CUK L01 Handout

Lecture 1: Basic Concepts of Polarized Light
Outline
1
The Sun in Polarized Light
2
Fundamentals of Polarized Light
3
Electromagnetic Waves Across Interfaces
4
Fresnel Equations
5
Brewster Angle
6
Total Internal Reection
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 1: Basic Concepts of Polarized Light 1
The Sun in Polarized Light
Magnetic Field Maps from Longitudinal Zeeman Effect
Second Solar Spectrum from Scattering Polarization
Fundamentals of Polarized Light
Electromagnetic Waves in Matter
Maxwells equations electromagnetic waves
optics: interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter as
described by material equations
polarization of electromagnetic waves are integral part of optics
Maxwells Equations in Matter
D = 4
H
1
c
D
t
=
4
c
E +
1
c
B
t
= 0
B = 0
Symbols
D electric displacement
electric charge density
H magnetic eld
c speed of light in vacuum
j electric current density
E electric eld
B magnetic induction
t time
Linear Material Equations
D =
B =
j =
E
Symbols
dielectric constant
magnetic permeability
electrical conductivity
Isotropic and Anisotropic Media
isotropic media: and are scalars
anisotropic media: and are tensors of rank 2
isotropy of medium broken by
anisotropy of material itself (e.g. crystals)
external elds (e.g. Kerr effect)
Wave Equation in Matter
static, homogeneous medium with no net charges: = 0
for most materials: = 1
combine Maxwell, material equations differential equations for
damped (vector) wave
E

c
2
2
E
t
2

4
c
2
E
t
= 0
H

c
2
2
H
t
2

4
c
2
H
t
= 0
damping controlled by conductivity
E and

H are equivalent sufcient to consider

E
interaction with matter almost always through

E
but: at interfaces, boundary conditions for

H are crucial
Plane-Wave Solutions
Plane Vector Wave ansatz

E =

E
0
e
i (
kxt )
k spatially and temporally constant wave vector
k normal to surfaces of constant phase

|
k| wave number
x spatial location
angular frequency (2 frequency)
t time
E
0
(generally complex) vector independent of time and space
could also use

E =

E
0
e
i (
kxt )
damping if

k is complex
real electric eld vector given by real part of

E
Complex Index of Refraction
temporal derivatives Helmholtz equation
E +

2
c
2
_
+i
4
E = 0
dispersion relation between

k and
k =

2
c
2
_
+i
4
_
complex index of refraction
n
2
=
_
+i
4
_
,

k
k =

2
c
2
n
2
split into real (n: index of refraction) and imaginary parts (k:
extinction coefcient)
n = n +ik
Transverse Waves
plane-wave solution must also fulll Maxwells equations
E
0
k = 0,

H
0
k = 0,

H
0
=
n
k
|
k|
E
0
isotropic media: electric, magnetic eld vectors normal to wave
vector transverse waves
E
0
,

H
0
, and

k orthogonal to each other, right-handed vector-triple
conductive medium complex n,

E
0
and

H
0
out of phase
E
0
and

H
0
have constant relationship consider only

E
Energy Propagation in Isotropic Media
Poynting vector
S =
c
4
_
H
_
|
S|: energy through unit area perpendicular to

S per unit time
direction of

S is direction of energy ow
time-averaged Poynting vector given by
_
S
_
=
c
8
Re
_
E
0
0
_
Re real part of complex expression
complex conjugate
. time average
energy ow parallel to wave vector (in isotropic media)
_
S
_
=
c
8
| n|
|E
0
|
2

k
|
k|
Quasi-Monochromatic Light
monochromatic light: purely theoretical concept
monochromatic light wave always fully polarized
real life: light includes range of wavelengths
quasi-monochromatic light
quasi-monochromatic: superposition of mutually incoherent
monochromatic light beams whose wavelengths vary in narrow
range around central wavelength
0
1
measurement of quasi-monochromatic light: integral over
measurement time t
m
amplitude, phase (slow) functions of time for given spatial location
slow: variations occur on time scales much longer than the mean
period of the wave
Polarization of Quasi-Monochromatic Light
electric eld vector for quasi-monochromatic plane wave is sum of
electric eld vectors of all monochromatic beams
E (t ) =

E
0
(t ) e
i (
kxt )
can write this way because
0
measured intensity of quasi-monochromatic beam
_
E
x
x
_
+
_
E
y
y
_
= lim
tm>
1
t
m
_
tm/2
tm/2
E
x
(t )
x
(t ) +
E
y
(t )
y
(t )dt
: averaging over measurement time t
m
measured intensity independent of time
quasi-monochromatic: frequency-dependent material properties
(e.g. index of refraction) are constant within
Polychromatic Light or White Light
wavelength range comparable wavelength (
1)
incoherent sum of quasi-monochromatic beams that have large
variations in wavelength
cannot write electric eld vector in a plane-wave form
must take into account frequency-dependent material
characteristics
intensity of polychromatic light is given by sum of intensities of
constituting quasi-monochromatic beams
Electromagnetic Waves Across Interfaces
Introduction
classical optics due to interfaces between 2 different media
from Maxwells equations in integral form at interface from
medium 1 to medium 2
_
D
2
D
1
_
n = 4
_
B
2
B
1
_
n = 0
_
E
2
E
1
_
n = 0
_
H
2
H
1
_
n =
4
c
K
n normal on interface, points from medium 1 to medium 2
surface charge density on interface
K surface current density on interface

Fields at Interfaces
= 0 in general,

K = 0 for dielectrics
complex index of refraction includes effects of currents

K = 0
requirements at interface between media 1 and 2
_
D
2
D
1
_
n = 0
_
B
2
B
1
_
n = 0
_
E
2
E
1
_
n = 0
_
H
2
H
1
_
n = 0
normal components of

D and

B are continuous across interface
tangential components of

E and

H are continuous across interface
Plane of Incidence
plane wave onto interface
incident (
i
), reected (
r
), and
transmitted (
t
) waves
E
i ,r ,t
=

E
i ,r ,t
0
e
i (
k
i ,r ,t
xt )
H
i ,r ,t
=
c
k
i ,r ,t
E
i ,r ,t
interface normal n z-axis
spatial, temporal behavior at interface the same for all 3 waves
(
k
i
x)
z=0
= (
k
r
x)
z=0
= (
k
t
x)
z=0
valid for all x in interface all 3 wave vectors in one plane, plane
of incidence
Snells Law
spatial, temporal behavior the
same for all three waves
(
k
i
x)
z=0
= (
k
r
x)
z=0
= (
k
t
x)
z=0
=

c
n
, c the same for all 3 waves
Snells law
n
1
sin
i
= n
1
sin
r
= n
2
sin
t
Monochromatic Wave at Interface
H
i ,r ,t
0
=
c
k
i ,r ,t
E
i ,r ,t
0
,

B
i ,r ,t
0
=
c
k
i ,r ,t
E
i ,r ,t
0
boundary conditions for monochromatic plane wave:
_
n
2
1
E
i
0
+ n
2
1
E
r
0
n
2
2
E
t
0
_
n = 0
_
k
i
E
i
0
+
k
r
E
r
0
k
t
E
t
0
_
n = 0
_
E
i
0
+
E
r
0
E
t
0
_
n = 0
_
1
k
i
E
i
0
+
1
k
r
E
r
0
k
t
E
t
0
_
n = 0
4 equations are not independent
only need to consider last two equations (tangential components
of

E
0
and

H
0
are continuous)
Two Special Cases
TM, p TE, s
1
electric eld parallel to plane of incidence magnetic eld is
transverse to plane of incidence (TM)
2
electric eld particular (German: senkrecht) or transverse to plane
of incidence (TE)
general solution as (coherent) superposition of two cases
choose direction of magnetic eld vector such that Poynting vector
parallel, same direction as corresponding wave vector
Electric Field Perpendicular to Plane of Incidence
E
i
E
r
E
t
H
i
H
r
H
t
r
=
i
ratios of reected and transmitted to incident wave amplitudes
r
s
=
E
r
0
E
i
0
=
n
1
cos
i

1
2
n
2
cos
t
n
1
cos
i
+

1
2
n
2
cos
t
t
s
=
E
t
0
E
i
0
=
2 n
1
cos
i
n
1
cos
i
+

1
2
n
2
cos
t
Electric Field in Plane of Incidence
E
i E
r
E
t
H
i H
r
H
t
ratios of reected and transmitted to incident wave amplitudes
r
p
=
E
r
0
E
i
0
=
n
2
cos
i

1
2
n
1
cos
t
n
2
cos
i

1
2
+ n
1
cos
t
t
p
=
E
t
0
E
i
0
=
2 n
1
cos
i
n
2
cos
i

1
2
+ n
1
cos
t
Summary of Fresnel Equations
eliminate
t
using Snells law n
2
cos
t
=
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2
i
for most materials
1
/
2
1
electric eld amplitude transmission t
s,p
, reection r
s,p
t
s
=
2 n
1
cos
i
n
1
cos
i
+
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2
i
t
p
=
2 n
1
n
2
cos
i
n
2
2
cos
i
+ n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2
i
r
s
=
n
1
cos
i

_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2
i
n
1
cos
i
+
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2
i
r
p
=
n
2
2
cos
i
n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2
i
n
2
2
cos
i
+ n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2
i
Consequences of Fresnel Equations
complex index of refraction t
s
, t
p
, r
s
, r
p
(generally) complex
real indices argument of square root can still be negative
complex t
s
, t
p
, r
s
, r
p
real indices, arguments of square roots positive (e.g. dielectric
without total internal reection)
therefore t
s,p
0, real incident and transmitted waves will have
same phase
therefore r
s,p
real, but become negative when n
2
> n
1
negative
ratios indicate phase change by 180
on reection by medium with

larger index of refraction
Other Form of Fresnel Equations
using trigonometric identities
t
s
=
2 sin t cos
i
sin(
i
+t )
t
p
=
2 sin t cos
i
sin(
i
+t ) cos(
i
t )
r
s
=
sin(
i
t )
sin(
i
+t )
r
p
=
tan(
i
t )
tan(
i
+t )
refractive indices hidden in angle of transmitted wave,
t
can always rework Fresnel equations such that only ratio of
refractive indices appears
Fresnel equations do not depend on absolute values of indices
can arbitrarily set index of air to 1; then only use indices of media
measured relative to air
Relative Amplitudes for Arbitrary Polarization
electric eld vector of incident wave

E
i
0
, length E
i
0
, at angle to
plane of incidence
decompose into 2 components: parallel and perpendicular to
interface
E
i
0,p
= E
i
0
cos , E
i
0,s
= E
i
0
sin
use Fresnel equations to obtain corresponding (complex)
amplitudes of reected and transmitted waves
E
r ,t
0,p
= (r
p
, t
p
) E
i
0
cos , E
r ,t
0,s
= (r
s
, t
s
) E
i
0
sin
Reectivity
Fresnel equations apply to electric eld amplitude
need to determine equations for intensity of waves
time-averaged Poynting vector
_
S
_
=
c
8
| n|
|E
0
|
2

k
|
k|
absolute value of complex index of refraction enters
energy along wave vector and not along interface normal
each wave propagates in different direction consider energy of
each wave passing through unit surface area on interface
does not matter for reected wave ratio of reected and
incident intensities is independent of these two effects
relative intensity of reected wave (reectivity)
R =
E
r
0
E
i
0
2
Transmissivity
intensity of transmitted wave by multiplying ratios of amplitudes
squared with
ratios of indices of refraction
projected area on interface
relative intensity of transmitted wave (transmissivity)
T =
| n
2
| cos
t
E
t
0
2
| n
1
| cos
i
E
i
0
2
for arbitrarily polarized light with

E
i
0
at angle to plane of
incidence
R = |r
p
|
2
cos
2
+|r
s
|
2
sin
2
T =
| n
2
| cos
t
| n
1
| cos
i
_
|t
p
|
2
cos
2
+|t
s
|
2
sin
2
_
R +T = 1 for dielectrics, not for conducting, absorbing materials
Brewster Angle
r
p
=
tan(
i
t )
tan(
i
+t )
= 0 when
i
+
t
=

2
corresponds to Brewster angle of incidence of tan
B
=
n
2
n
1
occurs when reected wave is perpendicular to transmitted wave
reected light is completely s-polarized
transmitted light is moderately polarized
Total Internal Reection (TIR)
Snells law: sin
t
=
n
1
n
2
sin
i
wave from high-index medium into lower index medium (e.g. glass
to air): n
1
/n
2
> 1
right-hand side > 1 for sin
i
>
n
2
n
1
all light is reected in high-index medium total internal reection
transmitted wave has complex phase angle damped wave
along interface
Phase Change on Total Internal Reection
TIR induces phase change
that depends on polarization
complex ratios:
r
s,p
= |r
s,p
|e
i s,p
phase change =
s
p
tan

2
=
cos
i
_
sin
2
i

_
n
2
n
1
_
2
sin
2
i
relation valid between critical
angle and grazing incidence
for critical angle and grazing
incidence, phase difference is
zero

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CUK L01 Handout

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Lecture 1: Basic Concepts of Polarized Light

j electric current density

k spatially and temporally constant wave vector

k normal to surfaces of constant phase

S|: energy through unit area perpendicular to

K surface current density on interface

on reection by medium with

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