamin A and 25- hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] should be checked, at baseline and then annually. 47,64 For patients with a history of alcohol abuse, administration of folic acid and thiamin is also advised. 56 Because of the increased risks of micronutrient deciencies among most patients with advanced liver disease, they should take a multivitamin routinely. Patients with edema and ascites are usually placed on sodium-restricted diets (2 g per day). 65 Hospitalized pa- tients with refractory or diuretic-resistant ascites might ben- et temporarily from more stringent restrictions in sodium. It is generally not recommended to discharge patients on severe sodium restriction dietstheir poor palatability usu- ally leads to poor compliance. 66 Probiotics Patients with cirrhosis have disruptions in the compo- sition of the gastrointestinal microora, due to medical thera- pies and abnormal intestinal motility; 67 25% have small bowel bacterial overgrowth, which can promote intestinal wall perme- ability that results in bacteria translocation, secondary infec- tions, and fat malabsorption with associated consequences. 67 Changes in microora observed in patients with gastrointesti- nal bacterial overgrowth have been associated with minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE). 6769 MHE is the mildest form of hepatic encephalopathy, in which patients do not necessarily have recognizable symptoms but can exhibit mild cognitive and psychomotor decits that impact health-related quality of life. MHE can be treated with lactulose and antibiotics, but use of these agents is limited by the development of resistant strains of bacteria and low levels of patient adherence, because of side effects such as abdominal pain, atulence, bloating, and diar- rhea. 68,70 Probiotics are being investigated for their ability to restore intestinal integrity. They could improve or reverse MHE by lowering intestinal levels of ammonia and decreasing pH, which would inhibit growth of pathogenic bacteria and decrease in- February 2012 MALNUTRITION IN ADVANCED LIVER DISEASE 121 testinal permeability. 68,71,72 Results from several randomized control trials have demonstrated that they lead to signicant improvements, based on psychometric tests results. 68,69,73 How- ever, the application of probiotics to treatment of MHE is a relatively new area of study; more research is required to deter- mine the most effective probiotic strain and therapeutic dose. 68 Probiotics appear to be a safe, natural, and well-tolerated form of therapy for long-term use in patients with mild hepatic encephalopathy (HE). 68 Branched-Chain Amino Acids BCAA are amino acids that are essential for protein synthesis, protein turnover, and regulation of energy metabo- lism. 2 The use of BCAA in the treatment of HE has been well studied. Ammonia and aromatic amino acids (AAAs) are nor- mally metabolized and/or detoxied by the liver. However, in patients with advanced liver disease, AAAs accumulate as a result of impaired hepatocyte function and portal shunting. Patients with cirrhosis have a low ratio of BCAA:AAA; BCAA levels decrease because they are taken up by skeletal muscle cells, as a substrate for energy or ammonia degradation. 2 AAA levels increase due to the impaired capacity of hepatocytes in deamination. 74 BCAA and AAA compete for the same blood- brain barrier transporter, so decreased serum concentrations of BCAA increase brain uptake of tryptophan, an AAA. 2 Greater uptake of tryptophan has been proposed to cause an imbalance of neurotransmitter synthesis in the brain, leading to the con- fusion and altered consciousness that are characteristic of HE. 75 BCAA supplementation might help restore the balance between BCAA and AAA transport in the brain. Increased serum concentration of ammonia might also affect neurotransmission and interfere with the normal ow of nu- trients, uids, substrates, and hormones, and with neurotrans- mitter function, to lead to HE. 75 BCAA supplementation can reduce hyperammonemia, because ammonia is detoxied as part of the skeletal muscle metabolism of BCAA for energy. 76 The ESPEN 2006 consensus that supports the use of oral BCAA supplement to improve clinical outcomes was based largely on results from 2 randomized trials. 52 Marchesini et al conducted a 1-year, double-blind study of 174 patients with advanced cirrhosis who were randomly assigned to a group that was given BCAA (14 g per day; 59 patients) or control groups that were given equicaloric amounts of lactoalbumin or malto- dextrin. 77 The primary end point was a combination of death and liver decompensation, dened by worsening hepatic en- cephalopathy, refractory ascites, or a ChildPugh score 12. Even though the rates of death or decompensation, when con- sidered individually, did not differ signicantly between groups, the combined rate of death and decompensation was signi- cantly lower in the group given BCAAs, compared with those given lactoalbumin (but not maltodextrin). However, the BCAA formulation had a poor taste, which contributed to a higher dropout rate in that group; it is likely that the study was therefore not actually blinded. 77 Muto et al performed a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial of 646 patients; they reported an increase in serum levels of albumin and reduced rate of liver failure (ie, decreased further decompensating events) among subjects with decompensated cirrhosis who were given 12 g of BCAA per day, compared with controls, and followed for 2 years. 78 Again, BCAAs did not improve survival or other important end points such as rates of variceal bleeding. Instead, the rate of decompensation, which included potentially subjective criteria such as development of refractory ascites or encephalopathy, was the parameter that differed between groups. 65,79 This study had a high rate of patient compliance (85%) because the authors used a better- tasting, granulated form of BCAAs. Although we can propose a biological mechanism for the efcacy of BCAAs in patients with advanced liver disease, their poor palatability in commercial formulas and high cost remain a barrier to patient acceptance. 57,75,78 Nocturnal Supplements Nocturnal oral supplements have been investigated as a method to reduce gluconeogenesis and protein catabolism. A 12-month randomized control trial followed 108 patients who received either daytime or bedtime oral nutritional supplemen- tation with 700 calories. 80 The study reported a signicant increase in total body protein stores over 3-, 6-, and 12-month periods in the group given bedtime supplementation, which the authors attributed to the decreased length of the overnight fast and associated progression of nocturnal gluconeogenesis. 80 The difference between the 2 groups was equivalent to a gain of 2 kg of lean muscle tissue, sustained over 12 months. 80 Compara- tively, there were no signicant changes in total body protein stores over the 12-month period in the group that received daytime supplements. Improvements in protein stores might be dependent on the type of nutrients provided, as opposed to the timing of supplementation. 57 For example, a BCAA-rich snack signicantly improved serum levels of albumin, nitrogen bal- ance, and respiratory quotients, compared with the control group, which was given carbohydrate for 3 months. 57 These 2 studies indicate that bedtime supplementation can shorten the length of overnight fasts and improve protein stores. What About Parenteral Nutrition? Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) should be restricted to patients that have contraindications to oral or enteral nutrition and to situations whereby adequate oral or enteral caloric in- take is not being met despite best efforts. Patients who receive parenteral nutrition are at risk for infectionsparticularly catheter-related infections. Patients with advanced liver disease are also at risk for infections, because of alterations in intestinal permeability and endotoxemia; the presence of foreign bodies such as indwelling catheters, combined with the high dextrose milieu, could signicantly increase the risk of infectious com- plications in this immunocompromised population. Addition- ally, when TPN is used for an extended period of time, liver function can worsen. However, TPN might meet metabolic needs of hospitalized, malnourished patients when enteral requirements cannot be met. For the critically ill and patients who have received liver transplantation, the combined effects of preoperative malnutri- tion, surgical stress, and postoperative protein catabolism, could lead to a need for early nutritional therapy. TPN was reported to be reasonably well tolerated in patients after liver transplantation, compared with those given enteral nutrition. 81 Recent ESPEN guidelines (grade C) recommend that TPN should be considered after surgery for patients who cannot tolerate oral and/or enteral nutrition; following liver transplantation, nutrition support is indicated, with TPN as a 122 CHEUNG ET AL CLINICAL GASTROENTEROLOGY AND HEPATOLOGY Vol. 10, No. 2 clear second choice to enteral nutrition. 82 Recommended nu- trient intake includes provision of carbohydrate to cover 50% 60% of nonprotein energy, with lipid provision to cover 40% 50% of nonprotein energy requirements. Amino acid provision should amount to 1.2 g/kg per day in patients with compen- sated cirrhosis and to a dose of 1.5 g/kg per day in those with decompensated disease. Conclusions Many different factors contribute to malnutrition in patients with chronic liver disease. 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Conicts of interest The authors disclose no conicts. February 2012 MALNUTRITION IN ADVANCED LIVER DISEASE 125