Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 1987. Voh 13, pp. 97-160. 0360-1285/87 $0.00 +.

50
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved. Copyright O 1987 Pergamon Journals Ltd.
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER IN COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
R. VI SKANTA* a n d M. P. ME NGOq t
*School oJ Mechanical Engineering, Pttrdue University, West LaJ~tyette, IN 47907, U.S.A.
tDepartment q/Mechanical Engineeriny, University of Kentucky, Lexington, K Y40506, U.S.A.
Abst ract An adequat e t r eat ment of t hermal r adi at i on heat t ransfer is essent i al to a mat hemat i cal model
of t he combus t i on process or to a desi gn of a combus t i on system. Thi s paper reviews t he f undament al s of
r adi at i on heat t ransfer and some recent pr ogr ess in its model i ng in combus t i on systems. Topi cs covered
i ncl ude r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of combus t i on pr oduct s and t hei r model i ng and met hods of sol vi ng t he
r adi at i ve t r ansf er equat i ons. Exampl es of sampl e combus t i on syst ems in whi ch r adi at i on has been
account ed for in t he anal ysi s are present ed. In several t echnol ogi cal l y i mpor t ant , pract i cal combus t i on
syst ems coupl i ng of r adi at i on to ot her modes of heat t ransfer is discussed. Research needs are i dent i fi ed
and pot ent i al l y pr omi s i ng research t opi cs are al so suggested.
Nomencl at ur e
1.
2.
CONTENTS
I nt r oduct i on
Radi at i ve Tr ansf er
2.1. Radi at i ve t ransfer equat i on
2.2. Conservati_on of r adi ant energy equat i on
2.3. Tur bul ence/ r adi at i ve i nt er act i on
3. Radi at i ve Pr oper t i es of Combus t i on Pr oduct s
3.1. Radi at i ve pr oper t i es of combus t i on gases
3.1.1. Na r r ow- ba nd model s
3.1.2. Wi de- band model s
3.1.3. Tot al abs or pt i vi t y emi ssi vi t y model s
3.1.4. Abs or pt i on and emi ssi on coefficients
3.l.5. Effect of abs or pt i on coefficient on t he radi at i ve heat flux pr edi ct i ons
3.2. Radi at i ve pr oper t i es of pol ydi sper si ons
3.2.1. Types and shapes of pol ydi sper si ons
3.2.2. Pr edi ct i on met hods of t he part i cl e r adi at i ve pr oper t i es
3.2.3. Si mpl i fi ed appr oaches
3.2.4. Scat t er i ng phase funct i on
3.3. Tot al pr oper t i es
4. Sol ut i on Met hods
4.1. Exact model s
4.2. St at i st i cal met hods
4.3. Zonal met hod
4.4. Flux met hods
4.4.1. Multiflux model s
4.4.2. Mome nt met hods
4.4.3. Spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi mat i on
4.4.4. Di scr et e or di nat es appr oxi mat i on
4.4.5. Hybr i d and ot her met hods
4.5. Compar i s on of met hods
5. Appl i cat i ons t o Si mpl e Combus t i on Syst ems
5.1. Si ngl e- dr opl et and sol i d-part i cl e combust i on
5.2. Cont r i but i on of r adi at i on t o flame wal l -quenchi ng of condensed fuels
5.3. Effect of r adi at i on on one- di mensi onal char flames
5.4. Radi at i on in a combus t i ng boundar y l ayer al ong a vertical wall
5.5. I nt er act i on of convect i on- r adi at i on in a l ami nar di ffusi on flame
5.6. Effect of r adi at i on on a pl anar, t wo- di mensi onal t urbul ent -j et di ffusi on flame
5.7. Radi at i on f r om flames
5.8. Combus t i on and r adi at i on heat t ransfer in a porous medi um
6. Appl i cat i ons to Combus t i on Syst ems
6.1. Indust ri al furnaces
6.1.1. St i rred vessel model
6.1.2. Plug flow model
6.1.3. Mul t i - di mensi onal model s
6.2. Coal -fi red furnaces
6.3. Ga s t ur bi ne combus t or s
6.4. Int ernal combus t i on engi nes
6.5. Fi r es as combus t i on syst ems
7. Concl udi ng Remar ks
Acknowl edgement s
References
98
98
100
100
104
104
106
107
107
107
109
109
111
113
114
115
116
119
121
122
122
123
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
133
133
133
134
135
136
138
139
140
141
142
143
145
145
146
149
151
151
153
154
154
aps e s 1 3 : z - x 97
98 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGf3t~
NOMENCLATURE
A a r e a [ m 2)
B mass transfer number, (Q Y ~ o / v o w o - h . ) / L
C concentration
D diameter of particles (am) or burner exit
diameter (m)
D, dimensionless heat of combustion.
( 2 V , , / v , , W , , h , , .
Eh blackbody emitted flux defined by a T 4 ( W / m z)
E,, exponential integral function,
E,,tx)= So~" - 2exp( - x / l a) d/ d
f size distribution, Eq. (3.11) or phase function
coefficient, Eq. (3.25)
J/0) dimensionless stream function at the surhce
./v volume fraction (m3/m 3)
g phase function coefficient, Eq. (3.25)
h enthalpy or Planck' sconstant
I radiation intensity(W/m 2- s r )
J radiative flux in radial direction (W/m 2)
K radiative flux in axial direction (W/m 2)
k thermal conductivity (W/mK) or imaginary
part of the complex index of refraction
K o Konokov number
L radiative flux in angular direction (W/m z) or
effective latent heat of pyrolysis
L,, mean beam length (m)
Mp pyrolysis rate
Nn radiation-conduction parameter, k h / o T 3
N~ conduction-gaseous radiation parameter,
k ~ x / a T 3
N 2 conduction-ambient radiation parameter
defined as limy~ ( k ~o / a T3 Xu ~/ x v ) 1/2
h complex index of refraction ( = n - i k )
n real part of the complex index of refraction
P pressure or probability density function
PN N-th order spherical harmonics approxi-
mation
Q Mie efficiency factor or energy released by
combustion of v moles of gas phase fuel
Qv heat of reaction per unit mass of oxygen
Re burner Reynolds number
q heat flux (W/m 2)
r mass consumption number
S source function
S~ N-th order discrete ordinates approximation
s coordinate along the direction of propa-
gation of radiation or stoichiometric ratio,
v s, W / v o W,,
St Stanton number
T temperature (K)
T,o surface temperature of load (sink) (K)
v velocity (m/sec)
V volume (m 3)
W~ molecular weight of species i
x size parameter, riD~2
y~ mass fraction of species i
Greek letters
6
absorptivity
extinction coefficent (m - ~ )
Dirac delta function
emissivity
emission coefficient, Eq. (2.4); direction co-
sine, Eq. (2.8); dimensionless coordinate
defined as x/g~I~(u/tt)dy
zenith angle; normalized temperature
absorption coefficient (m - ~ )
wavelength of radiation (/tm)
direction cosine, Eq. (2.8)
frequency of radiation; kinematic viscosity:
stoichiometric coefficient
Subs c r i pt s
b
e
i
m
n
o
P
r
II'
2
V
St l per s cr i pt s
direction cosine, Eq. 12.8)
p density (kg/m 3)
a Stefan-Boltzmann constant; scattering
efficient (m- 1)
T beam transmittance, Eq. (2.18)
r optical depth, i,y
~P scattering angle, Eq. 2.7)
scattering phase function
05 azimuthal angle
solid angle
t,) single scattering albedo, a / f l
CO-
refers to blackbody
refers to effective mean
refers to Planck's internal mean
refers to mean values
refers to narrow-band model
oxygen
refers to Planck's mean
refers to spatial coordinates or radiation
refers to wall conditions, fuel surface or wide-
band model
refers to wavelength dependent properties
refers to frequency dependent properties
refers to incoming radiation beam
refers to turbulent mean properties
I . I N T R O D U C T I O N
Expendi t ur es on fossil ener gy by i ndi vi dual s,
commer ce, t r ans por t at i on and i ndust r y in an in-
dust r i al i zed count r y account f or a si gni fi cant f r act i on
of t he count r y' s GNP. I mpr ove d under s t andi ng of
c ombus t i on syst ems whi ch use fossil fuels such as
nat ur al gas, oil and coal ma y result in i mpr oved
ener gy efficiency. The pot ent i al i mpr ove me nt in t he
t her mal per f or mance of such syst ems coul d make a
si gni fi cant i mpact on t he count r y' s economy. Thi s
pr ovi des t he mot i va t i on and e c onomi c i ncent i ve f or
research and devel opment in combus t i on t echnol ogy.
An i mpor t a nt goal , then, is to devel op c omput a t i ona l
model s whi ch coul d be used f or t he desi gn and
opt i mi z a t i on of mor e cost effect i ve and envi r on-
ment al l y f r i endl y combus t i on syst ems wi t h i mpr oved
per f or mance.
Combus t i on is one of t he most difficult processes
t o model mat hemat i cal l y si nce i t gener al l y i nvol ves
t he si mul t aneous processes of t hr ee- di mensi onal t wo-
phase fl ui d dynami cs, t ur bul ent mi xi ng, fuel evapor -
at i on, r adi at i ve and convect i ve heat t ransfer, and
chemi cal ki net i cs. In or der t o desi gn combus t i on
syst ems based on f undament al pri nci pl es, compr e-
hensi ve model s i nc or por a t i ng all of t hese fact ors ar e
requi red. St at e- of - t he- ar t revi ews of model i ng s ome
combus t i on syst ems have been p r e p a r e d ? - 7 Si gni f-
i cant pr ogr ess has been made in det ai l ed model i ng of
c ombus t i on syst ems, but maj or pr obl ems such as
t ur bul ence in r eact i ve flows, par t i cl e f or mat i on and
ot her s r emai n t o be solved.
Radiation heat transfer 99
An adequat e t r eat ment of t hermal r adi at i on is
essential to devel op a mat hemat i cal model of the
combust i on system. The level of det ai l requi red for
r adi at i ve t ransfer depends on whet her one is inter-
ested in det er mi ni ng the i nst ant aneous spectral local
r adi at i ve flux, flame structure, scal ar pr oper t i es of the
flame, f or mat i on of fl ame-generat ed part i cl es (largely
soot), local r adi at i ve flux and its di vergence or the
t emper at ur e di st r i but i on. For example, when the
model is used to predi ct pol l ut ant concent rat i ons,
accurat e t emper at ur es are especi al l y i mpor t ant since
the chemi cal ki net i cs i nvol ved are ext remel y temper-
at ure dependent .
The fract i on of the t ot al heat t ransfer due to
r adi at i on grows with combust or size, at t ai ni ng
pr omi nence for gaseous firing at char act er i st i c com-
bust i on lengths of about 1 m. Radi at i on heat trans-
fer, then, pl ays a domi nant role in most i ndust ri al
furnaces. Unfort unat el y, it is governed by a complex
i nt egrodi fferent i al equat i on which is t i me consumi ng
to solve. Economi c measures ar e a necessity, even at
the loss of some accuracy.
In a combust i on chamber, r adi at i on heat t ransfer
from the flame and combust i on product s to the
sur r oundi ngs walls can be pr edi ct ed if the r adi at i ve
pr oper t i es and t emper at ur e di st r i but i ons in the
medi um and on t he walls ar e available. Usually,
however, t emper at ur e itself is an unknown para-
meter, and as a result of this, the t ot al energy and
r adi ant energy conser vat i on equat i ons are coupled,
as in many heat t ransfer appl i cat i ons. Sol ut i on of the
t hermal energy equat i on can be obt ai ned if several
ot her physi cal and chemi cal processes can be
modeled. The maj or processes which need to be
consi dered in a combust i on system in addi t i on to
r adi at i on i ncl ude? (i) chemi cal ki net i cs, (ii) t hermo-
chemi st ry, (iii) mol ecul ar diffusion, (iv) l ami nar and
t urbul ent fluid dynami cs, (v) nucl eat i on, (vi) phase
t ransi t i ons, such as evapor at i on and condensat i on
and (vii) surface effects. Since t he physi cal and
chemi cal processes occurri ng in combust i on cham-
bers are very compl i cat ed and cannot be model ed on
the mi croscal e, t here is a need for physi cal model s to
si mul at e these processes. Each of these model s needs
an extensive and separat e t reat ment , which is out si de
the scope of this work. The i nt erest ed reader is
referred to mor e speci al i zed publ i cat i ons. ~- v
In nonr el at i vi st i c probl ems of an engi neeri ng
nat ure, r adi at i on does not cont r i but e any terms to
the conservat i on of mass, moment um and species
conservat i on. The classical conservat i on of energy
equat i on Ls'9 is modi fi ed by a cont r i but i on which
account s for r adi at i on heat transfer. Thi s equat i on
can be wri t t en as
~pe
= - V . p e ~ - V . P - ~ - V . ~ +S (1.1)
Ft
where t he heat flux vector, ~, is defined as
~= - k VT+~ k +~ n i h i Vj +~ a _ ,. (1.2)
J
In Eq. (1.1) p, pc, ~ and P are t he t ot al mass, energy
density, fluid velocity, and pressure, respectively. The
{n;} and {V~ } are t he number densi t y and diffusion
velocities of the i ndi vi dual chemi cal species, and ,~"
is t he r adi at i on heat flux vector. The first, second,
t hi rd and fourth t erms in Eq. (1.2) account for
mol ecul ar conduct i on, r adi at i on, i nt erdi ffusi on and
di ffusi on-t hermo cont r i but i ons, respectively, to the
heat flux vector. In Eq. (1.1) S is the local vol umet ri c
heat source/ si nk from ot her processes, if any. When
r adi at i on heat t ransfer needs to be account ed for in
the energy equat i on, it is preferabl e to use temper-
at ure as the dependent vari abl e r at her t han the
st agnat i on ent hal py. The di vergence of the r adi at i ve
flux vector, V..~-~', can be obt ai ned from the r adi ant
energy equat i on.
The pur pose of t hi s paper is to acquai nt the reader
with the basi c pri nci pl es and met hods rel at ed to
model i ng r adi at i on heat t ransfer in combust i on
systems. The i mpor t ance of r adi at i ve t ransfer in coal
combust i on, 3 pul veri zed coal -fi red boilers,'* indus-
t ri al furnaces, 5 gas t urbi ne combust or s 6 and fires 7
has been recogni zed for some time. Radi at i ve
t ransfer in some of these systems has received
consi der abl e research at t ent i on and a high degree of
or gani zat i on has been at t ai ned.
The paper is or gani zed to gi ve a syst emat i c and
easy-t o-fol l ow appr oach to the maj or bui l di ng blocks
of r adi at i ve t ransfer in combust i on systems. Section
2 of the paper i nt roduces t he fundament al s of
r adi at i on heat transfer, and Section 3 discusses the
r adi at i ve propert i es of gases and part i cl es encoun-
t ered in combust i on systems. These two sect i ons
pr ovi de the backgr ound necessary for under st andi ng
the specific techniques for solving the r adi at i ve
t ransfer equat i on discussed in Section 4. Examples of
si mpl e combust i on systems in which r adi at i ve trans-
fer has been account ed for are discussed in Section 5.
Section 6 reviews model i ng of r adi at i on heat transfer
in pract i cal combust i on systems and deal s with
coupl i ng of r adi at i on to ot her t r anspor t processes in
system models.
There exists a very l arge body of l i t erat ure relevant
t o r adi at i on heat t ransfer in combust i on systems, and
it is not possi bl e to cover it thoroughly. Emphasi s in
the paper is on fundament al s and appl i cat i ons to
simple systems. Reference is made to t he ori gi nal
publ i cat i ons for a more compl et e discussion. A
review process is a rat her ar bi t r ar y activity, because
of the deci si on t he aut hors have to make on what to
include, what to omi t , and where to st art and end.
Thi s art i cl e is no exception, and it reflects the
aut hors' biases. Because of the br oad range of t opi cs
covered, det ai l s can not be included, and no cl ai m is
made as to the compl et eness of the review. In these
days of many j our nal s and ot her publ i cat i ons, it is
possi bl e t hat relevant work may have been i nad-
vertently overlooked.
100 R. MISKANTA and M. P. MENG0q
2. RADIATIVE TRANSFER
2.1. Radiative Transfer Equation
Two theories have been developed for the study of
the propagat i on and interaction of electromagnetic
radi at i on with matter, namely, the classical electro-
magnetic wave t heory and the radiative transfer
theory. The theories were developed independently
and there is no similarity in their basic formulations.
Conceptually, they are completely distinct; however,
both theories describe the same physical phen-
omenon. The classical electromagnetic theory has
approached the study of propagat i on and interaction
of matter with radi at i on from the microscopic point
of view and the radiative transfer theory from the
macroscopi c (or phenomenological) poi nt of view.
The study of the detailed interaction of electro-
magnetic radi at i on with matter on the microscopic
level from bot h the classical and quant um mechanics
poi nt of view yields the interaction cross-sections of
the particles maki ng up the matter. This fundamental
approach predicts the macroscopi c properties of the
media, and these properties appear as coefficients in
the radiative transfer equation.
The quant i t at i ve study, on the phenomenologicai
level, of the interaction of radiation with matter t hat
absorbs, emits, and scatters radi ant energy is the
concern of the radiative transfer theory. The theory
ignores the wave nature of radiation and visualizes it
in terms of light rays of photons. These are concepts
of geometrical optics. The geometrical optics theory
is the study of electromagnetism in the limiting case
of extremely small wavelengths or of high frequency.
The detailed mechanism of the interaction process
involving at oms or molecules and the radiation field
is not considered. Onl y the macroscopi c problem
consisting of the t ransformat i on suffered by the field
of radiation passing through a medium is examined.
Thus, there is a considerable simplification over the
electromagnetic wave theory.
The radiative transfer equation (RTE) forms the
basis for quantitative study of the transfer of radiant
energy in a partici, pating medium. The equation is a
mathematical statement of the conservation principle
applied to a monochromat i c pencil (bundle) of
radiation and can be derived from many viewpoints.
Some authors lA~ have derived the radiative
transfer equation from the Boltzmann equation of
the molecular theory of gases by adopt i ng the
corpuscular ' picture of radiation and recognizing
close anal ogy between molecules and photons.
Preisendorfer ~2 has presented a development prim-
arily from the standpoint of geometrical optics by
starting from a set of physically motivated axioms
from which the features of radiative transfer were
deduced. Several papers have also considered the
derivation of the equation from quant um mechanics.
Harris and Simon ~3 used the Liouville equation to
consider coherent radiation from a plasma by a
statistical treatment of both plasma particles and the
magnetic field, and Osborn and Klevans ~4 have
refined and generalized their work. The Eulerian
point of view is adopt ed here and the traditional
intuitive derivation of the RTE found in the
radiative transfer literature 15 - 20 is given.
Rather than presenting the most general deriv-
ation of the RTE, certain constraints which help to
avoid complications t hat obscure the physical signifi-
cance of the phenomenon are imposed in this
discussion. The treatment presented here constitutes
a reasonable compromi se between the generality
needed for engineering applications and clarity of the
development. The idealizing assumptions and con-
straints imposed are: (1) the discussion is restricted to
a continuous, homogeneous and isotropic absorbing-
emitting-scattering medium at rest, (2) the state of
polarization is neglected, and (3) the medium is
considered to be in local t hermodynami c equilibrium
(LTE).
The RTE is based on application of an energy
balance on an elementary volume taken along the
direction of a pencil of rays and confined within an
elementary solid angle. The detailed mechanism of
the interaction processes involving particles and the
field of radiation is not considered here. On the
phenomenological level onl y the transformation
suffered by the radiation field passing through a
participating medium is examined. The derivation
accounts mathematically for the rate of change of
radiation intensity along the path in terms of
physical processes of absorption, emission, and
scattering.
Consider a cylindrical volume element, Fig. 1, of
cross-section dA and length ds in an absorbing,
emitting, and scattering medium characterized by the
spectral absorption coefficient xv, scattering coef-
ficient try and true emission coefficient r/v. The axis of
the cylinder is in the direction of the unit vector ~,
i.e. ds is measured along ~. The spectral intensity of
radia.tion (spectral radiance) in the ~-direction
incident normally on one end of the cylinder is Iv
and the intensity of radiation emerging, through the
second end in the same direction is Iv + dlv. Here, v is
the frequency and is related to the wavelength 2 by
v = c/2, where c is the velocity of radiation.
FIG. 1. Coordinates for derivation of the radiative mmsfer
equation.
Radiation heat transfer 101
It follows from the definition of the spectral
intensity I , t hat radi ant energy incident normal l y on
the infinitesimally small cross-section dA during time
interval dr, in frequency range dv and within the
elementary solid angle dD about the direction of the
unit vector ~ is
l , d A d f l d v d t .
The emerging radi ant energy at the other face of the
cylinder in the same direction equals
(1 ~ + d l , ) d Ad Dd v d t .
The net gain of radiant energy, i.e. the difference
between energy crossing the two faces of the cylinder,
is then given by
(I ~ + d l ~ - d l , ) d A d f ~ d v d t = d l , d A d f l d v d t . (2.1)
The loss of energy from this pencil of rays due to
absorpt i on and scattering in the cylinder is
( K, + ~r,)l , d s d A d ~ d v d t . (2.2)
The emission by the matter inside the cylindrical
volume element dV, in the time interval dt, in the
frequency range dr, confined in the solid angle dD
about the direction g equals
q~d V df ~dvdt . (2.3)
If Kirchhoff' s law is valid, the emission coefficient q~
can be expressed as
rl~ = x~n~lh~ (2.4)
where lb, is Planck' s spectral bl ackbody intensity of
radiation, and n, is the spectral index of refraction of
the medium. The increase in energy of the pencil of
rays (~,df~) due t o in-scattering of radiation by the
matter i nt o the elementary cylindrical volume from
all possible directions ~' is
, ( s ~ s ; v ~ v )
& v ' f l ' = ' l - x
x l ( - ~ ' ) d D' d v ' ] d A d ~ d v d t .
In this expression the phase function
t~, (g' ---, g;v' ---~v)df~' dv' /4n represents the probability
t hat radi at i on of frequency v' propagat i ng in the
direction g' and confined within the solid angle dfg
is scattered t hrough the angle (g,g) i nt o the solid
angle dD and the frequency interval dr. This proba-
bility is determined by the scattering mechanism.
For coherent scattering the phase function is inde-
pendent of frequency v' and reduces to ~v(~"--*g).
Since in this case the sum of probabi l i t y over all
directions must equal unity, we must have
1 1
4rt n ' = 4 , a = 4 ,
1
= - - J" ~, ( W) df l = 1. (2.5)
4n n=4,
This implies t hat for coherent scattering the spectral
phase function is normalized to unity. The scattering
angle W, i.e. the angle between g' and g can be
expressed as
cos W = cos0cos0' + sin0sin0' cos(~ - ~b') (2.6)
or
cos W = ~' + qq' + I#~' (2.7)
where
~=sin0cos4~, q=sin0sin~b, /~=cos0 (2.8)
are the direction cosines in any ort hagonal co-
ordi nat e system. Reference to Fig. 1 shows that
g'(0',~b') represents the i ncomi ng direction of the
pencil of rays, and g(0,~b), is the direction of the
pencil after scattering.
Equating the change of energy in the cylindrical
volume element to the net gain or loss of energy
along the traversal path of the cylinder in terms of
the processes of attenuation, emission and in-
scattering yields
d/ , dA dfldvdt = - ( x , + a , ) l , d s d A dDdv dt
I I ~ , , ~ ,
+ q , d V d l l d v d t + a , d s ~ A," S q~,(s ---~s;v---w)
f l ' = 4 I t
x l ( - ~' ) dt ) ' dv ' ] dAdfldv dt. (2.9)
Di vi di ng this equation by d Ad s d f ~d v d t and recalling
that the distance ds traversed by the pencil of rays is
cdt, where c is the velocity of light in the medium,
yields the equation of transfer in a Lagrangian
coordi nat e system
1 d l v
. . . . ( x , +t r , ) l v + q ,
c dt
O" v
@,(s - *s ; v- *v) l , , ( s )dD dv. (2.10)
+ U . I I " ~ ' " ' ' '
Av" 11" = 4x
Clearly, the left-hand side of this integrodifferential
equation represents the net change in Iv per unit
102 R. V1SKANTA and M. P. MENGOt;
length al ong t he pat h ds =c dt . Equat i on (2.10) is a
st at ement of t he conser vat i on of energy pr i nci pl e for
a monochr omat i c pencil of r adi at i on (in the di r-
ect i on g) and is general l y called the "r adi at i ve
t ransfer equat i on" (RTE). In some l i t erat ure, the
st eady-st at e form of t hi s equat i on is called Bouguer' s
law pr obabl y due to the fact t hat the const i t ut i ve
(Bouguer' s) l aw ent ers as t he first t erm on the right-
hand si de of Eq. (2.10).
The subst ant i al der i vat i ve d/dt refers to the rate of
change of spect ral i nt ensi t y as seen by an observer
pr opagat i ng al ong wi t h the vel oci t y of r adi at i on
( Lagr angi an coordi nat es). In t erms of a coor di nat e
system fixed in space (Eul eri an coordi nat es), RTE
may be wri t t en as
1 dl , 1 01,
c dt c 0t
~- ( V. - ~) I , =f l , ( S, - I , ) (2.11)
where t he source funct i on S, represent s the sum of
emi t t ed and i n-scat t ered r adi at i on and is defined as
r adi ant energy l eavi ng an element of volume of
mat t er in the di rect i on (g, df]) per uni t volume, per
uni t sol i d angle, per uni t frequency, and per uni t
ti me,
sv = ( , l v / / L ) + ( a , / / L X 1 / 4 ~ )
O,(s s;v v)/ (s )df~dv. (2.12)
A v ' f l ' = 4 f t
It is evi dent on i nspect i on of Eq. (2.11) t hat t here is
no net rat e of change of Iv at a poi nt , if and onl y if,
lv=Sv. If I ~ > S , then dIv/dt<O so t hat as t
increases, I , is decreasi ng t owar d S , and if I , < S ,
then dl , / dt > 0, so t hat I~ is i ncreasi ng t owar d S,.
Equat i on (2.11) can be wri t t en expl i ci t l y using the
anal yt i cal forms of 07. g) l , which are given in Tabl e
1. The di rect i on cosines ~, q, and/ ~ are defined by Eq.
(2.8), and t hey are funct i ons of angul ar vari abl es 0
and ~b. Usually, t he pol ar and axi mut hal angles for
space vari abl es are also desi gnat ed by 0 and ~b. To
avoi d confusi on and to be abl e to use the con-
vent i onal nomencl at ure at the same time, we choose
to use subscri pt r for space vari abl es 0, and ~b, when
appr opr i at e (see Tabl e I).
In Fig. 2, t hree or t hogonal coor di nat e systems and
t he cor r espondi ng nomencl at ure are shown, where
the spheri cal coor di nat e system for angul ar var i at i on
of i nt ensi t y is super i mposed on ei t her a rect angul ar,
cyl i ndri cal or spheri cal coor di nat e system for spat i al
variables. In general the i nt ensi t y is a function of
t hree spat i al coordi nat es, two angles and t i me; of
course, the seventh i ndependent vari abl e requi red to
define the r adi at i on i nt ensi t y is t he wavelength or the
frequency of r adi at i on.
For most pract i cal cal cul at i ons, it is possi bl e to
assume cyl i ndri cal or spheri cal symmetry. The cylin-
dri cal symmet ry requires t hat the r adi at i on i nt ensi t y
( a )
/
Z ,
f
T
/
(b)
A s
( c )
:. , y
FIG. 2. Coordinates for Cartesian (a), cylindrical (b) and
spherical (c) systems.
remai ns i nvar i ant under the r ot at i on about the z-
di rect i on. Thi s allows us to combi ne the two
azi mut hal angles, namel y ~b and ~b,, t o obt ai n a single
azi mut hal angle. If, one writes ~b'=q~-~b,, then
07. g) l , for an axi symmet r i c cyl i ndri cal system can
be given as
7 01, rl 01, 01, (2.13)
~ ) 1 , = ~ - - ; o , ~u e z "
In a spheri cal l y symmet ri c system, the r adi at i on
i nt ensi t y depends on onl y two paramet ers, i.e. the
radi al di st ance r measured from the ori gi n and the
di rect i on cosine/~ of t he angl e between the di rect i on
of t he r adi at i on beam and the radi us vect or i t . The
anal yt i cal expression for 07. g) l , cor r espondi ng t o a
spheri cal l y symmet ri c system is the l ast expression of
Tabl e 1, which can be simplified further to read
07" ~)1 __u 0 / , + 1 - u 2 0 t ,
(2.14)
Radiation
A number of assumpt i ons have been made in t he
der i vat i on of t he RTE, and for the sake of compl et e-
ness i t is desi rabl e to discuss t hem briefly. The first
assumpt i on concer ni ng t he rest ri ct i on t hat the par-
t i ci pat i ng medi a be cont i nuous, homogeneous and
i sot r opi c has been relaxed by Prei sendorfer. 12 Al-
t hough t he assumpt i on of a medi um at rest is open to
cri t i ci sm on physi cal grounds, t hi s appr oxi mat i on
correct l y descri bes all engi neeri ng pr obl ems where
t he fluid vel oci t y is much smal l er t han t he vel oci t y of
light. The absor pt i on and scat t eri ng coefficients are
cal cul at ed or measured in a l abor at or y reference
system in which t he l ocal macr oscopi c vel oci t y of
mat t er is zero, and because of t hi s xv, av and T are
i ndependent of g. It has, however, been shown t hat
in any frame of reference Iv satisfies t he same
equat i on of r adi at i ve transfer. 22 The i nt ensi t y Iv
changes at poi nt s al ong the pat h, where t he index of
refract i on n, changes cont i nuousl y or di scont i n-
uously. Such changes can be syst emat i cal l y account ed
for by si mpl y adopt i ng a new funct i on l , / n ~ r at her
t han I v . 12 Hence, t here is no need to i ncl ude the
index of refract i on expl i ci t l y in t he t ransfer equat i on.
The second assumpt i on concerni ng the fact t hat
neglect of pol ar i zat i on is not general l y val i d is well
recognized, and it is cl ear t hat pol ar i zat i on must be
account ed for in any ri gorous t r eat ment of r adi at i ve
t ransfer when scat t eri ng is present. The r adi at i ve
t ransfer t heor y has been ext ended to include the
phenomenon of pol ar i zat i on of radi at i on. 12'15 It is
also well recogni zed t hat the t hi r d assumpt i on for the
medi um to be in LTE may be i nval i d under the
condi t i ons where densi t i es and opt i cal thicknesses
become small, scat t eri ng becomes an i mpor t ant
mechani sm, r api d t i me var i at i ons occur or large
t emper at ur e gr adi ent s ar e in evi dence? 2 Therefore,
before maki ng t he LTE assumpt i on, the condi t i ons
for a given physi cal system shoul d be carefully
examined.
The r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on, Eq. (2.11), is an
i nt egrodi fferent i ai equat i on, and because of t hi s it is
very difficult to solve exact l y for mul t i di mensi onal
geometries. Therefore, some si mpl i fi cat i ons of this
equat i on are necessary. A close l ook at the source
t erm given in Eq. (2.12) reveals t hat the i n-scat t eri ng
term (the second t erm of the ri ght hand side) yields
the i nt egral nat ur e of the RTE. If scat t eri ng is
negl i gi bl e in t he medi um, then the Eq. (2.11) will be a
l i near di fferent i al equat i on, which is much easier to
solve t han the l i near i nt egrodi fferent i al equation.
A formal sol ut i on of t he quasi -st eady st at e RTE,
Eq. (2.11), can readi l y be written. Consi der a pencil of
r adi at i on in t he di r ect i on g (Fig. 3). If t he coor di nat e
s is l ai d in the di rect i on g, t he quasi -st eady RTE is
given by
(V- ~) 1, = ~g*= f l , ( S v - I O (2.15)
where the di rect i on of the pencil of rays is under-
st ood to be g. The i nt ensi t y, however, may be a
heat transfer 103
FiG. 3. Coordinates for radiative transfer along a line-of-
sight.
function of t i me i ndi rect l y t hrough the source
function if qv is t i me dependent [see Eq. (2.12)].
Suppose t hat at some poi nt on the boundar y of
mat t er So, as shown in Fig. 3, t he spectral i nt ensi t y Iv
is known
l v ( s ) = l , ( s o ) = l o ~ at s = s o. (2.16)
The i nt egral form of the equat i on of t ransfer may be
deri ved from the i nt egrodi fferent i al equat i on by
i magi ni ng the l at t er t o be an or di nar y di fferent i al
equat i on in the unknown Iv and with S, a known
source function. The i nt egr at i ng fact or for t hi s
differential equat i on is exp (Sflvds) and the i nt egral of
Eq. (2.15) with the boundar y condi t i on Eq. (2.16) may
be wri t t en as
I v(s) = I o f f v(S, So)
+ f f s ( s) T (s s )fl (s)ds
i t !
v v ~ v
(2.17)
where s' is a dummy vari abl e of i nt egrat i on and
T(s,s') is the beam t r ansmi t t ance of an ar bi t r ar y pat h
from s' t o s al ong the di rect i on
i f ' : / , ]
T ~ ( s , s ) = e x p - flv(Od .
=
(2.18)
The concept of the beam t r ansmi t t ance can be made
clearer by the following i nt erpret at i on. If lov repre-
sents the i nt ensi t y of r adi at i on in some di rect i on g at
some i ni t i al poi nt So and I v( s) is the i nt ensi t y of the
t r ansmi t t ed r adi at i on at poi nt s in the same di rect i on
over t he pat h from the i ni t i al to the t ermi nal points,
then the two i nt ensi t i es are related by
l , ( s ) = T~(s, so)l ov. (2.19)
Thus, the beam t r ansmi t t ance represents the fraction
of the i ni t i al i nt ensi t y which is t r ansmi t t ed wi t hout
104 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGO~3
emi ssi on or scat t eri ng cont r i but i ons to the i nt ensi t y
al ong the pat h length. Equat i on (2.17) gives the
spectral i nt ensi t y of r adi at i on at a poi nt and in a
given di rect i on. Its physi cal meani ng can be mor e
readi l y i nt er pr et ed by referring to Fig. 3. It shows
t hat Iv(s) is a sum of two cont r i but i ons: (1) the
t r ansmi t t ed i nt ensi t y, and (2) the pat h intensity. The
first t erm on the ri ght hand side of Eq. (2.17) is t he
cont r i but i on to Iv due to the i ni t i al i nt ensi t y at poi nt
So in the di r ect i on of pr opagat i on of the r adi at i on g,
at t enuat ed by t he f act or Tv(s,s0) t o account for
absor pt i on, scat t eri ng and i nduced emi ssi on in the
i nt erveni ng mat t er. The second t erm results from
bot h emi ssi on and scat t eri ng from elements of the
mat t er at all i nt er i or poi nt s, each el ement ary cont ri -
but i on bei ng at t enuat ed by the fact or Tv(s,s') whi l e
the rest is absor bed and scat t ered al ong the path.
These el ement ary cont r i but i ons are i nt egr at ed over
all t he el ement s between the boundar y of the body s o
and t he poi nt s.
We not e t hat the i nt egral form, Eq. (2.17), of the
r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on is referred to as "' formal
sol ut i on" in the sense t hat I v is expressed in t erms of
i nt egral s t hat can be eval uat ed onl y if the st at e of the
mat t er and the r adi at i on field, i.e. Sv is known. Thi s
does not mean t hat the equat i on of t ransfer in a
par t i ci pat i ng medi um has been solved. It is cl ear t hat
if the source funct i on depends on the i nt ensi t y Iv in
some specified way, then one can convert Eq. (2.17)
i nt o an i nt egral equat i on for Iv. ~5 However, before
we do t hi s i t is desi rabl e to deri ve the conservat i on of
r adi ant energy equat i on.
2.2. Conservation of Radiant Energy Equation
I nt egr at i on of t he RTE, Eq. (2.11), over all
di rect i ons results in
t3ail* + V' , ~rv=x, [4nlbv(T)--f~v] (2.20)
dt
where the spectral r adi ant energy densi t y q/v, the
i r r adi ance aJv and the r adi at i on flux vector "~' v are
defined as
q / = l f l , df 2 (2.21a)
C JQ=4~
c~v= S lvdfl=cq/v (2.21b)
1 2 = 4 ~
~ , = S 1 , ~d n (2.21c)
D = 4 x
respectively. The physi cal meani ng of Eq. (2.20) is
clear. It is the conservat i on equat i on of spectral
r adi ant energy. The ri ght -hand-si de of Eq. (2.20)
represents the net rat e of loss or gai n of r adi ant
energy from an element of mat t er per uni t of volume
and per uni t of frequency. The t erm 4nqv(= 4nxJ b, )
represent s the local rat e of emission, and x, f f ,
represent s the local rat e of absor pt i on of r adi at i on
per uni t of volume. The meani ng of the terms can be
further clarified when we not e t hat 4nlbv is the
pr oduct of t he spectral r adi ant energy densi t y of a
bl ack body at t he l ocal t emperat ure, t i mes t he local
vel oci t y of l i ght c, while c~ v is related to the local
r adi ant energy densi t y of space as defined by Eq.
(2.21b). In deri vi ng Eq. (2.20) the scat t eri ng terms
have canceled out. Thi s j ust confirms the physical
fact t hat scat t ered energy is not st ored and should
not appear in the conservat i on of r adi ant energy
equat i on. I nt egr at i on of Eq. (2.20) over t he ent i re
spect rum results in the conservat i on equat i on of t ot al
r adi ant energy
oo
0d + V. , ~ = f 1%[4nl bv(T)-f~v]dv. (2.22)
~t ~o
For reasons t hat were expl ai ned in a previ ous
subsection, the t i me rat e of change of r adi ant energy
densi t y q/ can be neglected. Not e t hat t here is no
convect i ve t erm in Eq. (2.22), since r adi at i on pr opa-
gat es i nependent l y of the local mat eri al velocity. The
equat i on descri bi ng the local change of r adi ant
energy densi t y must be modi fi ed in the rel at i vi st i c
t r eat ment of el ect romagnet i c radi at i on. l ' 23 How-
ever, the addi t i onal t erms which ari se in the
conservat i on of r adi ant energy equat i on can gener-
ally be i gnored in engi neeri ng appl i cat i ons.
It is wort h not i ng t hat the spectral dependence of
r adi at i ve propert i es is denot ed either by subscri pt v
(frequency) or ~. (wavelength). If the mat t er through
which r adi at i on is pr opagat i ng is not homogeneous
and uniform, then the index of refraction, and, as a
result of this, the wavelength and speed of light
woul d be different at different l ocat i ons in the
medi um, whereas the frequency remai ns const ant
everywhere. Therefore, the frequency is a mor e
fundament al measure t han the wavelength of radi -
at i on, and because of this, here, the spectral depend-
ence is denot ed by v. It is also useful to remember the
i dent i t y, - l v d v = lad2, between frequency and wave-
length based defi ni t i ons of r adi at i on intensity.
2.3. Turbulence~Radiation Interaction
Int eract i on of convect i on and r adi at i on has been
recognized for some time, but the fact t hat turbulence
can influence r adi at i ve transfer and vice versa has
been recogni zed more recently. The first at t empt at
combi ned anal ysi s of the equat i ons for the mean-
square fl uct uat i ons of the velocity and t emperat ure
fields with the r adi at i on field is due to Townsend. 24
Appl i cat i ons in which r adi at i on/ t ur bul ence inter-
act i on may affect flow and heat transfer include
i ndust ri al furnaces, gas combust ors, flames and
Radiation heat transfer 105
fires.25- 3o Most studies concerned with model i ng of
radiative transfer in combust i on chambers and
furnaces have ignored the turbulence/radiation inter-
action. 3's An up-to-date discussion of the interaction
in flames is avai l abl e 3~ and need not be repeated
here. Suffice it to menti on that the interactions and
coupl ed effects are more important for l umi nous than
for nonl umi nous flames. Little is known concerning
temporal aspects of radiative transfer in turbulent
flames as these effects have not been studied
extensively.
Tur bul ence can i nfl uence r adi at i ve t ransfer t hrough
f l uct uat i ons i n t emper at ur e a nd r adi at i ng species
c onc e nt r a t i ons whi ch, i n t ur n, i nfl uence Pl anck' s
f unct i on lba(T) and t he special abs or pt i on a nd
scat t er i ng coefficients. The f l uct uat i ons of t he Pl anck
f unct i on a nd t he spect ral abs or pt i on a nd scat t er i ng
coefficients can be gi ven in t erms of t he t emper at ur e
a nd species f l uct uat i ons by means of Tayl or series
expans i ons about t he val ues eval uat ed at t he mean
propert i es. Eval uat i on of t he i ns t a nt a ne ous i nt ens i t y
of r adi at i on i n t erms of t he mean and f l uct uat i ng
TABLE 1. Analytical forms of (V.~)l in common orthogonal geometries 2~
(= sin0cos~, t I = sin0sin~b, p = cos0)
Space Direction
Geometry wmables cosincs (V. ~)1
FI ?1 ? 1
Rectangular .\.y.: ~..q ,u , ~ - - + l l - - E- + p - -
. \ " ( y , r -
?1 ; I
-\'.Y ~ , q ~ - + ' I S -
~ . \ - ~ y
- I t
; I
P - 5
( E
Cylindrical
F ( r l ) t l FI ; 1 1 ? U I I )
r , d p ~ . : ~ . . q . f l - - - -~ - - - + p ,
r ; r r ? #) , ~- r ?oh
; t r l ) ; / I ? ( q l )
r . - ; ~. q , l l - - - - + I t
r ? r ; z r ; ( ~
? ( r l ) ~1 ? l 1 ? O f f )
r . 4 ~ , ~ . l l - - - +
r ; r r i ' q ~ , r ; b
; ~ ? ( r l ) 1 ? [ q l )
r ~ , l I
r ?r r , " ~
Sphcrical
I t 7 0 " 2 1 ) g . ? ( s i n O f l )
r.O,.q'), ' . q . p - - - - - - +
r 2 Fr rsinO~ i ' O ,
r . O , ~ d l . l I
q 2 1 I ? [ { I - p 2 ) l ]
rsin0, ; q ~ , r ? / I
c o t O ? ( q l )
r ; q ~
p ~ ( r 2 1 ) ~ ; . ( s i n ( l f l )
- - _ _ q - _ _
r 2 ~r rsin0, ; 0 ,
1 ? [ t l - p 2 ) l ] cotO, fl ql )
+
r ; p r ; ~
p ? ( r 2 1 ) I ; [ ( I - / ~ 2 ) I ]
- - - b
r 2 2 r r ? I ~
106 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGf3~:
pr oper t i es and the t i me- aver agi ng is st r ai ght - f or war d
but tedious. 27 I f t he abs or pt i on coefficient can be
expressed as
x a ( s , t ) = ~ , k a i Ci ( s , t ) (2.23)
i
t he t urbul ent fl uct uat i ons in the absor pt i on coef-
ficient can be rel at ed to t hose in the concent r at i ons
Ci of t he r adi at i ng species. The precise eval uat i on of
the t i me- aver age woul d ut i l i ze t he j oi nt pr obabi l i t y
densi t y funct i on P ( T , C i , s ) of the t emper at ur e and
species concent r at i ons for all poi nt s s al ong the line
of sight g in Eq. (2.17). Unfort unat el y, t hat infor-
mat i on is not avai l abl e. Those pr oper t i es of the flow
field t hat are avai l abl e are the mean t emper at ur e T,,
species concent r at i ons C, and the second or der
correl at i ons, T '2, C~ T' . To i l l ust rat e the nat ur e of t he
pr obl em we rest ri ct ourselves to a single r adi at i ng
species and neglect scattering. Appl yi ng Reynol ds'
averagi ng techniques to Eq. (2.17) but omi t t i ng the
det ai l s, one can obt ai n 30
s s
ia(s) = l oaexp[ - k a I C ( s ' ) d s ' ] e x p [ - - k a S C' ( s ' ) d s ' ]
0 0
s s s
+ I~(s' )exp[ - k ~ I C d s " ] {exp[ - k a I C ' d s " ]
0 s ' s '
thin. a We further assume t hat the pr oper t i es of the
fl uct uat i ng eddi es are st at i st i cal l y i ndependent , and
t hi s i mpl i es t hat t here is no cor r el at i on between the
t emper at ur e and concent r at i on wi t hi n each eddy.
Under these condi t i ons r adi at i on is t r ansmi t t ed
t hrough an eddy wi t h l i t t l e change so t hat the
radi ance at a local poi nt is affected little by the local
fl uct uat i on of xx. Hence, the t i me-average RTE can
be appr oxi mat ed as a
(V' g) l a = - x a l a + qa. (2.26)
Fol l owi ng a si mi l ar argument , the spectral r adi ant
energy Eq. (2.20) can be expressed as
V" "#'a = - x-a~a + 4r~Oa. (2.27)
I nf or mat i on necessary to solve Eq. (2.25) for the
t i me-averaged spectral r adi ance I~ is not avai l abl e,
and the i nt egr at i on of Eq. (2.24) al ong the line-of-
sight is t oo t i me consuming. Some clever way of
ensembl e averagi ng the r adi ance or devel opi ng
cor r el at i on coefficients for t i me- aver aged quant i t i es
will be requi red to enabl e sol ut i on of the integral or
di fferent i al forms of the RTE in t urbul ent l y fluctu-
at i ng media. The significance of the t urbul ence/
r adi at i on i nt er act i on will be assessed later.
s
+( qf f r / ] ) e xp[ - ka I C' ds " ] }ds' . (2.24)
s'
Thi s equat i on can be wri t t en in a mor e useful form in
terms of the t wo- poi nt cor r el at i on coefficients. 28 The
represent at i on of the r andom concent r at i on and
t emperat ure by Gaussi an vari abl es is conveni ent , but
it must be not ed t hat t hey encompass unreal i st i c
negat i ve values of t he vari abl es whose pr obabi l i t y
must be kept small in pr opor t i on. Compar i son of
Eqs (2.17) and (2.24) reveals t hat consi der at i on of
turbulence (i.e. t i me-averagi ng) woul d great l y in-
crease the comput at i onal effort of an al r eady difficult
probl em.
An al t er nat i ve to t i me-averagi ng the spectral
r adi ance woul d be to t i me-average the quasi -st eady
form of RTE, Eq. (2.15), and the r adi ant energy
equat i on, Eq. (2.20), at the start. Ti me- aver agi ng of
Eq. (2.15) results in
0 7 " g ) ~ = - x a l a + rlx. (2.25)
The difficulty with this equat i on is the eval uat i on of
the coupl ed correl at i on xala because i nst ant aneous
I~ is expressed in terms of an i nt egrat i on al ong the
pat h as i ndi cat ed in Eq. (2.17). To si mpl i fy the
absor pt i on coeffi ci ent -radi ance cor r el at i on x~la we
can assume t hat the i ndi vi dual eddi es are homogen-
eous and t hat the r adi at i ng gas of a typical size eddy
(i.e. based on macroscal e of turbulence) is opt i cal l y
3. RADI ATI VE PROPERTI ES OF COMBUSTI ON PRODUCTS
The accuracy of r adi at i ve transfer predi ct i ons in
combust i on systems cannot be bet t er than the
accuracy of the r adi at i ve propert i es of the combus-
t i on product s used in the analysis. These product s
usually consist of combust i on gases such as wat er
vapor, car bon di oxi de, carbon monoxi de, sulfur
di oxi de, and ni t r ous oxide, and part i cl es, like soot,
fly-ash, pul veri zed-coal , char or fuel droplets. Before
at t empt i ng to t ackl e r adi at i on heat transfer in
pract i cal combust i on systems, it is necessary to know
the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of the combust i on products.
Consi der i ng the di versi t y of the product s and the
pr obabi l i t y of havi ng all or some of these in any
volume element of the system, it can easily be
perceived t hat the pr edi ct i on of r adi at i ve propert i es
in combust i on systems is not an easy task. The
wavelength dependence of these propert i es and
uncert ai nt i es about the volume fract i ons and size and
shape di st r i but i on of part i cl es cause addi t i onal
compl i cat i ons.
In or der to present a syst emat i c met hodol ogy for
the predi ct i on the r adi at i ve propert i es of combust i on
product s, the discussion in this section will be
di vi ded i nt o several subsections in which the re-
l at i ons for obt ai ni ng the propert i es of the combus-
tion gases and different part i cl es are discussed and
the si mpl i fi cat i ons are introduced. Afterwards, some
rel at i ons will be given to empl oy these expressions as
bui l di ng blocks to det ermi ne the radi at i ve propert i es
Radiation heat transfer 107
of the mi xt ure of combust i on product s. Not e t hat
usually t he level of si mpl i fi cat i on for t he pr oper t i es is
to be det er mi ned by the user, and i t shoul d be
consi st ent wi t h t he level of sophi st i cat i on of t he
r adi at i ve t ransfer and t ot al heat t ransfer models.
Also, t he r el at i ons for t he r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of
i ndi vi dual const i t uent s shoul d be compat i bl e wi t h
each ot her as well as with the r adi at i ve t ransfer
models.
3.1. Radi at i ve Pr oper t i es o f Combust i on Gases
Every combust i on process produces combust i on
gases, such as wat er vapor , car bon di oxi de, car bon
monoxi de, and others. The par t i al pressures of these
gases in the combust i on product s ar e det er mi ned by
the t ype of the fuel used and t he condi t i ons of the
combust i on envi ronment , such as f uel - ai r rat i o, t ot al
pressure and ambi ent t emperat ure. These gases do
not scat t er r adi at i on significantly, but t hey are st rong
selective absor ber s and emi t t er s of r adi ant energy.
Consequent l y, t he var i at i on of the r adi at i ve proper-
ties with the el ect r omagnet i c spect rum must be
account ed for. Spect ral cal cul at i ons are per f or med by
di vi di ng t he ent i re wavelength (or frequency) spec-
t rum i nt o several bands and assumi ng t hat the
absor pt i on/ emi ssi on charact eri st i cs of each species
remai n ei t her uni form or change smoot hl y in a given
funct i onal form over these bands. As one mi ght
expect, t he accuracy of t he pr edi ct i ons increases as
the wi dt h of these bands becomes narrower. Exact
results, however, can be obt ai ned onl y with l i ne-by-
line cal cul at i ons which requi re the anal ysi s of each
di scret e absorpt i on--emi ssi on l i ne pr oduced as a
result of the t r ansi t i ons between quant i zed energy
levels of gas molecules. Li ne-by-l i ne cal cul at i ons are
not pract i cal for most engi neeri ng purposes but are
usually requi red for the st udy of r adi at i ve transfer in
the atmosphere. Therefore, detailed line-by-line calcu-
l at i ons will not be discussed here.
3.1.1. Nar r ow- band model s
Nar r ow- band model s are const ruct ed from spec-
t ral abs or pt i on- emi s s i on lines of mol ecul ar gases by
post ul at i ng a l i ne shape and an ar r angement of lines.
The shape (profile) of spectral lines is qui t e i mpor t ant
as it yields i nf or mat i on for the effect of pressure,
t emperat ure, opt i cal pat h length, and i nt r i nsi c prop-
erties of r adi at i ng gas on the absor pt i on and
emi ssi on charact eri st i cs. The Lorent z profile 32 is the
most commonl y used l i ne shape to descri be gases as
moder at e t emperat ures under the condi t i ons of the
local t her modynami c equi l i bri um, and it is also
known as a col l i si on- br oadened l i ne profile. 33 If the
t emper at ur e is high and the pressure is low, t he
Doppl er line profile woul d be mor e appr opr i at e t o
use. 33 If t here are i oni zed gases and pl asmas in the
medi um and t hey are influenced by i nt eract i ons
between the r adi at i ng part i cl es and sur r oundi ng
charged part i cl es, then the St ar k profile yields a mor e
accurat e represent at i on of the spect ral l i ne radi -
ation. 33 Not e t hat it is al so possi bl e to superpose
these l i ne profiles to i ncor por at e the effects of
different physi cal condi t i ons on t he l i ne radi -
ation.33. 3'*
There are basi cal l y t wo ~different line ar r angement s
for nar r ow band model s used extensively in the
literature. The Elsasser or regular model assumes t hat
t he lines are of uni form i nt ensi t y and are equal l y
spaced. The Goody or st at i st i cal model post ul at es a
r andom exponent i al l i ne i nt ensi t y di st r i but i on and a
r andom line posi t i on selected from a uni form
pr obabi l i t y di st r i but i on. For pract i cal engi neeri ng
cal cul at i ons bot h of these model s yield r easonabl y
accurat e results. Usual l y there is less t han 8~o
di screpancy between the pr edi ct i ons of these two
models. 35 A det ai l ed di scussi on of the nar r ow band
model s has been given by Ludwi g et al. 34 and in the
review art i cl es by Ti en 33 and Edwards. 3S
Nar r ow- band model pr edi ct i ons general l y requi re
an extensive and det ai l ed l i br ar y of i nput dat a, and
the cal cul at i ons cannot be performed with reason-
abl e comput at i onal effort. On the ot her hand, as l ong
as t he concent r at i on di st r i but i ons of gaseous species
are not accurat el y known the hi gh accuracy obt ai ned
for the spectral r adi at i ve gas pr oper t i es from nar r ow
band model s woul d not necessari l y increase the
accuracy of r adi at i on heat t ransfer predi ct i ons. Also,
it is not always conveni ent t o use det ai l ed, complex
model s for the spect ral r adi at i ve gas properties.
3.1.2. Wi de- band model s
Since gaseous r adi at i on is not cont i nuous but is
concent rat ed in spectral bands, it is possi bl e to define
wi de- band absor pt i vi t y and/ or emi ssi vi t y models.
The r adi at i on absor pt i on charact eri st i cs for each
band of any gas can be obt ai ned from experi ment s
and then empi ri cal rel at i ons can be fitted to those
data. The profile of the band absor pt i on may be box
or t r i angul ar shaped or an exponent i al l y decayi ng
function can be used by curve fitting. These t ypes
of empi ri cal model s ar e known as wi de- band models,
and among t hem the exponent i al wi de- band model
of Edwards and Menar d 36 is commonl y used. For an
i sot hermal medi um, several appr oxi mat e expressi ons
for t he t ot al band absor pt i vi t y and emi ssi vi t y (see
Refs 37-40) as well as t he reviews of t he wi de- band
model s are avai l abl e in t he literature. 35.41 -43
Recently, Yu et al. 44 have devised a new "'super-
band" model to correl at e t ot al emi ssi vi t y and Pl anck
mean absor pt i on coefficient dat a of i nfrared radi -
at i ng gases. In t hi s model, the Edwards exponent i al
band model has been used to appr oxi mat e the
emissivities. The spectral lines of t he vari ous i nfrared
absor pt i on bands of a r adi at i ng gas are rearranged
and combi ned i nt o a single, combi ned band.
108 R. VISKANTA and M. P. M~GO~
In Fi gs 4 and 5, t he spect r al band a bs or pt i vi t y
di s t r i but i ons f r om a na r r ow band model a'* ar e
c ompa r e d wi t h t hos e f r om a wi de- band model 35 f or
t wo i s ot her mal medi a. 45 In gener al , t he wi de band
model is in good agr eement wi t h t he na r r ow band
model , especi al l y for-2. 7 /~m H2 0 and CO2 bands
( co=3700 cm- Z) , 4.3 pm CO2 band ( t o~2300 cm- 1) ,
and 6. 3/ ~m H2 0 band ( t a ~ 1 6 0 0 c m- ' ) ~ In t hese
figures, t he nor ma l i z e d Pl anck bl a c kbody f unct i on
c or r e s pondi ng t o t he t emper at ur e of t he me di um is
al so pl ot t ed t o s how t he r el at i ve c ont r i but i on of each
gas band t o t he t ot al r adi at i on abs or bed by t he
medi um. It is cl ear t hat t he r el at i ve i mpor t a nc e of
shor t wavel engt h band r adi at i on (i.e. f r om 1.38 pm
( oJ ~7000 cm - t ) and 1. 89/ zm ( t a ~5300 cm - t ) H2 0
bands) becomes l ar ger as t he t emper at ur e of t he
me di um i ncr eases (see Fig. 5 f or T = 2 0 0 0 K). The
er r or i nt r oduced by a ppr oxi ma t i ng t he shor t wave-
l engt h band a bs or pt i on by wi de- band model s is
mar gi nal , si nce t he t emper at ur e of a t ypi cal combus -
t i on c ha mbe r is usual l y not as hi gh as 2000 K, and
t he ot he r gas bands a bs or b r adi at i on mor e st r ongl y
t han shor t wavel engt h bands.
It s houl d be me nt i one d t hat s ome of t he det ai l ed
too,o , , ' [ I ~ ~ - - - r I
~ . 0 [ i t S
' l f v l
Q SO.O ! / , . . . . . I ,
( %) : , . , . . , -
W B
2S. O " ~ " * "
0 . 0
o 2 0 0 0 qooo 6 o 0 0 8 0 0 0 t ~ > . ~
w ( c m - ' )
FIG. 4. Spectral absorptivities of H20- CO2- ai r mixture calculated from the narrow band (NB) and the
wide band (WB) models, spectral soot absorptivities (],,A = 1.0 x 10- 7 ma/m 3 and j~,.2 = 1.0 x 10 - (' m3/m 3)
and normalized Planck's function (Iba/lha.m.): T = 1000 K, P( = 1 atm.,/M20 = Pco2 = 0.1 atm., L = I m.
1 0 0 . 0 - -
.0 / / / I
/ l / a m . o I
~ , ~ d~' ~ ~ ~ '
H.I " Y
%, , t . . . : nN rl
kq: t ,,., ,:
o 200o qooo ~ ~ l(XXX)
o~ ( c m " )
FIG. 5. Spectral absorptivities of H20- CO2- ai r mixtures as calculated from the narrow band (NB) and
wide band (WB) models, spectral soot absorptivities I]i,.t = 1.0 x 10 - 7 m3/m "* and J,,.., = 1.0 x 10- ~' m "~m "~)
and normalized Phmck's function (lh,t/lha.=**): T=2000 K, P, = 1 atm., ptt2o=Pco2=O.1 atm.. L=0. 5 m.
Radiation heat transfer 109
spectral pr oper t i es of t he combust i on gases will be
suppressed when t hey ar e combi ned wi t h t hose of the
particles. Because of this, use of very accurat e
spect ral pr oper t i es of gases may not i ncrease the
accuracy of r adi at i ve t ransfer predi ct i ons. In Fi gs 4
and 5 t he soot absor pt i vi t i es ar e pl ot t ed for two
different s oot - vol ume fractions. 4s Not e t hat i f
Iv =Jv.~ = 1.0 x 10-7, then the gas and soot absor pt i v-
i t i es are of the same or der of magni t ude, especi al l y
for l onger wavelengths. However, asJ~ increases (see
the curves for J~. 2=l . 0 x 10-6), t he soot absor pt i on
becomes domi nant . The soot absor pt i vi t y al so in-
creases with i ncreasi ng wave number, i.e. decreasi ng
wavelength, since soot absor pt i on coefficient is
al most inversely pr opor t i onal to the wavelength of
r adi at i on; we will return to t hi s t opi c later.
3.1.3. Tot al absorptivity-emissivity models
A det ai l ed model i ng of the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of
combust i on gases may not be war r ant ed for the
accuracy of t ot al heat t ransfer pr edi ct i ons in combus-
t i on chambers, but definitely i ncrease t he compu-
t at i onal effort. An i n-dept h review of t he worl d
l i t er at ur e on t he t hermal r adi at i on pr oper t i es of
gaseous combust i on pr oduct s ( H20, CO2, CO, SO2,
NO and N2 0 ) has recent l y been prepared,' * and
t herefore the di scussi on will not be repeated. For
engi neeri ng cal cul at i ons i t is al ways desi rabl e t o have
some rel i abl e yet si mpl e model s for predi ct i ng t he
r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of t he gases. Here, we review
some of the avai l abl e models.
One way of obt ai ni ng r adi at i ve pr oper t i es easi l y is
to use Hot t el ' s char t s which are presented as
funct i ons of t emperat ure, pressure and concent r at i on
of a gas. '.6 Some scal i ng rules for t he t ot al absor p-
t i vi t y and emi ssi vi t y of combust i on gases can be used
to extend the range of appl i cabi l i t y of Hot t el ' s charts.
For exampl e, t he scal i ng rules given by Edwards and
Mat avosi an 47 can be empl oyed to predi ct gas
emi ssi vi t y at different pressures as well as gas
absor pt i vi t y for different wall t emperat ures and at
gas pressures different t han one at mosphere. Of
course, in or der to use these char t s in comput er
models, curve-fitted cor r el at i ons are desirable. Ot her
sources for cont i nuous expressi ons are the nar r ow
and wi de band models. The spectral or band
absor pt i vi t i es from these model s are first i nt egrat ed
over the ent i re spect rum for a given t emperat ure and
pressure to obt ai n t ot al absor pt i vi t y and emi ssi vi t y
curves. Afterwards, appr opr i at e pol ynomi al s are
curve-fitted to these fami l i es of curves at different
t emperat ures and pressures usi ng regression tech-
niques. Somet i mes, these curve-fitted expressi ons can
be so ar r anged t hat t he resulting expressi ons woul d
be present ed as the sum of t ot al emi ssi vi t y or
absor pt i vi t y of cl ear and gr ay gases. These ar e known
as the "wei ght ed sum-of-gray-gases" model s and are
given as '.6
I
~= ~, as.i [ I - e - ~ , P L] .
i ~0
(3.1)
The wei ght i ng f act or ae,~ may be i nt er pr et ed as the
fract i onal amount of bl ack body energy in the
spectral regi ons where "gr ay gas absor pt i on coef-
ficient" xi exists, and t hey are funct i ons of temper-
ature. Usual l y the absor pt i on coefficient for i = 0 is
assi gned a value of zero t o account for the trans-
par ent wi ndows in the spectrum. The expressi ons for
the t ot al emi ssi vi t y and absor pt i vi t y of a gas in t erms
of the wei ght ed sum of gr ay gases are useful
especi al l y for the zonal met hod of anal ysi s of
r adi at i ve transfer.
There are several curve-fitted expressi ons avai l abl e
in the l i t erat ure for use in comput er codes. Some of
t hem are given in t erms of pol ynomi al s 4s- 50 and the
ot hers are expressed in t erms of the wei ght ed sum-of-
gr ay gases. 5~-54 In onl y two of these expressi ons
soot cont r i but i on is account ed for al ong with the gas
cont r i but i on. 49's All of these model s are rest ri ct ed
to the t ot al pressure of one at mosphere, except t hat
of Leckner, 48 and all of t hem are for t he gas
r adi at i on al ong a homogeneous pat h, i.e. uni form
t emper at ur e and/ or uni form pressure.
If the pat h is i nhomogeneous then t he equi val ent
l i ne model 39 or the t ot al t r ansmi t t ance non-
homogeneous met hod s5 can be used to predi ct
r adi at i on t r ansmi t t ed al ong the path. However, in
mul t i di mensi onal geomet ri es or i f scat t eri ng par-
ticles are present in the system, the use of these
model s for pract i cal cal cul at i ons becomes pr ohi bi -
tive as the equat i ons are much mor e compl i cat ed.
3.1.4. Absorption and emission coeJflcients
The t ot al absor pt i vi t i es and emi ssi vi t i es are useful
for zero or one- di mensi onal r adi at i ve t ransfer ana-
lyses as well as zonal met hods for r adi at i ve transfer.
However, for di fferent i al model s of r adi at i ve transfer
the absor pt i on and emi ssi on coefficients are requi red
rat her t han the t ot al absor pt i vi t i es and emissivities.
Since scat t eri ng is not i mpor t ant for combust i on
gases (and soot particles), the gr ay abs or pt i on/
emi ssi on coefficient can be obt ai ned from t he
Bouguer' s or Beer - Lamber t ' s law. For a given mean
beam length Lm one can wri t e
~= ( - 1/L,,,) In (1 - e) . (3.2)
The mean absor pt i on coefficients obt ai ned from
spectral cal cul at i ons as well as curve-fitted cont i n-
uous cor r el at i ons were compar ed wi t h measurement s
from a smoky ceiling l ayer formed in a r oom fire and
very good agreement was found. 4a It is possi bl e to
det ermi ne t he so called "gr ay" absor pt i on and
emi ssi on coefficients for each t emperat ure, pressure,
and pat h-l engt h, which yi el d appr oxi mat el y t he same
t ot al absor pt i vi t y or emi ssi vi t y of t he CO2 - H2 0
mixture.
110 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG0~:
It is wor t h not i ng t hat i nst ead of using onl y t he
absor pt i on coefficient, abs or pt i on as well as emi ssi on
coefficients shoul d be empl oyed. Since t he t ot al gas
emi ssi vi t y differs from t ot al gas absor pt i vi t y, it is
qui t e l ogi cal to define and use t wo separ at e coeffi-
cients. The i mpor t ance of t hi s fact has been first
discussed by Vi skant a# 6 He has shown t hat t he
ar bi t r ar i ness associ at ed wi t h an absor pt i on coeffi-
ci ent can be el i mi nat ed by the i nt r oduct i on of a
mean emi ssi on coefficient and a mean absor pt i on
coefficient, whi ch can be rel at ed to t he spect ral
absor pt i on coefficient by t he fol l owi ng definitions:
oo oo
~ s = ~ ~ : a ~ a d ) ~ / ~ ffad2,
0 0
ao
~ , = Sgan2Ebxdg/Sn~Ebad2. (3.3)
0 o
Here, ~a is t he spect ral i rradi ance. If the i ndex of
refract i on na of t he medi um is unity, then the mean
emi ssi on coefficient will be equi val ent t o Pl anck' s
mean abs or pt i on coefficient, s6 Also, i f Ka is i ndepen-
dent of wavelength or t he medi um is in r adi at i ve
equi l i bri um, i.e. f f a = n ] E b x for all wavelengths, then
t he mean emi ssi on and absor pt i on coefficients will be
equal to each other.
The use of these mean coefficients is j ust i fi ed as
l ong as t here ar e no l arge t emper at ur e gr adi ent s in
t he medium, s6"57 Therefore, t hey can be cal cul at ed
separat el y for each zone where the t emper at ur e can
be assumed uniform. If t he soot volume fract i on is
hi gh in the medi um, the use of t he mean absor pt i on
coefficient woul d be sufficient, since ~ca (for soot
+combus t i on gases) woul d be a weak function of
wavelength.
In or der to det er mi ne t he absor pt i on and emi ssi on
coefficients from t ot al abs or pt i vi t y- emi s s i vi t y dat a,
t he cor r espondi ng mean beam length must be
pr oper l y evaluated. The defi ni t i on of the mean beam
length for a volume of a gas r adi at i ng to its ent i re
surface is given as
L,,, = 4 C V / A , (3.4)
where C is the cor r ect i on fact or and for an ar bi t r ar y
geomet r y i t s magni t ude is 0.9. 46 In general, the
absor pt i on and emi ssi on coefficients ar e funct i ons of
t he medi um t emperat ure, pressure and gas concen-
t rat i ons. If these coefficients are obt ai ned from the
t ot al emi ssi vi t y and absor pt i vi t y models, they will
also be funct i ons of the mean beam length. Therefore,
i f t he t ot al emi ssi vi t y of a gas volume is fixed, then
t he cor r espondi ng absor pt i on coefficient decreases
with i ncreasi ng physi cal pat h length or pressure [see
Eq. (3.2)]. The use of absor pt i on/ emi ssi on coefficients
rel at ed to the mean beam length is conveni ent for the
scaling of r adi at i on heat transfer in practical systems,
As t he char act er i st i c di mensi on of t he enclosure
decreases t he gas becomes t hi nner, and event ual l y in
the l i mi t of opt i cal l y t hi n gas the mean absor pt i on
coefficient becomes i dent i cal to the Pl anck' s mean
absor pt i on coefficient. Wi t h an i ncreasi ng size of the
enclosure, t he gas becomes opt i cal l y t hi cker and the
mean absor pt i on coefficient appr oaches Rossel and' s
mean abs or pt i on coefficient.
Pl anck' s and Rossel and' s mean coefficients are
i ndependent of the beam length and are val i d onl y in
the t hi n and t hi ck gas l i mi t s, respectively. They are
defined as
oo oo
" K p = S K ; . I bl, d J . / S I b ~ ,d ~ ( 3 . 5 )
o 0
ao
1/-~a= ~ ( l f l c z ) ( d l b z / d T ) d , l / ~ ( d l b z / d T ) d , t . (3.6)
0 0
Si mi l ar to Rossel and' s mean absor pt i on coefficient,
we can define Pi anck' s i nt ernal mean coefficient 35 as
0o oo
-~,= Sr.~,(dIb~,/dT)dg/S(dIh~,/dT)d2 (3.7)
0 0
which is al so appr opr i at e for an opt i cal l y t hi ck
medium. Several ot her defi ni t i ons of the mean
coefficients were discussed in great er det ai l by
Traugot t . 5
Anot her mean absor pt i on coefficient was defined
by Pat ch s a as
o o at)
~(L) = Sl bagzexp( - r 2 , L ) d 2 / ~ l b ~ , e x p ( - gaL)d2. (3.8)
0 o
Unl i ke t he first t hree mean absor pt i on coefficients
defined above, t hi s so-cal l ed effective mean coeffi-
ci ent is a function of pat h length as i t cont ai ns the
beam t r ansmi t t ance [see Eq. (2.18)] in i t s definition.
Therefore, Eq. (3.8) is expected to yi el d more accurat e
pr edi ct i ons for the absor pt i on coefficients of gas
mi xt ures havi ng i nt er medi at e opt i cal thicknesses
pr ovi ded t hat the pat h length is known.
It is al so possi bl e to wri t e a mean absor pt i on
coefficient based on the nar r ow band model of
Ludwi g e t a l . , 3 4
k~u
+~ - a J (3.9)
where k, are t abul at ed coefficients, u is t he product of
the mean beam length and t ot al pressure, and a is the
fine st ruct ure paramet er. Not e t hat this expression is
also a function of pat h length.
The mean absor pt i on coefficients for a wat er
vapor - car bon di oxi de - a i r mi xt ure at two different
t emperat ures are present ed in Fig. 6 as a function of
pat h length. 45'59 The mean absor pt i on coefficient
(~q.w,,) as cal cul at ed from Modak' s model, '.9 using t he
Radiation heat transfer 111
o
_ - . . . . -~..-~,~.. ~ ~ P . ~ -
. , ~: . - , , i ,~ ,q
_ T = , OOOK Ke
K 2 - . . ~ . ~ \ ( E ) K l , n - -
( ~ - , ) " ' . . ' . % ~ , , . .
I - - - - ' ' ' % ' % _ % ~ - -
T= 2 0 0 0 K " " . . N, ~
. - .
, , I l i i i - i I t ' t - v - r - ~ - q - - = ~ - ~
10 -4 I0 -s I0 "2 IO -I I I0 I
L (m)
F]~J. 6. Compari son of different gas aborpt i on coefficients as a function of pathlength: P, = 1.0 alto.,
Pn, o=Pco. =0. I atm. "~
Felske-Tien 6 wide-band model, is in good agree-
ment with the absorption coefficient calculated from
the narrow-band model (Kt.,) or Patch' s effective
mean absorption coefficient (~). In this figure, xe., is
Planck' s mean absorption coefficient based on the
narrow-band model, 34 xe.w and ri are Planck' s mean
and internal mean absorption coefficients, respec-
tively, based on the wide-band model. 35 The mean
absorption coefficient xt.we is a function of path-
length and is calculated using Edwards' wide-band
model parameters.
3.1.5. Effect of absorption coefficient on the radiative
heat flux predictions
In preceding sections, we have compared absorp-
tion coefficients calculated from spectral narrow
band models with those obtained from total emissiv-
ity models as well as with the Planck mean and
internal mean absorption coefficients. It is also
desirable to examine the effect of different definitions
of absorption coefficients on radiative transfer pre-
dictions. For this reason, an axisymmetric cylindrical
enclosure is considered. It is assumed that the
medium is a homogeneous, uniform gas ( H20- CO 2-
air) mixture at atmospheric pressure. The partial
pressures of water vapor and carbon dioxide are the
same and equal to 0.1 atm., and the medium
temperature is either 1000 K or 2000 K. The en-
closure walls are assumed to be at a temperature of
600 K and diffusely emitting, with emissivity ew=0.8.
Two different sets of dimensions for the cylindrical
enclosure are examined. The first one has a mean
beam length (Lm = 3.6 V/A) of 0.5 m, where ro = 0.4 m,
and Zo=0.9m. For the second one, ro=0. 9m,
z0 = 3.0 m, which gives Lm = 1.08 m. The solution of
the radiative transfer equation is obtained using the
P3-approximation, 61 which will be discussed in the
next chapter. Radiative transfer calculations are
performed on the spectral basis using the wide-band
model of Edwards and Balakrishnan (see Edwards; 3s
Table X). The thirteen spectral bands used for the
absorption coefficient are shown in Figs 4 and 5 by
dotted lines.
In Fig. 7 the radiation heat flux distributions
on the cylindrical walls of the small enclosure
(L,~=0.5 m) are given for two different medium
temperatures. It is clear from these figures that the
use of the Pianck mean absorption coefficient yields
about six times higher radiative fluxes compared to
the detailed spectral calculations. On the other hand,
the mean absorption coefficients calculated from the
total emissivity model of Modak 49 yield only a small
overprediction of radiative fluxes in comparison to
the spectral results, and the use of Planck' s internal
mean absorption coefficients slightly underpredicts
the radiative flux distribution along the wall. In Fig.
8 the same kind of comparisons are given for the
second enclosure, which has Lm= 1.08 m. Basically,
the trends are the same as those shown in Fig. 7,
however, the agreement between spectral and total
calculations is better in this case.
Indeed, the trends in the results predicted using
different absorption coefficients, as illustrated in
these figures, can be also deduced from the compar-
isons of the absorption coefficients given in Fig. 6.
For example, for Lm=0.5 m, at T= 1000 K, xt.,., is
somewhat larger than the x~ but it is about six times
smaller than the re. This is also evident from Figs 7
and 8. From Fig. 6 we can conclude that the use of
112 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOq
A
x
L~.
o
"1"
o
" 0
o
n ~
50
4 0
30
20
lO
I I
0) T= I O00K
I I
/ K P , w
/ \
/ \
\
K s p l c t r o I
I I I I
I 2
I I i
b ) T = 2 0 0 0 K
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~ ' ~ \ K s p s c t r e I
0 t , t i 0
0 0 I 2
Z / o
250
200
- 1 5 0
I00
5 0
FI6. 7. Comparison of radiative flux distributions on the cylidrical walls calculated spectrally and using
different mean absorption coefficients, L=0.5 m (see text for the delinitions).
50 500
A 4 O
x 30
-1- 20
z o
! I I
a ) T = I 0 0 0 K
\
, ~ ~ K I t W m
s p e c t r e
I I I
b) T =2000 K
/
s p s c t r e l
S
K i
I I I
I 2 3
0 I I I 0
0 I 2 3 0 4
Z / 4 o
4 0 0
3 0 0
2 0 0
I00
FIG. 8. Comparison of radiative flux distributions on the cylindrical walls as calculated spectrally and
using three different mean absorption coefficients, L= 1.08 m (see text for the definitions}~
Planck' s mean absorption coefficient would be
acceptable only if the physical dimension or the total
pressure of the system under consideration was very
small.
The spectral radiative fluxes depicted in Figs 7 and
8 do not always yield identical results with those
calculated from other mean absorption coefficients
such as r,,w, or r~, and the difference between them
may be as much as 100 %. Clearly it is difficult to have
a simple correlation between the radiative transfer
predictions obtained from the spectral and gray
analyses. In some earlier parametric studies it has also
been shown that the change of the center and width of
the spectral absorption bands may yield large vari-
ations of the total radiative flux predictions. 57,62
Since the temperature and characteristic length of the
gas volume have a strong effect on both the center and
the width of the bands, in practical systems the gas
radiative properties are expected to show large
differences from location to location. Use of a single,
Radiation heat transfer 113
40
50
qr 2 -
(kW/m2) u
I0
0 2 4 6 8 I0
z(m)
F~;. 9. Comparison of radiative fluxes at the wall based on
spectral and mean absorption coefficient calculations.
Water-vapor and carbon-dioxide only: "a" from all six
bands: "b" for 2.7 and 6.3 pm H20 and 2.7 t+m and 4.3/~m
CO 2 bands: "c'" for 2.7/tm H20 and 2.7 pm and 4.3/~m
CO2 bands: "d'" for 2.7/~m and 6.3/~m H20 and 2.7 l~m
CO2 bands: "'e" 6.3 pm H20 and 4.3 :~m CO2 bands; "f" for
Planck's mean absorption coefficient; "g" Planck's internal
mean absorption coefficient; +'h" for Edwards" wide-band
model. 59
mean absorption coefficient for combustion gas-
mixtures, in which large temperature gradients exist,
is not expected to predict radiative transfer realistic-
ally. Consequently, gray calculations employing the
mean absorption coefficients are not recommended
for predicting radiative transfer in a medium com-
prised of only combustion gases, if good accuracy is
required.
It is desirable to discuss the contribution of each
major CO2 and H20 band on the radiation heat
fluxes. Figure 9 depicts the radiation heat flux
distributions on the cylindrical wall of a combustion
chamber calculated spectrally as well as using mean
values. 59 The contributions by particles have been
neglected in obtaining the results presented in this
figure in order to determine the relative importance
of each gas band. Only water vapor and carbon
dioxide are assumed to be present. The mole fraction
distributions of these gases in the furnace were
obtained from the literature 63 for burning of low-
volatile coal (anthracite); therefore, the water-vapor
fraction in the medium was not high. The absorption
coefficient of the gas mixture in every zone of the
medium is calculated from Edwards and
Balakrishnan' s wide band model. 35'39 Each spectral
band corresponding to a different zone has a
different band-width because the temperatures are
different in each zone. In the calculations an average
band-width of each spectral band was employed.
Then, the intensity of each band was adjusted
accordingly. The water vapor rotational band was
not included in these calculations.
In Fig. 9 curve "a" stands for the radiative heat
flux distribution obtained, including all six spectral
gas bands, i.e. 1.38, 1.87, 2.7, 6.38/~m H20 and 2.7,
4.3/~m CO2 bands. This curve is considered as the
"benchmark" for the purpose of comparisons here.
In order to determine whether it is necessary to
include all the bands or not, the number of spectral
bands used is reduced systematically: 9 It is worth
noting that if all three minor bands (i.e. 1.38 pm,
1.87 pm and 6.3 #m H20 ) are neglected the error
introduced would be on the order of 10- 20y o;
however, neglect of either of the major bands (i.e.
2.7/~m H20, 2.7/~m and 4.3 #m CO2) in addition to
the minor ones (see curves "c", "d" and "e") would
yield up to 50 % smaller radiation heat fluxes.
For most practical calculations simple "mean"
absorption coefficients are widely used and preferred
over the detailed spectral radiative properties of
combustion gases. Therefore, it is desirable to
compare the accuracy of the results predicted using
the mean coefficients with the benchmark results. In
Fig. 9, the radiative heat flux distributions calculated
using Planck' s mean absorption coefficient (curve
"f"), Planck' s internal mean absorption coefficient
(curve "g"), and mean absorption coefficients ob-
tained from the wide band model (curve "h") are
shown. The radiative flux denoted by curve "f" has
been multiplied by a factor of 0.4 to include it on the
same figure; therefore, the results obtained using
Planck' s mean absorption coefficient are not in
agreement with the spectral calculations. Although
curves "g" and "h" yield 20-30 % errors in compar-
ison to "benchmark" curve "a", they agree better with
the spectral results than those based on Pianck' s
mean.
3.2. Radiation Properties of Polydispersions
Analysis of radiation heat transfer in coal-fired
furnaces, combustion chambers, and other utilization
systems requires accounting of the effects of particu-
lates, such as pulverized coal, char, fly-ash and soot,
which are present in these systems. For this reason, it
is necessary to have a knowledge of the radiative
properties of polydispersions which, in turn, depend
on the particle size distribution, the spectral depend-
ence of the complex index of refraction, and the
number density for each type of particle in the
combustion products. It is also necessary to know the
spatial distribution of all the particles in the
combustion chamber. Even with all the data on hand,
it is difficult and time-consuming to predict the
radiation characteristics required in radiation heat
JPgCS 13: 2- B
114 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOI~
t ransfer analysis. Most of t he t i me, some si mpl i fyi ng
assumpt i ons are made t o reduce t he difficulties;
however, t he si mpl i fi cat i ons must be reasonabl e for
real i st i c model i ng of physi cal processes.
Wi t h the i ncreasi ng coal ut i l i zat i on, t he need for
r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of part i cl es f or med in coal -fi red
combust i on systems has become mor e demandi ng. A
st at e-of-t he-art review of the t ype of part i cl es and
t hei r effect on r adi at i ve t ransfer in combust i on
chamber s has been given by Sarofim and Hotte164
and Blokh. 4 By assumi ng t hat part i cl es are homo-
geneous and spheri cal , t he r adi at i on charact eri st i cs
of a cl oud of part i cl es can be pr edi ct ed from the Mi e
(or Lor enz- Mi e) theory. 65'66 It shoul d be not ed t hat
pul veri zed coal (char) and ot her part i cl es which exist
in combust i on chamber s are nei t her homogeneous
nor spherical. 67 Nevertheless, t he ext ensi on of the
Mi e t heor y t o nonspher i cal (i.e. cyl i ndri cal , ellip-
soi dal ) part i cl es has shown t hat the r adi at i on
charact eri st i cs of a cl oud of i rregul ar shaped particles
are not very sensi t i ve t o t he geomet r i cal shape of t he
particles. 66,6a Therefore, the use of the equi val ent
spheri cal part i cl es assumpt i on and t he Mi e t heor y
for coal combust i on systems appear s to be a
r easonabl e compr omi se. In t hi s section t he met hod-
ol ogy for cal cul at i ng t he r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of
pol ydi sper si ons is given. Some si mpl e expressi ons
ar e also suggested for use in pract i cal calculations.
Fol l owi ng t he Mi e t heory, t he spect ral absor pt i on,
ext i nct i on, and scat t eri ng coefficients needed for
r adi at i ve t ransfer anal ysi s can be eval uat ed from the
equat i on,
oo
qa(ha,N) = I Q~(D,A,haX1tD2/4)f(D) Nd D, (3.10)
0
where qa st ands ei t her for spect ral ext i nct i on coeffi-
ci ent fla, t he spect ral absor pt i on coefficient xa, or for
t he spectral scat t eri ng coefficient tra, and Q, is the
cor r espondi ng efficiency fact or which is a function of
the size (diffraction) par amet er ( x=nD/ 2) and t he
wave-length of r adi at i on 2. Here, h a is the refract i ve
index of part i cl es, N represent s the part i cl e density,
and f ( D) is t he nor mal i zed size di st r i but i on function,
oo
f(D)dD = 1. (3.11)
0
For most pract i cal probl ems, a di scret e size di st ri -
but i on of pol ydi sper si ons is required. Hence, it is
bet t er to replace the i nt egral of Eq. (3.10) by a finite
series. Then, usi ng t he "st ep-si ze di st r i but i on", the
r adi at i ve pr oper t i es can be expressed as
q a ( n a , N ) = ~ Q , v , , (D,,2,haX~D~/4)fi(D,)NAD,, ( 3 . 1 2 )
1
where i desi gnat es the di amet er ranges. The mean
di amet er of part i cl es in t he cl oud can be obt ai ned as
c o a o
D, , = If (D)DdD/ If(D)dD
0 0
= ZJi(Di)DiADi/~.ji(Di)&d)i
i i
(3.13a)
which is also expressed as D~ o or rt o if a mean radi us
is needed. Ot her defi ni t i ons of the mean di amet er
(radius) are also used in the l i t erat ure, 69 i ncl udi ng t he
Ros i n- Ramml er mean and Saut er mean, which is
given by
oo c o
032 = Jf(D)D3dD/Jf(D)D2dD. (3.13b)
0 0
Somet i mes this defi ni t i on of the Saut er mean is
modi fi ed to express it as vol ume t o surface ar ea ratio.
3.2.1. Types and shapes of polydispersions
In combust i on chambers, soot, pul veri zed coal,
char, and fly-ash ar e the pol ydi sper si ons to be
consi dered. Soot is one of t he most i mpor t ant
cont r i but or s to r adi at i on heat t ransfer in pract i cal
systems. Typi cal di amet er of the soot part i cl es is
about 30 nm to 65 nm, 64 yet the sizes of soot
aggi omor at es may be much larger.'* Mai nl y because
of the small size of the soot part i cl es, scat t eri ng of
r adi at i on by soot is negl i gi bl e in compar i son to
absor pt i on, and its r adi at i ve pr oper t i es can be
cal cul at ed easi l y pr ovi ded t hat the compl ex index of
refract i on and volume fract i on di st r i but i on dat a are
avai l abl e. Numer ous experi ment al studies (see, for
example, Refs 4, 70-73 for ci t at i ons) have report ed a
complex index of refract i on as well as volume
fract i on dat a of soot. Recently, Fel ske et al. 74
discussed the effect of different soot part i cl e shapes
on the scat t eri ng charact eri st i cs of r adi at i on and
presented a framework for det ermi ni ng the character-
istics of soot aggl omerat es using t hose of spheri cal
particles. They demonst r at ed t he sensi t i vi t y of the
soot r adi at i ve pr oper t i es on t he i nhomogenei t y of
t he part i cl es by usi ng the coat ed sphere model (see
Subsect i on 3.2.3).
The spectral compl ex index of refraction is the
most fundament al opt i cal pr oper t y requi red to
calculate r adi at i ve charact eri st i cs of pol ydi spersi ons.
It is comput at i onal l y t i me-consumi ng t o t ake i nt o
account the dependence of the i ndex of refract i on on
wavelength, but concept ual l y i t is st rai ght -forward.
In the l i t erat ure, t here are some publ i shed dat a
for the compl ex index of refract i on of vari ous
coals. 69,75,76 An extensive compi l at i on of the com-
plex i ndex of refract i on dat a, i ncl udi ng t hat for
different Soviet Uni on coals, is also available. 4 The
earl y experi ment s for det er mi ni ng ha were usually
based on the "Fresnel reflection" method. Mor e
recently, Brewster and Kuni t omo 76 pr oposed a new
met hod, t he so-called "par t i cl e ext i nct i on" technique.
Radiation heat transfer 115
Their results show t hat there is approxi mat el y one
order of magni t ude difference between the impinging
part of the complex index of refraction measured
with these two techniques. In brief, there are large
differences between the reported spectral dat a for
the complex index of refraction of coal particles
reported by different investigators, 4'69'7'~-76 and,
therefore, more research attention is needed in this
area. It is also bdi eved 64 that the radiative proper-
ties of char particles do not show distinctive
differences from those of ot her pulverized-coal
particles. Unfortunately, t o the aut hors' knowledge,
there is no fundamental study which supports this
conclusion for various coals and at different wave-
lengths of radiation.
The cont ri but i on of fly-ash particles to radi at i on
heat transfer in pulverized-coal flames exceeds that of
combust i on gases or soot substantially; 4 therefore,
special attention must be given to the radiative
properties of these particles. Although limited, some
dat a for radiative properties of fly-ash particles have
been reported in the literature. 4"77- s3
The refractive index of fly-ash is sensitive to its
chemical composition, and this is attributed primarily
to the varying amount s of oxides of silicon, alumin-
ium, iron and calcium (i.e. SiO2, A1203, Fe203 and
CaO) in the ash. The experimental studies have
shown t hat the index of refraction of different fly-ash
samples from the same flame may be drastically
different, probabl y indicative of the microscopic
condi t i ons for their formation. 77 According to Wall
et al. 78 the complex refractive index of fly-ash is in
the range from ha= 1.43 - 0. 307i t o ha= 1. 50-0. 005i.
These numerical values of the i magi nary part of the
complex index of refraction correspond approxi-
mately to the values measured by Blokh, 4 whereas
the values of the real part of the complex index of
:refraction are somewhat lower than those reported.
The i magi nary part of the refractive index of fly-ash
particles formed during combust i on of pulverized-
coal in a fluidized-bed furnace was of the order of
0.01. 76 This clearly indicates the uncertainty in the
complex index of refraction of fly-ash particles
formed in pulverized-coal combust i on systems.
Recently, Goodwi n 83 has reported extensive results
of an experimental study of the bulk optical con-
stants of coal slags. The effects of chemical compos-
ition, wavelength, and temperature were examined.
Both synthetic slags, prepared from oxide power
mixtures, and "nat ural " slags, prepared by re-mdt i ng
fly-ash or gasifier slag, were used. Transmittance and
near-normal reflectance measurements were made on
their polished wafers cut from the slags, from which
optical constants were determined. The imaginary
part of the refractive index was shown t o depend
primarily on iron, silica and OH content of the slag.
Iron is primarily responsible for absorpt i on in the
short -wavdengt h infrared region (1 #m<3. <4/ J m) ,
and silica is responsible for absorpt i on at longer
(.k > 4/~m) wavelengths. The dependences of bot h the
real and the i magi nary parts of the refractive index
on composition were also examined. A semi-empirical
mixture rule was developed to allow prediction of the
real part of the refractive index from 1 #m to 8 #m in
terms of the weight percents of the maj or oxide
component s SiO2, Al2Oa, CaO, MgO, TiO2, and
Fe203. The mixture rule is based on the refractive
indices of the pure oxide components, with two small
modifications t o i mprove the agreement with the
measured refractive index data.
Shape of a particle is anot her i mport ant indepen-
dent parameter t hat should be considered in pre-
dicting the radiative properties. For the particles in
combust i on chambers, it is difficult to imagine a
single, unique shape. Usually shapes of pulverized-
coal particles or soot agglomerates are irregular and
random; yet, sometimes, surprisingly uniform and
simple shapes are observed. For example, fly-ash
particles from coal-fired boilers show fairly smooth,
spherical shapes, a4"8~ The soot, on the ot her hand,
may agglomerate t o form relatively long tails of radii
on the order of the coal particle radius due to the slip
velocity between the coal particle and surrounding
gases. 86's7 These tails can be considered as infinitely
long cylinders. The simple shapes are most desirable
for the simplicity of calculations as the computational
effort is reduced significantly for uniform, symmetric
shapes. However, a large fraction of particles sus-
pended in combust i on products have totally irregular
shapes. Experimental measurements show t hat there
are some differences in the scattering properties of
these particles in compari son to Mie theory calcu-
lations, as where for irregular shape particles: ( a )
oscillations of efficiency factors vs angle and vs size
parameter are damped; (b) more side scattering
(60-120 ) is observed; (c) less backscattering is
observed and; (d) the agreement with Mie theory
becomes worse for other radiative properties as the
size parameter increases past x = 3 or 5. sa For a cloud
of irregular shape particles, however, the observed
differences in compari son to those for spherical
particles are less significant. 66'a8
3.2.2. Prediction methods of the particle radiative
properties
When radiative properties of particles are needed,
the following quantities, arranged in order of
increasing complexity are to be considered: 8s (i)
extinction cross-section, (ii) scattering cross-section,
( i i i ) absorpt i on cross-section, (iv) single-scattering
albedo, (v) radiation pressure cross-section, (vi)
asymmet ry factor, (vii) unpolarized phase function,
(viii) Legendre coefficients of unpolarized phase
function, (ix) parallel and perpendicularly polarized
scattered intensities, (x) Stokes parameters, (xi)
Mudl er matrix, and (xii) Legendre coefficients of
Mueller matrix dements. The last four quantities in
this list may not be critical for studying radiative
transfer in combust i on systems. However, the ot her
116 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG0~
quant i t i es are definitely needed for r adi at i on heat
t ransfer calculations.
One of the most ext ensi vel y used model s to predi ct
t he r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of part i cl es is the Mi e
theory. 65'~6 Al t hough i t is wi del y known by t hi s
name aft er Mi e' s exact sol ut i on of Maxwei l ' s equa-
t i ons for the scat t eri ng of an i nci dent pl ane wave on
a sphere, s9 t he sol ut i on was al so obt ai ned i ndepend-
ent l y by Lor enz and Debye (see Ker ker 66 for det ai l ed
hi st or i cal discussion). The exact sol ut i on for a ri ght
ci rcul ar cyl i nder wi t h r adi at i on i nci dent nor mal to
t he cyl i nder axi s was given by Rayleigh. Basically, in
the Mi e t heor y t he vect or Hei mhol t z equat i on is
solved exact l y by expandi ng t he electric field in an
i nfi ni t e series of eigenfunctions. In general, these
series are doubl e series, and t hey are not easy to
eval uat e; however, for spheres and i nfi ni t el y-l ong
ci rcul ar cyl i nders t hey can be reduced to single series,
and exact sol ut i ons can be obt ai ned. The Mi e
t heor y for spheres has been t reat ed ext ensi vel y in
the l i t erat ure, 65'66'9 and some f or mul at i ons for
cyl i nders, 9-9' * for el l i pt i c cyl i nders 95 and for
spher oi ds 96 have been given. There is no need to
r epeat t he det ai l s of Mi e t heor y here; t he i nt erest ed
r eader is referred to one of the classical refer-
e nc e s 65' 66' 90 on the subject.
The Mi e t heor y has been used extensively, es-
peci al l y dur i ng the l ast two decades, wi t h t he hel p of
t he comput er al gor i t hms whi ch have been devel-
oped 90' 97- 99 a s well as wi despr ead use of di gi t al
computers. It s rest ri ct i on to simple, smoot h part i cl es
has l ed researchers to i nvest i gat e some ot her possi-
bi l i t i es to model the scat t eri ng of r adi at i on by
i rregul ar shaped particles. Several new appr oaches to
t he sol ut i on of t he pr obl em have been pr oposed over
t he years, i ncl udi ng exact di fferent i al equat i on
appr oaches ~oo.lot as well as exact i nt egral equat i on
methods. 12-~* In addi t i on t o these, there are
several appr oxi mat e t echni ques avai l abl e, i ncl udi ng
t he geomet ri cal t heor y of di ffract i on ~s for pre-
di ct i ng the scat t eri ng by shar p- edged part i cl es; t he
met hod of moment for scat t eri ng by a perfectly
conduct i ng body; 16 as well as pert urbat i on17 and
poi nt mat chi ng met hods l s for near l y spheri cal
particles. Some empi r i cal model s have also been
pr oposed and shown to be very accurat e pr ovi ded
t hat some experi ment al dat a are available, t9 The
det ai l s of these met hods and ot hers can be found in
the literature, ss'9A t o
Among these models, the i nt egral equat i on met hod
or as mor e wi del y known, T- mat r i x or ext ended
boundar y condi t i on met hod (EBCM), 1 oz- ~o, seems
to be t he most pr omi si ng as it is capabl e of solving
the scat t eri ng of r adi at i on by any i rregul ar shape
particle. In t he EBCM, t he i nci dent and scat t ered
electric fields are expanded in vect or spheri cal
harmoni cs, and then by maki ng use of anal yt i c
cont i nuat i on techniques the i nt egral represent at i on
of the fields is reduced t o a set of l i near al gebrai c
equations. The compl exi t y of these equat i ons increase
with the compl exi t y (or asymmet ry) of t he shape of
t he particles. Recently, Wi scombe and Mugnai as.l i l
devel oped a vect or al gor i t hm for the EBCM code of
Bar ber t4 and obt ai ned the scat t eri ng pr oper t i es for
vari ous axi symmet r i c part i cl es whose shapes are
det er mi ned from Chebyshev pol ynomi al s. Thei r
results show t hat t here are significant differences
between the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of spheres and
ar bi t r ar y shaped part i cl es dependi ng on the irreg-
ul ar i t y of t he surface charact eri st i cs. The compu-
t at i onal t i me requi red for these cal cul at i ons is t oo
f or mi dabl e as t o j ust i f y t he extensive use of the T-
mat r i x met hod for pr act i cal probl ems.
3.2.3. Si mpl i f i ed appr oaches
One of t he si mpl i fi cat i ons usually made in calcu-
l at i ng t he r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of part i cl es is related
to t hei r shape. If i t is possi bl e to assume t hat the
part i cl es are spheri cal , then exact sol ut i ons from Mi e
t heor y can be obt ai ned effectively and with much less
comput at i onal effort in compar i son, for example, to
the T- mat r i x method. The pr oper t i es of i rregul ar
shaped part i cl es can be obt ai ned by assumi ng them
as equal -vol ume spheres if the size par amet er
(x = riD~A) is smal l or equal - pr oj ect ed- ar ea spheres if
the size par amet er is large, as The nonspher i ci t y of
part i cl es can be t r aded off agai nst i nhomogenei t y by
assumi ng t hat the index of refract i on varies from the
core to t he peri phery. 66 By pi cki ng a funct i onal form
for t hi s var i at i on t hat al l ows a r easonabl y si mpl e
r adi al sol ut i on with one or two adj ust abl e par a-
meters, it may be possi bl e to mat ch nonspheri cal
scat t eri ng propert i es. Then, the sol ut i on for an
i nhomogeneous sphere can be obt ai ned rat her t han
for an i r r egul ar - shaped particle, and this is signifi-
cant l y simpler. It is also wort h not i ng t hat the effect
of shape becomes less cri t i cal i f t here is a size
di st r i but i on of part i cl es, as si ze-averagi ng in ob-
t ai ni ng t he r adi at i ve propert i es "washes out " the fine
det ai l s of nonspheri cal scattering. 66.as
The Mi e cal cul at i ons for t he efficiency factors of
spheres are rel at i vel y less t i me-consumi ng and easier
t o use t han t he ot her exact models. However, the size
of t he part i cl es in combust i on chambers are func-
t i ons of t i me and space, and t he propert i es must be
cal cul at ed for each new set of size di st ri but i ons. In
mul t i di mensi onal and spectral r adi at i ve transfer
analyses use of Mi e codes for t hi s purpose is
i mpract i cal . Because of this, i t is desi rabl e to have
simple appr oxi mat i ons for the efficiency factors. One
such appr oxi mat i on has been given by Mengii~ and
Vi skant a, l t 2 where t he efficiency factors for pol y-
di sper si ons are obt ai ned st art i ng from the anomal -
ous di ffract i on t heor y ~5 and are expressed in conven-
ient, closed form. In Fig. 10 the Mi e t heory
pr edi ct i ons for t he nor mal i zed ext i nct i on and scat-
t eri ng coefficients are compar ed with t hose of the
si mpl i fi ed model, and in Fig. 11 the pr edi ct i ons of
Radiation heat transfer 117
I 0 ~
10-7
x F ( ~ )
t O - t I 0 0 t O i I 0 e
. . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . i ' ' ' . . . . . I . . . . . . . . I
IO :
' ' . . . . . I
I 0 q
. . . . . . . . I
tO 6
. . . . . . 10 -7
10-.8
[ n ~ q
1 0 - e
l o - i O
CP, RBON
a P, NTHRRCI TE
+ BITUMI NOU$
x BITUMINOUB-K
LIGNITE
FLY-fiSH
l O - a
[ m " ]
i 0 - 9
i 0 - I 0
l O - i i . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . l O - i i
l O- t l O o 10 I 10 ! l O 3 1 0 , I l O 5 1 0 e
xF(~)
FIG. 10. Comparison of Mie theory results (points) for the normalized extinction and the scattering
coefficients with those calculated from tin approximate analysis (lines). tj 2
1.000
COx
0.800
0 . 6 0 0
c) CRRBON
A P, NTHRRCITE
+ BITUMINOUS
X BITUMINOUS-I(
LIGNITE
+ FLY-fiSH
, i . ~ ,..O O O&
. . . . . . . . I
I 0 - i I 0 "2 I O o 1 0 i I 0 ~ I 0 : I O N
x F('~)
FIG. 1 I. Comparison of Mie theory results (points) for the single scattering albedo with those calculated
using approximate analysis (lines). ~ t 2
t he scat t eri ng al bedo from t he Mi e t heor y and the
si mpl e model are given.l~ 2 In these figures, flz and aa
are nor mal i zed spect ral ext i nct i on and scat t eri ng
coefficients, respectively. The nor mal i zat i on fact or is
NxF(ha), wi t h N bei ng t he number of part i cl es per
uni t volume, x is the size paramet er, and F(h,t) is a
function of the compl ex i ndex of refraction. Not e
t hat
F 24naka ]
Q,=xF(ha)=x 2 ~ 2 2 (3.14)
L( n a - k a + 2 ) +4naka.J
is the absor pt i on efficiency fact or for very small size
spherical part i cl es (x--g)) as obt ai ned from the
Rayleigh l i mi t of the Mi e theory. The di scret e poi nt s
shown in Fi gs 10 and 11 are the results obt ai ned
from t he ri gorous Mi e t heor y for the cor r espondi ng
index of refract i on of specific particles. The lines are
from t he anal yt i cal , closed form expressi ons given by
Mengii~ and Viskanta. 112 Consi deri ng the uncert ai nt y
in t he volume fract i on of pol ydi spersi ons and the
complex index of refract i on dat a, t he agreement
between t he model and exact cal cul at i ons appear s to
be r emar kabl y good, and, because of this, these
si mpl i fi ed model s woul d be useful for r adi at i on heat
t ransfer cal cul at i ons in combust i on chambers. Not e
t hat t he single scat t eri ng al bedo 09 is related to
absor pt i on, ext i nct i on and scat t eri ng coefficients by
< . o = o / , a = 1 - - ~ : / / 7 . ( 3 . 1 5 )
In t he l i t erat ure, t here are also some empi ri cal
rel at i ons avai l abl e for t he r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of
pol ydi spersi ons. Buckius and Hwang 113 cal cul at ed
absor pt i on and ext i nct i on coefficients as well as the
asymmet r y fact or of several coal pol ydi sper si ons
using Mi e t heory and showed t hat they were al most
i ndependent of the size di st r i but i on and were
functions of average radi i r32 [see Eq. (3.13b)] and
the complex index of refraction. They obt ai ned some
118 R. V[SKANTA and M. P. MENG0(;
10-2 , , ,
. . . . '~ -'~ . . . . J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K.'lX,) "IN,, ~ .
i 0 "s I 0 "2
10"4 ~ i0"3
i 0 - 4
I0 x I0 2 I0 3 i0 4
r , z T [/.t.m K ]
FIG. 12. Phmck and Rossehmd mean coefficients for coal. The shaded area represents results for w~riations
in temperature between 750 and 250 K and three coals. ~ 3
empi r i cal cor r el at i ons for the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of
coal part i cl es which coul d be readi l y used for
pr edi ct i ng r adi at i on heat t ransfer in coal -fi red com-
bust i on systems. Also, t hey pl ot t ed the nor mal i zed
Pl anck and Rossel and mean absor pt i on and extinc-
t i on coefficients as funct i ons of t he mean r adi us -
t emper at ur e pr oduct (Fig. 12) and obt ai ned some
empi r i cal r el at i ons for these coefficients. As seen
from this figure, for small radi i part i cl es, ext i nct i on
and absor pt i on coefficients are i dent i cal ; however,
with i ncreasi ng r adi us t he scat t eri ng of r adi at i on
also becomes i mpor t ant , and fl and x di verge from
each other. Vi skant a e t al . 1~4 aIso obt ai ned si mi l ar
results and discussed t he effects of several i ndepen-
dent paramet ers, such as size di st r i but i on, coal t ype
and wavelength of r adi at i on on t he r adi at i ve proper-
ties of pol ydi spersi ons. It is wort h not i ng t hat
al t hough different defi ni t i ons of mean radi us are
used in these studies, i.e. r i o [see Eq. (3.13a)] 112 and
r32 [see Eq. (3.13b)], 11a'1~4 still si mi l ar results
i ndependent of size di st r i but i on are obt ai ned. Thi s
i ndi cat es t hat a pol ydi sper si on can be often des-
cr i bed by a wei ght ed part i cl e r adi usJ 15
All of the studies discussed above used the
spheri cal part i cl e assumpt i on in obt ai ni ng the re-
l at i ons for r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of particles. Perfect
spheres are not encount ered in nat ure, and, therefore,
i t is desi rabl e to obt ai n si mi l ar rel at i ons for ot her
t han spheri cal shape particles. Stephens ]~6 has
shown t hat t he anomal ous di ffract i on t heor y devel-
oped by van de Hul st 65 can be ext ended to infinite-
length cylinders. The absor pt i on and ext i nct i on
efficiency factors cal cul at ed from this simplified
t heor y are in good agreement with t hose obt ai ned
from a ri gorous sol ut i on of Maxwel l ' s equat i ons. It is
wort h not i ng t hat t he anomal ous di ffract i on t heory
used for spheres al so yi el ded accurat e and si mpl e
rel at i ons (see Ref. 112). Most recently, Mackowski e t
a/. 117 deri ved t he same ki nd of rel at i ons for the
spectral r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of cyl i ndri cal soot
agglomerates. They showed t hat small size cylin-
dri cal part i cl es ext i nct ed r adi at i on two to five t i mes
mor e t han spheres. At l arge radi i , on the ot her hand,
the r at i o of cyl i ndri cal ext i nct i on and absor pt i on
coefficients to t hose for spheri cal part i cl es appr oach
const ant values regardl ess of the wavelength of
r adi at i on} 17 Also, some empi ri cal r el at i ons si mi l ar
to t hose obt ai ned for spheri cal part i cl es are pre-
sented. It is also possi bl e to extend t he rel at i ons to
mi xt ures of different t ypes and shapes of part i cl es
using the T- mat r i x method. For a specific (coal)
combust i on probl em, a l i br ar y of empi ri cal rel at i ons
can be constructed. The use of these rel at i ons will
speed up the cal cul at i ons significantly, since t here
will be no need for l engt hy and t i me consumi ng Mi e
or T- mat r i x met hod calculations.
When the size par amet er ( x = n D / 2 ) becomes
vani shi ngl y small (x-*0) t he size of the part i cl e
becomes less i mpor t ant . In this l i mi t i ng case, the
absor pt i on efficiency fact or is a funct i on of x [see Eq.
(3.14)], whereas the scat t eri ng efficiency factor varies
with x 4, such as
r ~ - I 4
0s = 3 ~ X . (3.16a)
The ext i nct i on efficiency fact or is written as
Q,. = Q,, + Qs . (3.16b)
Radiation heat transfer 119
These expressions are obt ai ned from the Rayleigh
limit of the Mie theory. 6s Here, h a = n a - i k a is the
complex index of refraction. It is worth not i ng t hat
with decreasing x (or D), the scattering efficiency
factor becomes negligible in compari son to the
absorpt i on efficiency factor. Indeed, these expres-
sions yield the extensively used soot absorpt i on
coefficient, such as
xa = 7 f J 2 (3.17)
wherefv is the volume fraction of soot particles and
the value of "7" was suggested by Hottel and
Sarofim 46 for typical soot particles observed in
combust i on chambers. After studying the available
experimental dat a for several flames Siegel l~s has
shown t hat the coefficient in Eq. (3.17) is between 3.7
and 7.5 for coal flames; 6.3 for oil flames, and 4.9 and
4.0 for propane and acetylene soot, respectively. A
detailed discussion of the spectral and total absorp-
tion characteristics of uniform-diameter, spherical
soot particles coveri ng a very wide range of sizes
(0.001 <D<10/ ~m) is given by BlokE'*
Equat i ons (3.14) and (3.16) were obt ai ned for
spherical particles; therefore, the approxi mat i on
given by Eq. (3.17) may not yield accurate results
for arbi t rary shaped small particles. 1~ For non-
spherical particles, an expression for the average
absorpt i on efficiency factor was derived by inte-
grating over a distribution of shape parameters in
the Rayleigh-ellipsoid approxi mat i on, 119 such as
2ha
Q, =x F ( h a ) =x Im [hA-- 1 (log n a - i k a ) ] (3.18)
where x depends on the effective diameter D(--- V/A).
This relation yielded very good agreement with the
experimental dat a for quart z particles.119
In Table 2 a compari son is given of spectral F(ha)
functions for spheres [see Eq. (3.14)1, infinite-length
cylinders 117 and ellipsoids [see (Eq. 3.18),1 at four
different wavelengths. It is i mport ant t o not e that the
results for ellipsoids are between those for spheres
and cylinders. The spectral complex indices of
refraction used in this compari son are from the
dispersion relations developed by Lee and Tien 71 for
acetylene and propane soot at 1700 K.
TABL[ 2. Comparisons of spectral F(ha) functions for
different shape small soot particles
/(/am) na ka F,~,,, F~,n~r Fomt,,ola
0.50 1.92 0.55 0.754 1.871 1.700
1.50 1.88 0.73 1.007 2.450 2.134
2.50 2.10 1.09 1.140 3.683 2.888
5.00 2.69 1.57 0.863 6.073 3.888
3.2.4. Scattering phase f unct i on
In modeling radi at i on heat transfer in a partici-
pating medium, the scattering of radi at i on by
particles must be properly accounted for. This
requires the use of the scattering phase function
(scattering diagram), which represents the probability
t hat radi at i on propagat i ng in a given direction is
scattered i nt o anot her direction because of the
inhomogeneities and/ or particles along the path of
radiation. In combust i on chambers, the scattering of
radiation takes place mainly because of the particles.
The phase function, along with other radiative
properties, such as absorption, extinction and scat-
tering coefficients, can be obt ai ned either exactly
from the solution of Maxweli' s equations for spher-
ical or infinite-length cylindrical particles 65,66'9 or
from some approxi mat i ons such as the extended
boundary element method (EBCM) for arbi t rary
shaped particles ~2- lo4 as functions of wavelength,
characteristic particle dimension and complex index
of refraction. The phase function is written as
Oa(g'---,g) = 4la(-g)/x2Qs (3.19)
where la(g) is the incident radi at i on intensity and x
is the size parameter with the effective diameter D
and radiation of wavelength 2. Not e that the
radiative properties are not only functions of the size
of the particle or the wavelength of radiation, but
they are functions of the size parameter x, which can
be considered as a scaling factor. In Eq. (3.19) Qs is
the scattering efficiency factor, which is defined as 9
Qs = CJ A = (Ws/I,)/A (3.20)
where A is the particle cross-sectional area projected
ont o a plane perpendicular to the incident beam li
(e.g. A = nD2/4 for a sphere of diameter D); Ws is the
energy scattering rate by the particle, and C s is the
scattering cross-section. Similar expressions can be
written for extinction and absorpt i on efficiency
factors by replacing the subscripts "s" in Eq. (3.20) by
"e" for extinction and "a" for absorption. These
quantities are obt ai ned from the Mie theory or
approxi mat e models. 9
Use of the phase function in the form of Eq. (3.19)
would be a very time consumi ng procedure, A more
convenient form of the phase function is obt ai ned by
expanding it in a series of Legendre pol ynomi al s) 20
N
a(W) = ~ a,.~P,(~P) (3.21a)
rl =O
where
1
a n , a - 2 n + l J" ~a( W) P, ( ~) dD (3.21b)
O= 4 f
120 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENO0q
is t he expans i on coeffi ci ent a nd P, is t he Legendr e
pol ynomi a l of degr ee n. By changi ng t he uppe r l i mi t
N o f t he series, a ny pha s e f unct i on can be wr i t t en in
t he f or m of Eq. (3.21). The coeffi ci ent s a, . a can be
obt a i ne d by e mpl oyi ng t he or t hogona l i t y r el at i ons o f
Legendr e pol ynomi al s . I n or de r t o accur at el y repre-
sent t he pha s e f unct i on of hi ghl y f or wa r d scat t er i ng
part i cl es, however , as ma n y as 100 t er ms ma y be
r equi r ed in t he series. F o r t he mul t i di mens i onal
r a di a t i ve t r ans f er cal cul at i ons, t he use of such a
c ompl i c a t e d s cat t er i ng phas e f unct i on is not pr ac-
t i cal either. Consequent l y, s ome f ur t her si mpl i fi -
c a t i ons ar e requi red. I f N = 0 , t he phas e f unct i on is
wr i t t en as
(IDa(W) = 1 (3.22)
whi ch is f or i s ot r opi c scat t eri ng. I f N = 1, t hen t he
l i near l y a ni s ot r opi c s cat t er i ng phas e f unct i on is
obt a i ne d,
~ a ( ~ ) = 1 + a l, acos W. (3.23)
Fo r N = 2 t he phas e f unct i on c or r e s ponds t o second-
degr ee a ni s ot r opi c scat t er i ng, a nd i f t he expans i on
coeffi ci ent s ar e set a r bi t r a r i l y such t ha t a t . , t =0 a nd
a2, a= 1/2, t hi s yi el ds t he Rayl ei gh scat t er i ng phas e
function.~ 9
Mos t o f t he par t i cl es encount er ed in c ombus t i on
c ha mbe r s ( pul ver i zed coal , c ha r or fly-ash) scat t er
r a di a t i on pr e domi na nt l y in t he f or wa r d di rect i on.
Such a scat t er i ng b e h a v i o r can be model ed usi ng a
Di r a c - d e l t a funct i on. Th e t r ans por t , d e l t a - M and
t he d e l t a - Ed d i n g t o n a p p r o x i ma t i o n s ar e of t hat
form. TM The d e l t a - Ed d i n g t o n a p p r o x i ma t i o n is
wr i t t en as ~ 22
~a( W) = 2f~6(1 - cos W) + (1 - f aX1 + 39acos W) (3.24)
wher e f z a nd 0a ar e r el at ed t o t he expans i on
coefficients defi ned by Eq. (3.21b) as 59
f a = { i : a l i f_ ~ 2)12 i i : : ,~ 1)/2 (3.25a)
a nd
a l ,,a - f a
9a = (3.25b)
1 - f a
pr ovi de d t hat al , a>a2, a. A det ai l ed account of
Di r a c - d e i t a phas e a p p r o x i ma t i o n s ha s recent l y been
gi ven by Cr os bi e a nd Da v i d s o n ? 23
In t he heat t r ans f er l i t er at ur e, a n o t h e r phase
f unct i on a p p r o x i ma t i o n has f ound wi de appl i cat i on.
The phase f unct i on is expr essed in t er ms of t he
f or wa r d (fa) and ba c kwa r d (ba) scat t er i ng coefficients,
and t hey ar e wr i t t en in t er ms of a . ' s of Eq. (3.21b) f or
an azi mut hal l y s ymme t r i c me di um such as 124
1
A=U~ I o~(,I,)dn
t ~ = 2 ~
=+ ~ ( - 1 ) " a 2 " + ' ( 2 m) !
r.=0 2 2 " +i m! ( m+ 1) t
(3.26a)
ba = 1 - f a . (3.26b)
The f act or s ba a nd f a ar e especi al y useful when
obt a i ni ng sol ut i ons o f t he r a di a t i ve t r ans f er equat i on
usi ng flux met hods.
Br ewst er a nd Ti en 125 have gi ven a di fferent
def i ni t i on o f t he ba c kwa r d scat t er i ng coeffi ci ent f or
an azi mut hal l y s ymme t r i c l ayer such as
1 o
Ba =~ ~ ~a(/~,/~')d/~'du (3.27)
0 - 1
Thi s expr essi on i s val i d f or a pl ane- par al l el l ayer of
part i cl es, wher eas Eqs (3.26) ar e a p p r o p r i a t e f or
scat t er i ng f r om a si ngl e part i cl e. I t has been shown
t hat f or a cl oud o f n o n - a b s o r b i n g spher i cal par t i cl es
(with h =1 . 3 3 , x =6 . 0 ) , b~(=0. 036) is dr ast i cal l y
smal l er t han Ba ( = 0.137).
In a t mos phe r i c studies, t he He nye y~3r e e ns t e i n
phas e f unct i on a p p r o x i ma t i o n is oft en used 121 and is
expr essed as
@n-o, a( W)= [1 + O ] - 2 g a c o s tF]3/2" (3.28)
Her e, g~ is t he a s y mme t r y f a c t or and is defi ned as
g a = ( c o s W) = S l a ( g ) c o s Wd ~ / S l a(g)df~ (3.29)
f l = 4 x O=4f
whi ch can be di r ect l y obt a i ne d f r om t he Mi e t heory.
Al t hough it a p p r o x i ma t e s t he Mi e phas e f unct i on
qui t e accur at el y, t he appl i cat i on of t he He n y e y -
Gr eens t ei n phas e f unct i on a p p r o x i ma t i o n t o mul t i -
di mens i onal geomet r i es ma y be qui t e tedious.
Several di fferent a p p r o x i ma t i o n s f or the scat t er i ng
phase function, such as l i nearl y ani s ot r opi c scattering,
de l t a - M, de l t a - Eddi ngt on, t r a ns por t or He n y e y -
Gr eens t ei n a ppr oxi ma t i ons , have been revi ewed in
det ai l by Mc Ke l l a r and Box) 21 The y have concl uded
t ha t f or hi ghl y f or wa r d scat t er i ng par t i cl es the
d e l t a - Ed d i n g t o n a p p r o x i ma t i o n ~22 is t he mos t
accur at e a nd the si mpl est of all the a p p r o x i ma t i o n s
ment i oned. In model i ng r adi at i ve t r ansf er in coal -
fired f ur naces t he de l t a - Eddi ngt on a p p r o x i ma t i o n
f or t he scat t er i ng phas e f unct i on is desi r abl e f or t wo
reasons: (1) it r epr esent s t he hi ghl y f or war d- di r ect ed
scat t er i ng o f r a di a t i on by t he pul veri zed coal and fly-
ash part i cl es; and (2) it is c ompa t i bl e wi t h di fferent i al
a p p r o x i ma t i o n s such as t he spheri cal ha r moni c s
a p p r o x i ma t i o n used t o model t he r adi at i ve t r ansf er
equat i on.
Radiation heat transfer 121
The scat t eri ng phase funct i on of part i cl es is
di rect l y rel at ed t o the size (or di amet er) of t he
particles. Therefore, for pol ydi sper si ons t here shoul d
be as many scat t eri ng phase funct i ons as t he number
of size intervals considered. For the sake of simplicity,
i t is desi rabl e to have a single, mean scat t eri ng phase
funct i on over t he ent i re part i cl e size range. Then, the
mean scat t eri ng phase funct i on can be wri t t en as
1 N
~ a = : - ~ a~,i Pa.~ , (3.30)
0"2 i
where N is t he number of t he intervals. If the
del t a- Eddi ngt on phase function appr oxi mat i on is
used for t he scat t eri ng phase function, the corres-
pondi ng mean par amet er s are defined si mi l arl y,
1 N 1 N
. ' / - ~ - ~ - ~ O ' 2 . , i f ] i , " g ~ - ~ - ~ - E U 2 . . i O a . i . (3.31)
G ~ i G ' l i
3.3. T o t a l P r o p e r t i e s
Once t he absor pt i on, scat t eri ng and ext i nct i on
coefficients of pol ydi sper si ons, such as pul veri zed
coal, char, fly-ash, and t hose of soot and combust i on
gases ar e known, the t ot al r adi at i ve pr oper t i es are
wri t t en as
and
ra.tot = ~xa . ~l y- i + xa.,,**, + ~xa.,,,,,_.i, (3.32)
i j
fla,to, = xa.tot + ~aa. vo, y- i , (3.33)
i
o93 = ~tra, ~ly_ i/fl~.,tol (3.34)
i
where "pol y-i " refers to i-th t ype pol ydi spersi on, and
"gas-j " refers to j - t h gas species. Not e t hat i f there
are no scat t eri ng part i cl es in the medi um, then
fla.tot = K~.,tot and t~a = 0.
An al t er nat i ve f or mul at i on of t ot al absor pt i vi t y
and emi ssi vi t y of a scat t eri ng medi um has been
recently given as ~ 26
F tg'l''tt [ 1 - - e x p ( - f l ~ . , t o t L m ) ] . (3.35)
~ . = C~ = L f l , l . , t o t - I
In wr i t i ng t hi s expression i t was assumed t hat
spectral i r r adi ance was equal to the spectral emi t t ed
flux of the surroundings. The spect ral absor pt i vi t i es
of pol ydi sper si ons of coal and fly-ash part i cl es have
been pr edi ct ed using a two-flux appr oxi mat i onJ ~4
The expressi on for the absor pt i vi t y 1~4 is not as
simple as t hat given by Eq. (3.35). Thi s suggests t hat
t he concept may be of l i mi t ed ut i l i t y for pr edi ct i ng
r adi at i on heat t ransfer in mul t i di mensi onal combus-
t i on systems whi ch cont ai n particles, If t he emi ssi vi t y
(or absor pt i vi t y) of a part i cl e l aden flame is known
then the ext i nct i on coefficient of the medi um can be
wri t t en as
fla.tot = - L~ In (3.36)
pr ovi ded t hat t he mean-beam-l engt h L,, is known.
H o w e v e r , fla,tot and toa are i nt errel at ed pr oper t i es
[see Eq. (3.34)]. If the mean coefficients are to be
used, t he equat i ons given above shoul d be rewri t t en
by dr oppi ng the subscri pt 2, and appendi ng the
appr opr i at e mean coefficient subscript.
These defi ni t i ons requi re the mean beam length of
r adi at i on Lm, which is a vague concept. 59 It is
defined 2 as a r adi us of a gas hemi sphere which
radi at es a flux to the cent er of its base equal to the
average flux r adi at ed to the ar ea of interest by t he
act ual vol ume of gas. Al t hough t he concept yields
accurat e results for si mpl e systems, for compl i cat ed
geomet ri es it needs addi t i onal research at t ent i on.
Recently, Schol and and Schenkel ~27 have cal cul at ed
the mean beam length of r adi at i on between a vol ume
element and t he surfaces of rect angul ar paral -
l el epi ped enclosures. Car t i gny ~28 has ext ended the
defi ni t i on of the mean beam length to an opt i cal l y
t hi n scat t eri ng medi um, which can be used for
cal cul at i on of r adi at i ve t ransfer in soot y flames.
The empi r i cal rel at i ons for the t ot al mean extinc-
t i on and absor pt i on coefficients for fly-ash, pulver-
ized coal and char part i cl e pol ydi sper si ons have also
been report ed. 4 It has been found, for example, t hat
the mean ext i nct i on coefficient fl of fly-ash can be
expressed by an empi ri cal equat i on of the form,
f l = g , , F ( C L ) A p C (3.37)
where Q,, is the ext i nct i on efficiency factor; F(CL) is
the function which accounts for the dependence of
the ext i nct i on coefficient on the pr oduct of the
concent rat i on C and the l ayer t hi ckness L, and A t , is
t he surface ar ea of a particle. The t ot al ext i nct i on
efficiency fact or Q~ has been found to depend, as
mi ght be expected, on the t ype of coal burned, fly-ash
part i cl e size and the spectral di st r i but i on of i nci dent
r adi at i on det ermi ned by the bl ack body t emper at ur e
T used as the r adi at i on source. Based on experi-
mental dat a it is possi bl e to express Q,. by an
empi r i cal equat i on,
Q,.=0.07 A ( x T ) 1/3. (3.38)
The empi ri cal const ant A depends on the t ype of coal
bur ned and the shape of the fly-ash particle, and x is
the size par amet er based on the mean part i cl e
di amet er. The function F(CL) has been det ermi ned
122 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG0~'
empi r i cal l y and was found to depend on t he t ype of
coal burned. 4
The t ot al effective absor pt i vi t y of a fly-ash l ayer of
t hi ckness L cal cul at ed from the expressi on
cZfe = 1 - exp( - ~L) (3.39)
has been found t o agree well with t he exper i ment al
data.'* It was det er mi ned from the dat a t hat t he
opt i cal t hi ckness zL(= ~L) of the l ayer varies l i nearl y
wi t h C L onl y for moder at e values of CL( <20 g/m2).
At hi gher values of C L t he mean ext i nct i on coef-
ficient ~ st art s t o depend on C L , because t he
r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of fly-ash part i cl es depend on
wavelength. Thi s l eads t o the depar t ur e of t he
funct i on z L ( C L ) from l i neari t y.
The Hot t el char t s for the emi ssi vi t y and absor pt i v-
i t y of combust i on gases are very conveni ent for
pract i cal cal cul at i ons. Skocypec and Buckius ~29
and Skocypec e t a/. 13 ext ended these char t s to
i ncl ude i sot r opi cal l y scat t eri ng particles. In t hei r
cal cul at i ons, t hey obt ai ned t he gas pr oper t i es from
t he Edwar ds wi de- band model 35 and present ed
hemi spher i cal emi ssi vi t i es in gr aphi cal form and
discussed t he effects of opt i cal thickness, pressure,
t emper at ur e and single scat t eri ng albedo. These
char t s yi el d accurat e r adi at i ve pr oper t i es wi t hout
any addi t i onal cal cul at i ons; however, they cannot be
used di rect l y for pr edi ct i ng t he l ocal r adi at i on heat
flux in a combust i on system.
4. SOLUTI ON ME T HODS
The r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on is an i nt egro-
di fferent i al equat i on, and i t s sol ut i on even for a one-
di mensi onal , pl anar, gr ay medi um is qui t e difficult.
Most engi neeri ng systems, on the ot her hand, are
mul t i di mensi onal . In addi t i on, spectral var i at i on of
the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es must be account ed for in the
sol ut i on of t he RTE for accurat e pr edi ct i on of
r adi at i on heat transfer. These consi der at i ons make
t he pr obl em even mor e compl i cat ed. Therefore, i t is
al most necessary to i nt r oduce some si mpl i fyi ng
assumpt i ons for each appl i cat i on before at t empt i ng
to solve t he RTE in its general form. It is not possi bl e
to devel op a single general sol ut i on met hod for the
equat i on which woul d be equal l y appl i cabl e to
different systems. Consequently, several different
sol ut i on met hods have been devel oped over the
years. Accor di ng to the nat ur e of the physi cal system,
charact eri st i cs of the medi um, the degree of accuracy
requi red, and the avai l abl e comput er facilities, one of
several different met hods can be adopt ed for t he
sol ut i on of the pr obl em considered. Before choosi ng
one sol ut i on met hod over anot her one, it is i mpor t -
ant to know t he advant ages and di sadvant ages of
each method. In t hi s section, several r adi at i ve
t ransfer model s of i nt erest to combust i on systems are
discussed, and t hei r features are hi ghl i ght ed.
4.1. E x a c t M o d e l s
The most desi rabl e sol ut i on of any equat i on is i t s
exact closed form solution. The exact sol ut i on of the
i nt egrodi fferent i al r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on can
onl y be obt ai ned aft er some si mpl i fyi ng assumpt i ons,
such as uni f or m r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of the medi um
and homogeneous boundar y condi t i ons. For one-
di mensi onal , pl ane-paral l el medi a, exact sol ut i on of
the RTE has received much at t ent i on in t he at mos-
pheri c sciences, 12a 5,t 6 neut ron t r anspor t 13 ~ - ~ 33 and
heat t ransfer ~9'2'~34 literature. A det ai l ed review of
one- di mensi onal exact sol ut i on met hods is avai l -
abl e? 35 However, t here have onl y been a few
at t empt s to formul at e and solve the RTE for
mul t i di mensi onal geometries.
One of the earl i est account s to formul at e the
r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on in a t hree-di mensi onal
space wi t h ani sot r opi c scat t eri ng was t hat of
Hunt ? 36 He consi dered a phase function compr i sed
of t hree t erms in Legendre pol ynomi al s and reduced
the i nt egrodi fferent i al r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on to
an i nt egral equat i on. Cheng ~37 used a ri gorous
appr oach to solve the RTE for an abs or bi ng-
emi t t i ng medi um in rect angul ar enclosures, and Dua
and Cheng ~38 ext ended t hi s met hod to cyl i ndri cal
geometries. For an absor bi ng, emi t t i ng, and scat-
tering medi um Cr osbi e and hi s co-workers present ed
exact f or mul at i ons of the RTE for t hr ee- di mensi onal
rect angul ar ~39 as well as t hree-di mensi onal cylin-
dri cai a4 enclosures. The sol ut i on of these equat i ons
for cyl i ndri cal geomet ry was obt ai ned by the met hod
of subt r act i ng t he si ngul ar i t y? 4a The exact sol ut i ons
of RTE for an absor bi ng and emi t t i ng medi um were
al so solved by Selcuk ~42 in a t hree-di mensi onal
rect angul ar enclosure empl oyi ng a numeri cal scheme.
In a cyl i ndri cal geomet ry, the r adi at i ve transfer
equat i on is obt ai ned from Eq. (2.11). Then, the
integral form of the source function, for an absorbi ng,
emi t t i ng and i sot r opi cal l y scat t eri ng medi um with
i nci dent diffuse r adi at i on source on one of the end
surfaces of the cyl i nder can be wri t t en as 14
S2(r,z,q~) = (1 - - 0)a)/ba [ T(r,z,q~)]
0) 2 r 2x
+ - - J S l d,~(r',d?')e-P~"z'~)X; ( x ~ ) - 3zr'dq ~'dr'
4 n o o
+ m 2 z~ r~ ~Sa(r,,z,,(a,)flae_Pa%x~ 2r,dda,dr,dz ' (4.1)
4 n o o o
w h e r e
x ; = [ r 2 + (r' ) 2 - 2rr'cos(q~ - - qS') + z2] 1/2 (4.2a)
X p = [ r 2 + (r') 2 - 2 r r ' c o s ( c b - ~b') + ( z - z ' ) 2 ] I / 2 . ( 4 . 2 b )
Here, the pri mes are used to denot e t he dummy
variables, and l~,a is t he spectral diffuse r adi at i on
Radiation heat transfer 123
source on t he end of t he cyl i nder at z = O . Not e t hat
ld. a can al so be i nt er pr et ed as t he diffuse emi ssi on
and reflection from t he walls. Some addi t i onal
i nt egral t erms are t o be added t o these expressi ons to
account for t he ot her surface effects` Aft er some
l engt hy and t edi ous al gebra, t he i mpl i ci t expressi ons
for t he r adi at i ve fluxes in t he r, z, and ~b di r ect i ons
can be deri ved: 14
, [ 2 [ - P ' ~; ( x ; ) - ~
F , . a ( r , z , c k ) = ld,,t(~,~b')
00
z r 2z
x J r - r'cos(~b - ~b')] z r ' d c ~ ' d r ' + [ [ I S a ( r ' , z ' , c ~ ' )
0 0 0
x flae-P~%(xp)- ai r - r'cos(~b - t~')] r ' d q ~ ' d r ' d z ' (4.3)
r 21~
~ , ~ ( , , z , ~ ) = [ I ' ' - p x+ + - , l d , a ( r ,c ~ ) e ~ ~ ( x p )
00
g o r o 21
x z 2 r ' d d p ' d r ' + ~ ~ I S a ( r ' , z ' , c k ' )
0 0 0
x f l a e - P a ~ r ~ x p ) - a ( z - z ' ) r ' d c ~ ' d r ' d z ' (4.4)
r 2x
F o , , ( r , z , ) = [ ~ l d , a ( r ' , ' ) e - ~ , ~ ; ( x ; ) - "
00
z o r o 21t
x r ' si n( ~b- ~ ' ) z r ' d d p ' d r ' + ~ J ~ S a ( r ' , z ' , q ~ ' )
0 0 0
x f l z e - P * % ( x ~ ) - a r ' s i n ( q ~ - d p ' ) ] r ' d O ' d r ' d z ' . (4.5)
When ld, a is i nt er pr et ed as t he wall function which
includes t he diffuse emi ssi on and reflection from the
walls, the addi t i onal i nt egral t erms will appear on t he
r i ght - hand- si de of these equat i ons. It shoul d be not ed
t hat in deri vi ng t hese expressi ons, t he medi um is
assumed t o be homogeneous. The eval uat i on of the
i nt egral s in these equat i ons yields exact results for
the r adi at i ve flux di st r i but i ons in the medium. These
equat i ons can be i nt egr at ed numeri cal l y, as closed
form sol ut i ons are not possi bl e unless furt her si mpl i -
fi cat i ons are i nt roduced. Consi der i ng t hat in most
engi neeri ng systems the medi um is i nhomogeneous
and r adi at i ve pr oper t i es are spect ral in nat ure, it can
be concl uded t hat t he exact sol ut i ons for RTE are not
pract i cal for engi neeri ng appl i cat i ons. Nevertheless,
exact sol ut i ons for si mpl e geomet ri es and systems are
needed, as t hey can serve as benchmar ks agai nst
which t he accuracy of ot her appr oxi mat e sol ut i ons
are checked.
4.2. S t a t i s t i c a l M e t h o d s
The purel y st at i st i cal met hods, such as t he Mont e
Car l o met hod, usually yi el d r adi at i on heat t ransfer
pr edi ct i ons as accurat e as t he exact methods. The
Mont e Car l o met hod can be used for any compl ex
geomet ry, and spect ral effects can be account ed for
wi t hout much difficulty. Mai nl y for t hi s reason, the
met hod has been used ext ensi vel y in at mos-
pher i c 143'144 and neut ron t r anspor t 133 studies. It
has al so been successfully empl oyed t o solve some
general r adi at i on heat t ransfer pr obl ems 14~,z46 as
well as r adi at i ve t ransfer pr obl ems in mul t i -
di mensi onal enclosures ~ ,17 and furnaces. ~ 4s,1,,9
There is no single Mont e Car l o method. Rather,
t here are many different st at i st i cal approaches. In its
si mpl est form, the met hod consi st s of si mul at i ng a
finite number of phot on (energy packet ) hi st or i es
t hrough t he use of a r andom number generat or. 133
For each phot on, r andom numbers are generat ed and
used to sampl e appr opr i at e pr obabi l i t y di st r i but i ons
for scat t eri ng angles and pat hl engt hs between col-
lisions. If it is assumed t hat t he pr obl em is t i me-
dependent , each phot on hi st or y is st art ed by
assi gni ng a set of values to t he phot on, its i ni t i al
energy, posi t i on and di rect i on. Fol l owi ng this, the
number of mean free pat hs t hat the phot on pr opa-
gat es is det er mi ned stochastically. Then, the cross-
section (or absor pt i on and scat t eri ng coefficients)
dat a ar e sampl ed, and it is det er mi ned whet her the
col l i ded phot on is absor bed or scat t ered by t he gas
molecules or part i cl es in t he medium. If it is
absor bed, t he hi st or y is t ermi nat ed. If it is scattered,
the di st r i but i on of scat t eri ng angles is sampl ed and a
new di rect i on is assi gned to t he phot on. In the case
of el ast i c scat t eri ng, a new energy is det er mi ned by
conservat i on of energy and moment um. Wi t h the
new set of assi gned energy, posi t i on, and di rect i on
the procedure is repeat ed for successive col l i si ons
until t he phot on is absor bed or escapes from t he
system.
Mont e Carl o cal cul at i ons yi el d answers t hat
fluctuate ar ound the "' real" answer. As the number of
phot ons i ni t i at ed from each surface and/ or volume
element increases t hi s met hod is expected to con-
verge to the exact sol ut i on of the probl em. Since the
di rect i ons of t he phot ons are obt ai ned from a
r andom number generat or, t he met hod is always
subject to st at i st i cal er r or s and t he l ack of guarant eed
convergence. ~46 However, as next generat i on com-
put ers become mor e readi l y avai l abl e, Mont e Car l o
met hods ar e expected to become mor e at t r act i ve for
engi neeri ng appl i cat i ons. It has al r eady been shown
t hat vect or i zat i on of the Mont e Carl o comput er code
yields significant i mprovement s in efficiency using
supercomput ers such as CYBER-205 and more
precise results ar e obt ai ned. 1 s o
4.3. Z o n a l M e t h o d
The zonal met hod, which is usually known as
Hot t el ' s zonal met hod, TM is one of the most widely
used met hods for cal cul at i ng r adi at i on heat t ransfer
in pract i cal engi neeri ng systems. In this met hod, the
124 R. VISKANTA and M. P. M E N G 0 ~
surface and t he vol ume of t he encl osure is di vi ded
i nt o a number of zones, each assumed to have a
uni form di st r i but i on of t emper at ur e and r adi at i ve
propert i es. Then, t he di rect exchange areas (factors)
between the surface and vol ume dement s are
eval uat ed and t he t ot al exchange areas are deter-
mi ned using mat r i x i nversi on techniques. For an
absor bi ng and emi t t i ng medi um, the cal cul at i on of
di rect exchange areas becomes compl i cat ed as t he
at t enuat i on of r adi at i on al ong t he pat h connect i ng
two ar ea ( ar ea- vol ume and volume--volume) elements
must be t aken i nt o account.
The zonal met hod reduces t he r adi at i ve t ransfer
pr obl em to the sol ut i on of a set of nonl i near
al gebr ai c equat i ons. The set of energy bal ances for
the zones in a closed r adi at on system is wri t t en as
SE = Q (4.6)
where
- X s ,
J
Sj S2
S = S~ S3
SLS,,
12hl I
I.~h2 ]
E = Eh3
. E l m .
S2St . . . S,,Sl
S2S2 - ~ S 2 S j . . S,,S2
J
S 2 S 3 . . . S n S 3
s,s . . . s,s,-Es,,s
J
and
Qt [
Q~ I
Q= Q3I
.Q.J
As or i gi nal l y f or mul at ed T M t he zonal met hod has
some i nherent l i mi t at i ons, such as the t r eat ment of
non-gray, t emper at ur e dependent r adi at i ve pr oper -
ties of combust i on gases. The effects of t emperat ure,
pressure and different species on gas pr oper t i es can
be account ed for by wei ght ed sum-of-gray-gases
mo d d g 5~'5z In addi t i on, i t is usually difficult to
coupl e t he zonal met hod wi t h the flow field and
energy equat i ons whi ch ar e usually solved using
finite difference or finite element techniques. Thi s is
mai nl y because of t he different size of the cont rol
volumes requi red; the zonal met hod can be comp-
ut at i onal l y pr ohi bi t i ve i f the same gr i d scheme used
by t he finite difference equat i ons is adopted St eward
and Tennankor e ~57 have coupl ed the zonal met hod
wi t h finite difference equat i ons in model i ng a
combust or by adapt i ng two different gr i d schemes;
one for t he r adi at i on par t and t he ot her for the flow
and t emper at ur e fields. Recently, Smi t h et al. ~54 have
combi ned t he zone met hod with moment um and
energy equat i ons t o predi ct heat t ransfer in an
absor bi ng, emi t t i ng, and scat t eri ng medi um flowing
in a cyl i ndr i cal duct.
The zonal met hod can not be r eadi l y adopt ed for
pr obl ems havi ng compl i cat ed geomet ri es, since
numerous exchange factors between t he zones must
be eval uat ed and st ored in the comput er memory.
However, t hi s difficulty can be overcome by adapt i ng
a hybr i d sol ut i on scheme which empl oys bot h zonal
and Mont e Car l o methods. Thi s will be discussed in
Subsect i on 4.5.5 Not e t hat t he di rect -exchange areas
for rect angul ar enclosures have been recently calcu-
l at ed by Siddal115a who empl oyed a new appr oach
for the eval uat i on of t he mul t i pl e integrals Wi t h t hi s
technique, i t is possi bl e t o obt ai n these factors wi t h
any degree of accuracy desired It is wor t h not i ng
t hat t he comput er t i me requi red by the zonal met hod
in pr edi ct i ng r adi at i ve transfer in enclosures is
usually smal l er t han t he time requi red by its
al t ernat i ves, and t herefore the met hod is at t r act i ve
for pract i cal engi neeri ng cai cul at i ons. l 56
Here, SiS~ is the t ot al exchange ar ea which is the
r at i o of t he r adi ant energy emi t t ed by a zone Si
which is absor bed by zone S~ (di rect l y or aft er
mul t i pl e reflections from ot her zones) to t he t ot al
energy emi t t ed by zone S, Eu is t he t ot al bl ackbody
emi t t ed flux and Q~ is t he i mposed heat flux at zone
S i . 1 5 2
Al t hough the f or mul at i on of t he zonal met hod for
an absorbi ng, emi t t i ng, and scat t eri ng medi um has
been avai l abl e 153 for a long time, i t has been onl y
recently appl i ed to t he sol ut i on of r adi at i on heat
t ransfer probl ems in a system cont ai ni ng scat t eri ng
particles. 154 Larsen and Howell 155 present ed an
al t ernat i ve f or mul at i on of the zonal met hod and
account ed for onl y the i sot r opi c out -scat t eri ng from
each volume element. Thi s new appr oach, however,
does not show any comput at i onal advant age over the
classical zonal method.~ 56
4.4. Flux Met hods
The r adi at i on i nt ensi t y is a function of the
l ocat i on, t he di rect i on of pr opagat i on of r adi at i on
and of wavelength Usual l y t he angul ar dependence
of t he i nt ensi t y compl i cat es the pr obl em since all
possi bl e di rect i ons must be t aken i nt o account. It is,
therefore, desi rabl e to separat e the angul ar (direct-
io.nal) dependence of the i nt ensi t y from its spat i al
dependence to si mpl i fy the governi ng equat i ong If it
is assumed t hat the i nt ensi t y is uni form on given
i nt erval s of the sol i d angle, then the r adi at i ve t ransfer
equat i on can be significantly simplified as t he
i nt egrodi fferent i al RTE equat i on woul d be reduced
to a series of coupl ed l i near differential equat i ons in
t erms of average r adi at i on i nt ensi t i es or fluxes. Thi s
pr ocedur e yields t he flux methods. By changi ng t he
number of sol i d angles over which radi at i ve i nt ensi t y
Radiation heat transfer 125
is assumed constant, one can obt ai n different flux
methods, such as two-flux, four-flux or six-flux
methods. Intuitively, one can deduce t hat as the
number of fluxes increases the accuracy of the
met hod would increase. Indeed, if the number of
solid angles and correspondi ng directions are deter-
mined from basic mathematical principles (see, e.g.
Whi t ney 159) more accurate and efficient flux
methods can be warranted. It is also possible to use
non-uni form solid angle divisions in the spherical
space. For example, if the direction and size of the
solid angles are determined from the Gaussi an or
Lobat t o quadratures, a non-uni form flux approxi-
mat i on is developed and the resulting expressions are
called the discrete ordinates approxi mat i on t o the
RTE. 15
Anot her way of avoi di ng complicated expressions
of the RTE due t o the angular dependence of the
intensity is t o integrate the radiative transfer
equation over the space after first multiplying it by
certain directional cosines. The resulting expressions
are called moment approximations. The spherical
harmoni cs approxi mat i on is developed similarly, but
a more elegant and mathematically sound met hod of
integration of RTE is employed. If the integrations
are performed over hemispheres or quarter-spheres,
then double or quadrupl e spherical harmoni cs
approxi mat i ons are obtained, respectively. The first
order moment , spherical harmonics, and first-order
discrete ordi nat e met hods are identical for the one-
dimensional, planar geomet ry; 16 however, they
differ from each other slightly for multidimensional
geometries.
Due to the simplicity of the governi ng equations,
several flux met hods have been developed for one-
dimensional plane-parallel media. They are reviewed
elsewhere, TM and those which can be extended to
multidimensional geometries are compared against
experiments ~ 62 as well as against exact solu-
tions. T M In this discussion, the focus is on
multidimensional models.
4.4.1. Multiflux models
Ever since the publication of the pioneering works
of Schuster (in 1905) and Sehwarzchild (in 1906) on
the two-flux approxi mat i on, as flux models have been
one of the most used methods for radiative heat
transfer calculations. With the advances in com-
puters, the extensions of flux models for the appli-
cation to multidimensional systems have become
possible, and consequently several different versions
have been proposed over the years. Recently,
Abramzon and Lisin 165 have presented a general
analysis for flux models in a three-dimensional
rectangular enclosure and have shown that most
other models reported in the literature can be
obt ai ned from this general formulation. The gover-
ni ng equations for the general flux approxi mat i on in
a three-dimensional cylindrical enclosure cont ai ni ng
an absorbing, emitting, and scattering medium are
comprised of six coupled partial differential equ-
ations. 165 The equations are quite complex and
lengthy; therefore, they are not given here.
In general, the accuracy of the flux approxi mat i on
depends on the choice of solid-angle subdivisions. If
there is no intersection between two adjacent sub-
divisions, more accurate results are expected. 165 This
has also been observed by Selcuk and Siddall a66 for
rectangular enclosures. If the distribution of radi-
ation intensity is assumed for each subdivision, the
general equations given by Abramzon and Lisin t65
can be simplified and solved simultaneously. If the
fluxes in each subdivision are assumed constant, a
simpler six-flux model can be obt ai ned from the
general flux equations. For an absorbing, emitting
and scattering medium, Spalding ~67 suggested a
similar six flux model for cylindrical geometry, which
is written as
l d
+ r drr [rJ~a] = - ( xa + crx)~a + xaEoa(T)
r
(4.7)
- d ~ ( K ~ ) = - ( x a + o'a)K :~ + x j . E b a ( T )
+6 ( J ~ " +J~- +K~" +K~- +L~" +Lj - )
( 4 . 8 )
1 d
-+ r cl~ (L~) = - (xa + (ra)L~ + xaEba(T)
+ ~ ( J ~ +J~- + K~ + K j + L~ + L j )
0
(4.9)
where J~, J j are spectral fluxes in positive and
negative radial (r) directions; K~, K j- in positive and
negative axial (z) directions; L~, L~- in positive and
negative angular (4)) directions. These equations can
be manipulated to obtain three second order differ-
ential equations:
1 d f l - r - I d + }
= t Ca[ J ~" + J f - 2 Eba(T)]
+ ~ra [ 2 ( J ~ +J ; )- K ~ - K ~ - L~ - L ~] ( 4 . 1 0 )
r
1 d
= xaEK~ +K~ - 2Eba(T)]
+ 3 [ - J ~ - J ~- +2(K~" + K ~ ) - L ] - L ; ] (4.11)
126 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MLmG09
l d f l - 1 - I d + }
= x ~ [ L I + L~- - 2 E ~ ( r ) ]
O%
+ 3 [ - J I - J ~- - K~ - K~- +2( L + +L~-)]. (4.12)
These are t he si mpl est forms of t he flux equat i ons
and can be easi l y wri t t en for axi symmet r i c enclosures
as a four-flux appr oxi mat i on. The der i vat i on of these
expressi ons is based on t he Schus t er - Hamaker
met hod ~63'~64 whi ch is t he crudest and t he l east
accurat e flux appr oxi mat i on for one- di mensi onal
systems. Whi t acr e and McCann~6S showed t hat t he
four-flux versi on of t hi s model t69 pr edi ct ed t he
t emper at ur e field accurat el y, whereas t he r adi at i on
fluxes were usually under est i mat ed in compar i son to
Hot t el ' s zonal met hod. A cl ose exami nat i on of Eqs
(4.7) t o (4.9) reveals t hat t he fluxes for one di r ect i on
ar e not coupl ed wi t h t hose of t he ot her di r ect i ons i f
the medi um is nonscat t eri ng. A si mi l ar type, un-
coupl ed four-flux model was al so devel oped by
Ri cht er and Quack IT and appl i ed to a pul veri zed
coal -fi red furnace.
In one- di mensi onal systems, the Schust er -
Schwarzchi l d two-flux appr oxi mat i on or its modi fi ed
form ~@*'17~ yi el ds mor e accurat e results. Lowes et
a l ) 72 ext ended t hi s met hod to axi symmet r i c en-
closures and deri ved an al t er nat i ve four-flux model.
The cor r espondi ng equat i ons can al so be obt ai ned
from the general rel at i ons by assumi ng axi al sym-
met ry and defi ni ng the boundar i es for the sub-
divisions, t65 Then t he gover ni ng equat i ons* be-
come 17 2
d + ( J I -
2 drr [J~ - J ~ ] 4 r
= - Tt x a( J ~ +J ~) +2 x a Eb a ( T ) (4.13)
~/~-~ d + ~ / ~ (J~ - J~ - r ~ -K~-)
2 dr [ J z + J ~ - ] 4 4 r
= -nxz(J~" + J~' ) (4.14)
x / ~ n d + x/~S-~n ( J ; - J ~ )
2 dzEK~ - K ; ] - ~ 4 r
= - n x x ( K f +Kf ) +2 x a Eb a ( T ) (4.15)
d
2 d z [ K ~ + K f ] = - - n x a ( K ~ - K ; ) (4.16)
*Note that these equations are modified slightly to follow
a consistent nomenclature.
where, J,~, J~' , K~ and K~- have the same meani ngs
as defined before.
The four unknown fluxes in Eqs (4.13)-(4.16) are
det er mi ned from t he four equat i ons, and then t he
r adi at i ve fluxes and t he di vergence of the r adi at i ve
flux vect or ar e obt ai ned readily. Thi s met hod was
used to pr edi ct non- gr ay r adi at i on heat transfer in an
axi symmet r i c furnace and good accuracy was ob-
t ai ned) 72 Not e t hat , al t hough scat t eri ng in the
medi um was neglected in deri vi ng these expressions,
it can be account ed for in the formul at i on. Also,
these equat i ons can be modi fi ed to relax the
axi symmet r y assumpt i on to obt ai n a mor e general
formul at i on.
One of t he ol dest multi-flux met hods is the six-flux
met hod of Chu and Churchill. 173 Al t hough i t was
devel oped for a one- di mensi onal , pl ane- par al l d
medi um, i t is possi bl e to modi f y t hi s met hod for
mul t i di mensi onal enclosures. Var ma ~4 obt ai ned a
four-flux model for axi symmet r i c cyl i ndr i cal enclos-
ures st ar t i ng from t hi s six-flux method. However, t he
compar i sons wi t h mor e accurat e model s show t hat
t hi s version of t he four flux met hod is not very
reliable. 17s Not e t hat bot h t he four- and six-flux
met hods account for t he scat t eri ng of radi at i on.
Anot her six-flux model was pr oposed for three-
di mensi onal enclosures cont ai ni ng absor bi ng and
emi t t i ng gases. ~e6 A compar i son of the pr edi ct i ons
based on t hi s model wi t h t he Mont e Car l o results
showed t hat t he maxi mum er r or in t he r adi at i on heat
flux was not mor e t han 23 % and coul d be reduced to
about 1% if t he subdi vi si ons of the sol i d angles were
adj ust ed accor di ng to the geomet ry of t he furnace.
There ar e mai nl y t hree obj ect i ons to t he multi-flux
appr oxi mat i ons of t he r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on
devel oped and used by some i nvest i gat ors for
pract i cal probl ems (see Smoot and Smi t h 3 and
Khal i l 5 for extensive lists of references and appl i -
cations). Fi r st , t here may be no coupl i ng between the
axi al and r adi al fluxes, which makes the equat i ons
physi cal l y unrealistic. Second, t he appr oxi mat i on of
t he i nt ensi t y di st r i but i on from which the flux
equat i ons are obt ai ned is arbi t rary. Thi rd, the model
equat i ons cannot appr oxi mat e hi ghl y ani sot r opi c
scat t eri ng correct l y, al t hough it is t heoret i cal l y
possible.
4.4.2. Mome nt methods
In t he moment met hods, the r adi at i on i nt ensi t y is
expressed as a series in product s of angul ar and
spat i al functions:
I ( x 0 , , z , 0 , + )
N
= A o + ~ [ ~ ' A , . ~ +q " A , . , +I I ' A . . j
n=l
(4.17)
where A' s are funct i ons of l ocat i on only; ~,~/, and g
are di rect i on cosines in x, y, and z-di rect i ons,
Radiation heat transfer 127
respect i vel y [see Eq. (2.8)1. Al t hough t hi s equat i on is
wri t t en in Car t esi an coor di nat es, i t can be given for
any or t hogonal system. As the upper l i mi t of t he
series N appr oaches infinity, t hi s expressi on con-
verges t o the exact sol ut i on for t he r adi at i on
intensity. Not e t hat Eq. (4.17) can be consi dered as
t he Tayl or series expansi on of the i nt ensi t y in t erms
of di r ect i on cosines.
The si mpl est moment expressi on for the i nt ensi t y
can be obt ai ned by t aki ng N = 1. Thi s is called the
fi rst -order moment met hod. The AI.~, A~.y and A~,..
coefficients can be obt ai ned by i nt egr at i ng the
i nt ensi t y over t he ent i re space. DeMar co and
Lockwood 176 have suggested some modi f i cat i ons of
the moment met hod usi ng t he flux defi ni t i ons of t he
Schust er - Schwar zchi l d model, and defined t he coef-
ficients as
Ao =0
A~ . . , . =( J ; - J ; ) / 2 ,
A ~ . , = ( I < ; - K ; ) / 2 , A~. :=(L~-L;)/2 (4.18)
A2.x=(J~ + J~-)/2,
A2.r=(K~ +K~-)/2, A2.:=(L~" +L~-)/2
where A' s are i mpl i ci t funct i ons of t he wavel engt hs of
r adi at i on 2, and J**, K,a , La + are i nt egr at ed
spectral r adi at i on i nt ensi t i es over appr opr i at e sol i d
angles in t he _+x, +y, +z- di r ect i ons, respectively.
These equat i ons were solved by di vi di ng the t ot al
sol i d angl e 4n i nt o six equal angles of 4n/6, each one
havi ng the coor di nat e di r ect i ons as its symmet ry
axis. Anot her sol ut i on scheme was al so adopt ed by
choosi ng a magni t ude of 2n for each sol i d angle. .76
Al t hough the l at t er assumpt i on produces over l appi ng
of the sol i d angles, t he pr edi ct i ons based on it yi el ded
bet t er agreement wi t h t he Mont e Car l o results for a
t hree-di mensi onal rect angul ar enclosure. ~76 A further
i mpr ovement of t hi s met hod was r ecommended by
al l owi ng some fl exi bi l i t y in t he magni t ude of sol i d
angl e cor r espondi ng to each di rect i on. 177 For a
medi um with a mi ni mum opt i cal t hi ckness (ab-
sor pt i on coeffi ci ent -charact eri st i c length product ) of
2 t hi s modi fi ed met hod yi el ded mor e accurat e results
in compar i son to the ear l i er versions. In nei t her of
these model s ~ 76.177 was scat t eri ng of r adi at i on in the
medi um account ed for. It is i nt erest i ng t o not e t hat if
the A-coefficients of t hi s f or mul at i on are appr oxi -
mat ed as
A2. x = A2..v = As, " . (4.19)
then the fi rst -order moment met hod will be obt ai ned
(as ~2+r / 2+/ t 2= 1), which is equi val ent to the first-
or der spheri cal har moni cs P~-approxi mat i on. 19
4.4.3. Spherical harmonics approximation
The spheri cal har moni cs (Ps) appr oxi mat i on,
which is al so known as the differential appr oxi -
mat i on, is one of t he most t edi ous and cumber some
of t he r adi at i ve t ransfer appr oxi mat i ons ; however, i t
may be the most el egant one because of i t s sound
mat hemat i cal foundat i on. The met hod was or i gi nal l y
developed, as most ot her appr oxi mat i ons, for study of
radi at i ve transfer in the at mosphere, 17s l at er modi fi ed
for t he sol ut i on of neut ron t r anspor t probl ems, T M
and extensively used for one- di mensi onal r adi at i ve
t ransfer problems. 15-17Ag"2'za2'179 Al t hough the
formul at i on of the spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi -
mat i on for mul t i di mensi onal geomet ri es was dis-
cussed some t i me ago, m 3t onl y dur i ng t he last decade
has the met hod been ext ended to two- and three-
di mensi onal systems. For non- scat t er i ng Cart esi an,
cyl i ndri cal and spheri cal medi a t he fi rst -order (P~)
and t hi r d- or der (P3) spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi -
mations,~ ao.~ 81 for an i sot r opi cal l y scat t eri ng cylin-
dri cal medi um t he PI - appr oxi mat i on, 182.184 and for
an i sot r opi cai l y scat t eri ng t wo- di mensi onal rect-
angul ar medi um Pt - and P3- appr oxi mat i ons ~ss
have been formul at ed and solved. Meanwhi l e, the
fi rst -order spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi mat i on has
al so been formul at ed to st udy t he effect of cuboi dal
cl ouds on r adi at i ve t ransfer in t he at mosphere. 144't s6
Most recently, Menguc and Vi skant a 61'187 report ed
the general f or mul at i ons of the PI - and P3-
appr oxi mat i ons for absor bi ng, emi t t i ng, and ani so-
t r opi cal l y scat t eri ng medi um in t wo-di mensi onal ,
finite cyl i ndri cal as well as t hree-di mensi onal rect-
angul ar enclosures.
In t he spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi mat i on, the
r adi at i on i nt ensi t y is expressed by a series of
spheri cal har moni cs i nst ead of a Tayl or series and is
wri t t en as t a2
with
t~(x,y,z,O,) = F~ A ~ A x , y , z ) r ~ ( O , ) ( 4 . 2 0 )
n ~ O m = - - n
r . ~ ( O , O ) = ( - 1 ~ " I , . j ~ / 2
r 2 . + 1 ( . - I m l ) ! - I ' / = . j . j , . . , . , ,
x _ , ~ . . , . / r , ~cosvle (4.21)
L 4 = ~ , , + l m l ) ! j
where Y~ are the spherical harmonics, and P~ are the
associated Legendre pol ynomi al s whi ch are related
to the Legendre polynomials.
In Eq. (4.20} the upper l i mi t N for the index n is
known as the or der of the appr oxi mat i on. Exact
sol ut i on of the RTE is obt ai ned i f N is t aken as
infinity; however, for pract i cal cal cul at i ons a finite N
value is assigned. N=I results in P1- and N=3
results in P3-approxi mat i ons. Usually, the odd
or der s of spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi mat i on are
empl oyed, al t hough t here are occasi onal l y some
ot hers which use even or der appr oxi mat i ons, l sa The
reason for using the odd- or der appr oxi mat i on is
si mpl y to avoi d t he mat hemat i cal si ngul ari t y of the
i nt ensi t y at di rect i ons paral l el t o t he boundari es. The
128 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOt;
r adi at i on i nt ensi t y is usually di scont i nuous at the
interfaces; therefore, it is not possi bl e to have a single
value of i nt ensi t y at the boundary. Consequent l y, it is
not desi rabl e to have an angul ar gr i d poi nt j ust on
the interface. The r oot s of Legendre pol ynomi al s
used in spher i cal - har moni cs appr oxi mat i on yi el d
Gaussi an quadr at ur e poi nt s, where the N- t h or der
pol ynomi al gives the N- t h or der Gaussi an quad-
r at ur e scheme. If N is even, one of the quadr at ur e
poi nt s will have a value of zero, which cor r esponds
to an angul ar gr i d poi nt on the boundar y, whereas, i f
N is odd t here wi l l be no quadr at ur e poi nt on the
boundary. Therefore, an odd- or der spheri cal har-
moni cs appr oxi mat i on yields a more st abl e solution.
The above di scussi on can be easi l y followed for a
pl ane-paral l el geomet ry.
The Pt - appr oxi mat i on is compr i sed of a single
el l i pt i c par t i al di fferent i al equat i on ~a7
V210,a = Aa[10, a-4nl h4(T)] (4.22)
where 10.4 is the spectral zer ot h- or der moment of
i nt ensi t y I-i rradi ance cga, see Eq. (2.21b)1, lb4 is
Pl anck' s bl ackbody funct i on, and A4 is t he coefficient
which is a funct i on of single scat t eri ng al bedo 094,
ext i nct i on coefficient il4, and phase funct i on par a-
met ersJa and ga:
1 0 . 4 = S l a d l e ,
n=4x
A 4 = 3fl](1 - 094)[ 1 - o ~ 4 ( j a + 04 -J]94)' ]
(4.23)
In wri t i ng the above appr oxi mat i on, the del t a-
Eddi ngt on phase function is empl oyed [see Eq.
(3.24)-]. In the P3- appr oxi mat i on, hi gher or der
moment s of i nt ensi t y, i.e. the i nt egral s of r adi at i on
i nt ensi t y- di r ect i on cosi ne product s over all direc-
t i ons within sol i d angl e 4n are empl oyed. Nat ur al l y,
the resulting equat i ons are mor e compl i cat ed t han
t hose of the Pt - appr oxi mat i on. For axi symmet r i c
cyl i ndri cal geomet ry, t here are four second or der
el l i pt i c par t i al di fferent i al equat i ons for the P3-
appr oxi mat i on; 6~ whereas, for t hree-di mensi onal
rect angul ar enclosures six equat i ons are needed, ls7
These equat i ons are solved si mul t aneousl y for the
second- or der moment s, and aft erwards the ot her
moment s, r adi at i on i nt ensi t y, r adi at i on heat fluxes
and t he di vergence of r adi at i on heat flux are
calculated.
Al t hough the P~- appr oxi mat i on is very accurat e i f
the opt i cal di mensi on (i.e. the product of ext i nct i on
coefficient and char act er i st i c length) of the medi um is
large (i.e. great er t han 2), it yields i naccurat e results
for t hi nner medi a, especi al l y near the boundari es.
Also, if the r adi at i on field is ani sot r opi c, i.e. t here are
large t emper at ur e and/ or part i cl e concent r at i on
gr adi ent s in the medi um, t he P~- appr oxi mat i on
becomes less reliable. The P3- appr oxi mat i on, how-
ever, can yield accurat e results for an opt i cal
di mensi on as small as 0.5 61.~a5 and for ani sot r opi c
r adi at i on fields, but at the expense of addi t i onal
comput at i onal effort. It is shown 61 t hat the accuracy
of P3- as well as Pl - a ppr oxi ma t i ons can be sub-
st ant i al l y i mpr oved by using "exact " boundar y
condi t i ons, r at her t han somewhat ar bi t r ar i l y defined
Mar k' s or Mar shak' s boundar y condi t i ons (see Refs
19, 20, 131 and 132 for defi ni t i ons and 61, 185 and
187 for i mpl ement at i ons of the Mar shak' s boundar y
condi t i ons).
It is al so possi bl e to i mpr ove the accuracy of the
spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi mat i on by obt ai ni ng the
moment s of r adi at i on i nt ensi t y in hal f or quar t er
spheres, xsg-19a Since the angul ar var i at i on of
moment s is al l owed for in t hi s met hod, t he ani so-
t r opy of the r adi at i on field can be model ed mor e
accurat el y t han by the Pt - appr oxi mat i on. On the
ot her hand, the gover ni ng equat i ons are si mpl er t han
t hose for the Pa- appr oxi mat i on.
4.4.4. Discrete-ordinate approximation
A di scr et e- or di nat e appr oxi mat i on to t he r adi at i ve
t ransfer equat i on is obt ai ned, as the name suggests,
by di scret i zi ng t he ent i re sol i d angl e (f2=4n) using a
finite number of or di nat e di r ect i ons and corres-
pondi ng weight factors. The RTE is wri t t en for each
or di nat e and t he i nt egral t erms are repl aced by a
quadr at ur e summed over each ordi nat e. Or i gi nal l y
suggested by Chandr asekhar 15 for ast r ophysi cal
probl ems, t he di scr et e- or di nat es met hod has been
extensively appl i ed to t he probl ems of neut ron
t ransport . 21`13a'lq'*A95 A si mpl er version of t hi s
met hod, which is called SN-approxi mat i on, was
obt ai ned by di vi di ng the spheri cal space i nt o N
equal sol i d angles, a96 However, mor e accurat e form-
ul at i ons were obt ai ned l at er using Gaussi an or
Lobat t o quadrat ures. These are al so called SN-
appr oxi mat i ons to symbol i ze the di scret e-ordi nat es
appr oxi mat i on in whi ch t here are N discrete values
of di r ect i on cosi nes ~., q., it., which always satisfy t he
~. + q. +/ ~. = 1.
i dent i t y 2 2 2
In one-dimensional plane-parallel media, the discrete
or di nat es appr oxi mat i on has found many appl i -
cat i ons (see, e.g. Vi skant a, a 34 Houf and Incropera, 197
Khal i l et al.t9s). Recently, the SN-approxi mat i on has
been appl i ed to t wo- di mensi onal cyl i ndri cal and
rect angul ar r adi at i ve t ransfer probl ems with combus-
t i on chamber appl i cat i ons in mi nd, and reasonabl y
accurat e results were obt ai ned in compar i son to
exact sol ut i ons? 75,199
The r adi at i ve transfer equat i on for an axi sym-
met ri c cyl i ndri cal enclosure is written for each
quadr at ur e poi nt n as
r Or r ~dp q - p , ~ - ; +f l 4 l a . ,
0" 2
=x a l b 4 +7 ~ , w. , ~. , . 14, . . (4.24)
t/l: n"
Radiation heat transfer 129
where w, is the weight of the Gaussian quadrature
points. Integrating Eq. (4.24) over an arbitrary
control volume and rearranging yields,
{ ~ . ( A N I a,.,N - - Asla,.,s) + 14,( A r J a..,v. - Awl~,~,w)
1
- ( A s - A s ) - - ( ~ . + 1/ 2I ~. ~ + 1/2,c
Wn
- ~ , - 1 / 2 I ~ . , - 1 / 2 , c ) } / V c
0",1
= - f l a l x . n . c + x x l b a . c + 7 - ~ , Wnn' ~ , m ' l x , , ' , C
t'l'Tt n'
(4.25)
where A is the corresponding area of control-volume
side for N, S, E or W, i.e. for north, south, east, or
west side, respectively; V is the volume of the control
volume, C is for the central node, and or-terms are to
preserve the conservation of intensity in the curved
coordinate, which are determined from the radiative
equilibrium condition.~ 99 These governing equations
are solved numerically, for example, using a finite-
difference scheme. 175'199 A finite element solution
scheme was also developed to solve the discrete
ordinates approximation equations in two-dimensional
Cartesian geometry for radiative transfer in the
atmosphere. 2
If the resulting equations of the discrete ordinates
approximation are carefully coded, they can result in
computer algorithms that combine minimum com-
puter memory requirements with few arithmetic
operations per space-angle grid point. 133 However,
this approximation is not flawless, but suffers from
the so called "ray effects" which yield anomalies in
the scalar flux distributiori. T M .202 The ray effects are
especially pronounced if there are localized radiation
sources in the medium and scattering is less im-
portant in comparison to absorption. As the single
scattering albedo increases, the radiation field be-
comes more isotropic and the ray effects become less
noticeable. However, with increasing single scat-
tering albedo and/or optical thickness of the
medium, the convergence rate may become very
slow. 133 Considering the flame in combustion cham-
bers as a localized radiation source, it is natural to
anticipate the ray effects in the solution of the RTE
in combustion chambers, if the discrete-ordinates
approximation is used. If the combustion chamber is
a pulverized-coal fired furnace in which there are
scattering particles present, the results are expected
to be more reliable. 199
4.4.5. H y b r i d a n d o t h e r m e t h o d s
Almost all methods discussed have some flaws. In
order to take advantage of the desirable features of
the different models, various hybrid radiative trans-
fer models have been developed in the literature.
JPBCS 1 3 : 2 - e
Here, we discuss only those which are applicable to
combustion problems.
The basic flaw of the zonal method is the
computational effort required to calculate the ex-
change factors between various volume and surface
elements in complex geometries. This difficulty can
be overcome using the Monte Carlo method to
calculate the direct exchange areas. Is2 If the radi-
ative properties of the medium are known and do not
depend on temperature, it is possible to calculate
these exchange factors only once and store them in
the memory of a host computer for later use in the
zonal method predictions. By doing this, the compu-
tational time required by the zonal method to predict
radiation heat transfer in complex geometries is
decreased substantially. However, the computer stor-
age requirements can become prohibitive if the
number of zones is large.
The Monte Carlo method suffers from statistical
error as well as the extensive computational time
required for the calculations. If the direction of each
ray is given deterministically rather than statistically
and if all the directions constitute an orthogonal set,
then the solution would be less time-consuming and
the accuracy would increase with the increase in the
number of directions. With this in mind, Lockwood
and Shah 23'24 proposed a "'discrete transfer"
model which combines the virtues of the zonal,
Monte Carlo, and discrete ordinates methods. They
showed that very accurate results could be obtained
with this method in one- and two-dimensional
geometries by increasing the number of directions.
Although this method is claimed to be capable of
accounting for scattering in the medium, no results
have been reported or compared against other
benchmark methods for scattering media in multi-
dimensional enclosures. The results for a one-
dimensional scattering medium did not show the
same level of agreement with the benchmark results
as did the non-scattering medium predictions. 23
This method is also likely to yield erroneous results
due to the "ray effects" discussed in Subsection 4.4.4.
A similar approach to the solution of the RTE for
multidimensional enclosures has also been presented
by Taniguchi e t al . 2 s for absorbing-emitting media.
This so called "'radiant heat ray method" is based on
the Beer-Lambert' s or Bouguer's law and yields the
radiant energy absorption distribution in noniso-
thermal enclosures containing combustion gases.
Comparisons of the predictions based on this
method with other results show that the method is
more accurate and less time consuming than both
zonal and Monte-Carlo techniques if the radiative
properties such as the absorption coefficient and wall
emissivities are constant. 2os
Another hybrid model based on the Monte Carlo
method and generalized radiosity-irradiation ap-
proach has been suggested by Edwards. 26 This
method accounts for the volumetric scattering, yields
accurate results for optical dimensions as small as
130 R. VISKANTA and M. P. M~,~GOt;
0.5, and is computationally faster than the Monte
Carlo method.
The main reason why the discrete ordinate
approximation suffers from ray effects is because of
the inability of the low-order Sn-quadrature to
integrate accurately over the angular f l ux. 133 If
piecewise continuous approximations of the angular
flux are given in terms of directional variables, and
approximate spatial equations are obtained by
integrating over appropriate solid angles, these ray
effects can be avoided. The resulting expressions can
be considered as hybrid models which combine
discrete ordinates or multiflux approximations with
the spherical-harmonics approximation. Indeed, the
double or quadruple spherical-harmonics approxi-
mations described in Subsection 4.4.3 can be con-
sidered as this kind of hybrid model. In neutron
transport literature there were several accounts
which discussed the possibility of combining the Sn-
method with the Pn_~-method to improve the
accuracy and reliability of the predictions as well as
to decrease the computational effort, t 32.133
Flux models can also be coupled with the moment
or spherical harmonics approximation to improve
the accuracy of the radiation heat transfer pre-
dictions. A model which combines the Pt-approxi-
mation with a two-flux method was proposed by
Selcuk and Siddall 27 and applied to a two-
dimensional axisymmetric cylindrical furnace. The
comparisons of the temperature and heat flux distri-
butions in the medium with those obtained with the
zonal method showed very good agreement. Since
this model was developed for a gas-fired furnace,
scattering of radiation was not taken into account.
Another similar hybrid method was derived by
Harshvardhan et a/. 28 who combined the modified
two-flux method]7~ with the P~-approximation. In
this method, the linearly anisotropic scattering
medium assumption was made, and the method was
used to predict radiative transfer through three-
dimensional cuboidal clouds. Comparisons of the
predictions with the Monte Carlo results showed
reasonably good agreement.
Recently, a new three-dimensional radiative trans-
fer model was proposed 2o9.2~o by extending the one-
dimensional adding-doubling technique (see, e.g. van
de Hulst 2It). The predictions for the radiative flux
distribution in cuboidal clouds obtained by this
method compare very well with those of the Monte
Carlo method. It should be noted, however, that the
assumption of homogeneous and symmetric bound-
ary conditions simolify these problems considerably.
4.5. Comparison of Methods
Although there are several radiative transfer
models available, it is difficult to choose a "best"
model for different applications. For a given physical
situation, one of the several models can be used
according to the applicability of the model, desired
accuracy and computational costs. In order to decide
whether a model is appropriate for a given problem,
one has to compare its predictions against the
benchmark results obtained from either experiments
or exact solutions. Zonal and Monte Carlo methods
are extensively used as the benchmark for compar-
isons as they generally yield accurate predictions of
radiation heat transfer.
In one-dimensional systems, comparisons of differ-
ent radiation models have been
given. 125']62-164"197']98 However, the accuracy of a
method in predicting radiative transfer in a simple
system may not always warrant its use in more
complicated systems. Therefore, it is important to
evaluate radiative transfer models for multidimen-
sional geometries, preferably for practical situations.
~o
i 5
1.0
Finite Element
0.8 ~L/ H ,m o Zonal
0 . 6 ~
O.4
O.2
O | I I ~ I I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Dimensionless Position, x/ L
FiG. 13. Dimensionless centerline temperature profiles in
rectangular enclosures of different aspect ratio with black
walls; bottom wall at dimensionless temperature 0= 1.0,
other walls at 0=0. 2~ 2
~ " ILl H . O.t
. . ' - -
, ' 7 " 0.8 ~- . . . . ~ " * " *
.o 0.6
"0
lU
Z 0.4 Finite Element
- - - P 3
_~ o Zonal
. ~ _
0.2
I I !
O o o '.2 a , o l s o 8 , . o
Dimensionless Position, x,/L
FIG. 14. Dimensionless net radiation heat flux at the lower
wall in rectangular enclosures of different aspect ratio with
black walls, bottom wall at dimensionless temperature
0= 1.0, other walls at 0=0. 2~2
Radi at i on heat t r ansf er 131
2.8
" " 2.4
2. 0
,5
( J
- 1 . 6
o
.~_ 1.2
,,, 0.8
e ,
.=_o
a 4
E
0
0
Zonal
. ~ - ' - P s
.o - - - ~
:' "i" ~ . . . . . . . .
o', & & ,o
Dimensionless Posi t i on, y / H
FIG. 15. Compa r i s on of i r r adi ances in a t wo- di mensi onal
square cr oss- sect i on encl osure wi t h a gray scat t eri ng
medi um (ic=0), Ehl = 1 and El,_, = EI,.~ = El,4=0.199
1.0
~ 08
h
:I:
O.6
o
~ O.4
0
0
Zonal
~'-,,, - - ' - - Ps
, ~ S , , S s
. , , . : : . ~ - - - ; - - ~ - - - ~ . . . . . . . .
( , 0 . 1
I I I I
(11 0.2 0 3 0.4 0 5
Di mensi onl ess Pos i t i on, x / / L
FIG. 16. Compar i s on of r adi at i on heat fluxes at a wall of a
t wo- di mensi onal square cr oss- sect i on gr ay encl osure wi t h a
scat t eri ng medi um ( h=0) , Eht = 1. Eh2 = E~,3 = Et,4 =0.199
Unfort unat el y, t hi s is not al ways possi bl e because of
the anal yt i cal or numeri cal difficulties.
The r adi at i ve equi l i br i um (heat t ransfer by radi -
at i on alone) assumpt i on yields t he most si mpl e case
for sol vi ng the r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on in two- or
t hr ee- di mensi onal enclosures. In Fi gs 13 ad 14 the
cent erl i ne di mensi onl ess t emper at ur e and net radi -
at i on heat flux di st r i but i ons at one of t he walls of a
rect angul ar encl osure cont ai ni ng a gray, absor bi ng-
emi t t i ng medi um ar e compar ed for t hree different
methods. 212 The zonal and finite element met hods
are in good agreement wi t h each other. The t hi rd
or der spheri cal har moni cs (Ps) appr oxi mat i on yields
good results for the di st r i but i on; however, the
accuracy of t he surface net r adi at i on heat flux
decreases with decreasi ng opt i cal thickness. Si mi l ar
concl usi ons have also been report ed by different
researchers.6~' l s5.1 s7
In Fi gs 15 and 16, compar i sons between zonal,
spheri cal har moni cs (P3), and di scret e or di nat es (SN)
appr oxi mat i ons are present ed for a purel y scat t eri ng
medi um with different wall emissivities. 199 The P3-
and S6-results for the cent erl i ne i r r adi ance di st ri -
but i on are in very good agreement wi t h t he zonal
met hod (see Fig. 15). The Ps - appr oxi mat i on, how-
ever, overest i mat es the r adi at i on heat flux at the
walls for l arge wall emissivities, al t hough bot h S4-
and S6- appr oxi mat i ons yi el d accurat e results (Fig.
16).
The l ower - or der spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi -
mat i ons general l y yi el d mor e accurat e pr edi ct i ons if
the r adi at i on field in t he medi um is al most i sot ropi c,
which is t he case if the opt i cal t hi ckness is large,
the medi um is pr edomi nant l y scat t eri ng or the
surfaces ar e diffusely reflecting. If the r adi at i on field
is hi ghl y ani sot r opi c, the P3- and especi al l y P t "
appr oxi mat i ons become less reliable. Because of this,
t he Pi - and P3- appr oxi mat i ons ar e to be used for
medi a havi ng opt i cal thicknesses of 1.0 and 0.5
or larger, respectively, l s ' l s Sas 7 The mai n reason
for t hi s i naccuracy for ani sot r opi c r adi at i on fields
is use of ar bi t r ar i l y defined boundar y condi t i ons,
l i ke Mar shak' s c ondi t i on) 9 In Fig. 17, t he P3-
appr oxi mat i on results are compar ed agai nst t hose of
an exact model 139 for a cyl i ndri cal enclosure, 61
where bot h Mar shak' s (m) and "exact " anal yt i cal (a)
boundar y condi t i ons are used. Here, it is assumed
t hat t here is a uniform, diffuse r adi at i on source
i nci dent on one of t he end surfaces of a cyl i ndri cal
0.8
O.6
qr
(r -- to)0.4
0.2
0
0
.-m
Exact
: a . . . . . . . . . . P I
~. . . - - - - - - PS
N~.
2 4 z/ro6_ 8 K )
l a - - / m. - ~ -,'--t ....... : , "
o . , I - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : / o o , o
qz r- . . . . . . . . . . . . qz
( z=O) _ La_~-A_m"' ~ ~ (Z=Zo)
o u F----'~'_.-_-~-__-_. . . . . ~__.=.__ OOOS
I
o z l l , ; . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . " ' - ' 1 o . o o o
o o z o . 4 o . 6 a s ,.o
, / t o
FIG. 17. Co mp a r i s o n o f P, - and P . , - a p p r o x i ma t i o n resul t s
wi t h exact benc hmar k s ol ut i on: 1",)=0.1 m. # = l . 0 m - ' ,
co=0. 5, T~,.=O, 8 , = 1.0 ( m refers to Mar s hak' s boundar y
condi t i ons, a refers t o anal yt i cal boundar y condi t i ons). 6~
132 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG0q
%
v
i I , i i
0 M e o s u r e d Values
P , C A p p r o x i m a t i o n
I I I I i I a I i
IO 2.0 3,0 40 5 0
z ( ml
FIG. 18. Comparison of local radiation fluxes at the wall based on P.~-approximation results for a
combustion chamber with experimental data and discrete ordinates method: r. =0.45 m, : , = 5.1 m. "~
enclosure containing a homogenous, absorbing and
scattering medium. Radiative flux disribution on the
cylinrical walls (upper panel) and on the end walls
(lower panel) are plotted from the results obtained
using different boundary condition models. 61 It is
clear from the figure that the use of Marshak' s
boundary condition yields substantially higher local
errors in radiation heat flux than the use of analytical
conditions. This suggests that with a careful and
more rigorous treatment of the boundary conditions,
even the very simple P~-approximation can be
employed to predict the radiation heat transfer in
combustion chambers accurately.
There are also some accounts in the literature
which compare different radiation models for prac-
tical systems, such as large scale furnaces where there
is a gradual temperature variation along the cham-
ber.61.168,172.175.213 In these comparisons, radiation
is decoupled from the energy equation, since the
temperature distribution as well as the radiative
properties of the medium are assumed to be given. In
Fig. 18, the predicted radiation heat flux distribution
along the cylindrical walls of a furnace is shown. 61
Both the $4- and P3-approximations are seen to be
accurate for a given "uniform" absorption coefficient
value of 0.3 m -1 However, it is difficult (almost
impossible) to assign a single "gray" absorption
coefficient for the entire furnace. When x is changed
from 0.3 m -~ to 0.35 m -~ (see Fig. 18) the P3-
approximation yields improved agreement between
the data and predictions. If the value of x were
changed to 0.25, the agreement would have been
poorer. The sensitivity of the results to the radiative
properties was also shown by Lowes et aL 172 They
compared the predictions obtained from zonal and
four-flux models for different absorption coefficients
against the experimental data obtained for a gas-
fired furnace. As seen from Fig. 19, the results are
more sensitive to the radiative properties than to the
models. Indeed, in predicting the radiation flux
distribution in a large furnace, Selcuk et a/. 213
150
N
x I00
L t .
' \
. o
~
O . I m " l
, , . ~ , l i ~ d ~ ~- ' 1 c l e a t 2 q t a y
I I I I I I
0 I 2 3 4 5 6
F u r n o c e Lenqt h ( m)
FIG. 19. Comparison of predicted radiation heat fluxes
using the four flux model (lines) with different absorption
1 2
coefficient formuhltions, v Points are zonal method results.
obtained very good agreement between the experi-
mental data and one-dimensional radiation models
using the measured radiative property data in the
models. From these findings, one may conclude that
for complicated systems such as combustion cham-
bers, the accuracy of the radiative properties is as
important, or even more so, than the accuracy of the
models. Additional sensitivity studies must be per-
formed for combustion chambers to determine which
properties are the most important and under what
conditions. For example, Menguc and Viskanta 2~4
have shown that the index of refraction of coal
particles does not play a significant role in predicting
the radiation heat flux distributions along the
furnace walls. In their model the pulverized coal
particles were assumed to be only in the flame zone,
and the predictions were obtained using the P3-
approximation. On the other hand, Piccirelli et
al. 215 presented a similar analysis using the PI-
approximation for a one-dimensional cylindrical
system and showed that the complex index of
refraction was a very important parameter in
predicting the emissivity and absorptivity accurately.
These contradictory conclusions are not due to
different solution techniques, but basically result
Radiation heat transfer 133
from assumpt i ons rel at ed to t he r adi at i on pr oper t y
di st r i but i ons in t he medi um. In the former 2~4 t he
coal part i cl es were assumed t o be onl y in t he fl ame
zone, whereas in t he l at t er 2t5 t he coal part i cl es filled
t he ent i re combust i on chamber.
5. APPLICATIONS TO SIMPLE COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
To i l l ust rat e t he coupl i ng between r adi at i on heat
transfer, combust i on and ot her t r anspor t processes
we consi der in t hi s sect i on several si mpl e combust i on
si t uat i ons in which r adi at i ve t ransfer has been
account ed for. The emphasi s in the di scussi on is on
t he effects of r adi at i on heat transfer. Since the
physi cal si t uat i ons consi der ed are qui t e si mpl e and
the systems are not large, t he effects of r adi at i on on
the results are expected to be small as t he opt i cal
di mensi ons char act er i zi ng t he systems are also small.
5.1. Single-Droplet and Solid-Particle Combustion
Burni ng of a si ngl e-dropl et of l i qui d fuel or of a
sol i d par t i cl e is a very si mpl e system. Tr anspor t
process and not chemi cal ki net i cs domi nat e the
combust i on of fuel. Thi s phenomenon has been
st udi ed extensively for many years and experi ment al
and t heoret i cal account s ar e avai l abl e, s'2~6'2~7 The
t heor y of si ngl e-dropl et combust i on is compl i cat ed
by many factors, such as ci r cul at i on in t he dropl et ,
fi ni t e-rat e chemi st r y in the diffusion flame t hat
sur r ounds the dropl et , nonst eady accumul at i on of
fuel between the surface and the flame, etc. In recent
reviews of the t heor y these compl i cat i ons have been
discussed.S.217 Radi at i ve t ransfer in si ngl e-dropl et
combust i on has been i gnored in most studies reported
in the literature. 8 Recently, a model has been
devel oped to st udy coal part i cl e behavi or under
si mul t aneous devol at i l i zat i on and combust i on in
which t r anspor t of r adi at i on in the vol at i l e cl oud
(radi at i vel y par t i ci pat i ng medi um) sur r oundi ng a
coal part i cl e has been account ed for. 218
The spheri cal vol at i l e cloud, enclosed by a thin
flame sheet whose l ocat i on is det ermi ned by diffusion-
l i mi t ed combust i on, is model ed as a r adi at i vel y
par t i ci pat i ng medium. The model i ng concept is
si mi l ar to t hat of l i qui d dr opl et combust i on except
t hat vol at i l es emi t t ed by the coal part i cl e form a
concent ri c l umi nous mant l e (see Fig. 20) and radi -
at i ve t ransfer is i mpor t ant in addi t i on to convective
and conduct i ve t ransport . The model descri bes the
heat t ransfer mechani sms between the part i cl e, the
vol at i l e cloud, the flame, and the ext ernal en-
vi ronment . The anal ysi s of combi ned conduct i on-
r adi at i on heat t ransfer in a concent ri c sphere filled
with a r adi at i vel y par t i ci pat i ng medi um first devel-
oped by Vi skant a and Mer r i am 2~9 was used. The
absorbi ng, emi t t i ng and scat t eri ng medi um was
assumed to be confined between two gray, diffuse
i sot hermal spheres kept at different but uni form
External
Radiotion
Thin
~ . VOlOtlle r~loua,~ Flame
\ . ' / r 2 . ' " . "x/ , Caol .
Parttele
FIG. 20. Schematic diagram of a spherical translucent and
radiating cloud model. 218
temperatures. The spheri cal t ransl uscent and radi -
at i ng cl oud model is i dent i cal to t he pr obl em st udi ed
earlier. 219 Thi s compl ex energy t ransfer si t uat i on for
sol i d part i cl e combust i on is t reat ed ri gorousl y, and
influencing par amet er s are identified.
The model permi t s cal cul at i on of the st eady-st at e
heat t ransfer rat e when the part i cl e surface temper-
ature, flame-sheet r adi us and t emper at ur e and ot her
envi r onment al condi t i ons are given. The opt i cal
t hi ckness has been found to be an i mpor t ant model
par amet er in cal cul at i ng r adi at i ve t ransfer rates. A
fai r amount of numeri cal comput at i on was requi red
to obt ai n solutions. The model has been shown to be
useful for the i nt er pr et at i on of mui t i col or 22 and
t wo-col or TM pyr omet r y for mor e accurat e experi-
ment al dat a reduction. Ul t i mat el y, a si mpl i fi ed
version of the model coul d be i ncor por at ed i nt o a
coal combust i on model which expl i ci t l y includes
part i cl e heat -up and devol at i zat i on rates. However,
for an appl i cat i on to a combust i on system the model
must be ext ended to account for the i nt er act i on
between the burni ng part i cl e and t he surroundi ngs
which cont ai n r adi at i ng gases, clouds of part i cl es
and the system walls.
A syst emat i c i nvest i gat i on of the effects of t hermal
r adi at i on on the combust i on behavi or of char
part i cl es exposed to an oxygen envi ronment has been
performed 222 using the general mat hemat i cal model s
devel oped by Sot i rchos and Amundson. 223'224
Pseudo-st eady comput at i ons have shown t hat porous
char part i cl es react i ng under r adi at i ve equi l i br i um
condi t i ons are found to present consi der abl y l ower
burni ng t i mes (by more t han one or der of magni t ude
in some cases) t han t hei r heat - r adi at i ng counter-
parts. 222
5.2. Contribution oJ Radiation to Flame
Wall-Quenchin 9 of Condensed Fuels
The under st andi ng of ext i nct i on phenomena has
been great l y i mproved over the years, and recently
several i mpor t ant mechani sms of ext i nct i on or
134 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOt~
quenchi ng phenomena have been proposed. 225.226
Among t hose pr oposed are t he st ret chi ng effect of the
combust i on zone, preferent i al diffusion, buoyancy
and heat losses. The effect of heat loss on quenchi ng
can be mor e pr onounced in t he presence of rel at i vel y
col d boundar i es, due t o st eep t emper at ur e gradi ent s.
The pyr ol i zi ng surface of condensed fuels is a
represent at i ve exampl e of col d boundar i es in a
combust i on si t uat i on of pr act i cal interest. In t hi s as
well as in many ot her studies on heat t ransfer in fires,
t he si gni fi cance of t hermal r adi at i on has become
i ncreasi ngl y recogni zed as r adi at i on account s for a
si gni fi cant por t i on of heat losses. It s effect has been
shown to be consi der abl e not onl y in l arge-scal e and
s mal l - s cal e fi res 227'229 but al so in small diesel
engines. 2a
Radi at i on bl ockage by soot l ayers between the
flame and the fuel is consi dered to be an i mpor t ant
char act er i st i c of fires. The r adi at i on bl ockage effect
has been i nvest i gat ed and found to depend on the
t ype of fuel and size of fires. 227 Usi ng experi ment al l y
obt ai ned dat a, it is shown t hat for pol ymer fuels
of pol ymet hyl met hacr yl at e ( PMMA) , pol ypr opyl ene
(PP), and pol yoxymet hyl ene ( POM) no significant
r adi at i on bl ockage is present in moder at e- scal e fires;
however, for soot i er fuels such as pol yst yrene (PS),
r adi at i on bl ockage has a consi der abl e effect even in
smal l -scal e fires. In Fig. 21, t he effects of gas l ayer
t hi ckness and soot vol ume fract i on on the bl ockage
of r adi at i on ar e shown graphi cal l y.
The effect of t hermal r adi at i on and conduct i on on
the col d-wal l fl ame-quenchi ng di st ance in the com-
bust i on of condensed fuels has been st udi ed using a
si mpl e physi cal model. 227 In t he anal ysi s a steady-
state, no-flow condi t i on, one- di mensi onal energy
equat i on for the opt i cal l y thin quenchi ng l ayer is
solved empl oyi ng t he si ngul ar per t ur bat i on tech-
nique. The quenchi ng di st ance is obt ai ned as a
1. 0
/ ,
0.8 E~,- 0.9
0.6 .... E.. o . g s ~
'7/' / /
~ 0.4
fr ~
0. , / _
10-2 10"1
G A S L A Y E R T H I C K N E S S ( m )
FIG. 21. Radiation blockage as a function of gas layer
thickness for a plane flame layer model, Lj . / Lo=0. 4. 227
function of vari ous t her mophysi cal and r adi at i ve
par amet er s such as t he conduct i on- r adi at i on rat i o,
opt i cal t hi ckness and heat generat i on i nt ensi t y by
chemi cal reactions. A new di mensi onl ess group, the
modi fi ed Damk6hl er number ( r at i o of di mensi onl ess
heat source i nt ensi t y to t he conduct i on- r adi at i on
paramet er), which charact eri zes the rel at i ve strength
of heat generat i on to r adi at i on t ransport , emerges
from the analysis. The quenchi ng-l ayer t hi ckness is
det er mi ned pr i mar i l y by t he conduct i on effect near
the rel at i vel y col d surface. However, t hermal radi -
at i on is still the domi nant mode of heat t ransfer
there. Numer i cal cal cul at i ons have shown t hat t he
fract i on of r adi at i ve heat flux at t he fuel surface is
over 85 ~o of t he t ot al heat flux. Opt i cal thicknesses
less t han 0.5 show l i t t l e influence on t he quenchi ng
di st ance, and mor e opaque systems yi el d short er
quenchi ng distances.
Radi at i on bl ockage may also be desi red in ot her
physi cal si t uat i ons to avoi d excessive t emper at ur es at
the system boundari es. Siegel ~ls has syst emat i cal l y
st udi ed a one- di mensi onal system at high temper-
ature, wi t h and wi t hout flow, to det ermi ne the
gover ni ng par amet er s needed to keep the walls at a
prescri bed t emper at ur e range. Usi ng an anal yt i cal
appr oach, he concl uded t hat a di mensi onl ess para-
met er ME= TJ~CLxL/ C2) and the r at i o of suspensi on
t emper at ur e to source t emperat ure, TraIT,, were the
two i mpor t ant paramet ers. Here, fv is the soot
volume fract i on, CL is the r at i o of mean beam length
to l ayer thickness, x is the const ant absor pt i on
coefficient, and C2 is Pl anck' s second r adi at i on
const ant . When M~ 2 t he soot (or suspension) l ayer
absor bs pr act i cal l y all t he r adi at i on i nci dent on it,
and when M~ 0 . 2 hal f of t he r adi at i on is absorbed.
Al t hough at the begi nni ng the soot l ayer bl ocks the
r adi at i on, t he energy t r apped in the l ayer raises its
t emperat ure. Aft er a while, the layer begins to r adi at e
energy. Thi s can be avoi ded using perforat ed walls
and i nt r oduci ng the cool seeded gas from many hol es
al ong the surface at frequent i nt erval s)~S A si mi l ar
appr oach can also be appl i ed to combust i on cham-
bers, l i ke the liners of gas-t urbi ne engines, to predi ct
the amount of film cool i ng necessary. It is wort h
not i ng the si mi l ari t i es between these results and
those obt ai ned by Lee et al. 227
5.3. E.JJect of Radiation oll One-Dimensional Char
Flames
In one- di mensi onal pul veri zed-char or coal flames,
two different flame types are recogni zed as "smal l " or
"long". TM The "smal l " t ype flames can be model ed
qual i t at i vel y using a conduct i on- di f f usi on appr oxi -
mat i on, whereas for the "' long" t ype flames, r adi at i on
heat t ransfer is al so an i mpor t ant mechanism. Earl i er
at t empt s t o model these types of flames wi t hout
i ncl udi ng r adi at i on have not been very successful;
however, a model based pr i mar i l y on r adi at i on
Radiation heat transfer 135
pr edi ct ed t he fl ame t emper at ur es and bur nout pro-
files very accurately. TM In t hi s model i t is assumed
t hat react i on is cont r ol l ed by combi ned di ffusi on and
surface chemi cal r eact i on for ei t her shri nki ng, con-
st ant densi t y part i cl es or const ant di amet er, de-
creasi ng densi t y particles. Also, the size di st r i but i on
of t he spheri cal part i cl es in t he flame is account ed
for; however, the part i cl e t emper at ur e is assumed to
be equal to t hat of t he sur r oundi ng gases. Thi s
appr oxi mat i on can not be j ust i fi ed in physi cal
systems where part i cl es burn in di l ut e suspensi ons
wi t h a l arge excess of oxygen, yet it is a reasonabl e
appr oxi mat i on for concent r at ed suspensi ons in prac-
t i cal flames (see comment s of I. W. Smi t h to Xieu et
al.231). The r adi at i on heat flux was obt ai ned by
model i ng the RTE between two vert i cal infinite
paral l el -pl at es, and the flux di vergence is given by 23~
c3q,
. . . . 4xtr T4( z ) + 2x[ a T41E2( z )
dz
t L
+ t r T 4 . 2 E 2 ( ' r l , - - z ) + t r S Ta( t ) El ( l z - t l ) dt] (5.1)
o
where x is the abs or pt i on coefficient for the mi xt ure,
T is the opt i cal di st ance, tr is the St ef an- Boi t zmann
const ant , El and E 2 are t he first- and second- or der
exponent i al i nt egral functions, respectively. The key
par amet er in t hi s model is t he absor pt i on coefficient,
which, in general, is a function of l ocat i on. The
assumpt i on of a const ant value for 1( di d not yield
accurat e pr edi ct i ons for t he t emper at ur e and bur nout
profiles. 232 Recogni zi ng t hat t he absor pt i on coef-
ficient is var yi ng wi t h the pr oj ect ed cross-sect i on of
the part i cl es (see Sect i on 3.2), Xieu et al. TM used a
new expressi on
~, = 3QD, / 4pr (5.2)
where D, is t he dust cl oud concent r at i on for the size
i nt erval cor r espondi ng to mean part i cl e r adi us r, p is
' 1
I i
J [ / Rosin - Rommt er monosize
ca 60 "1 ~ C
4 0 - 1 ~ ~ %
I \ I ' ~ Pol ysi ze
~ - I m o n o s i z e ( D ~ l ~ " ~ - . . . . . _ _ - - _ . ~
I I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 i oo J20
Di st ance f r om t ube bonk (cm)
FIG. 22. Comparison of prediction and experiment for coal
burn-out, using the given polysize and two alternative,
mort osi ze models. 231
the densi t y of coal, and Q is the cor r ect i on fact or
which is near 1.5 for pr act i cal flames. Equat i on (5.2)
is appl i cabl e i f a part i cl e size di st r i but i on is given. It
can be used al so i f a single mean value for "r" can be
defined. Two different mean values, one from the
Saut er-mean di amet er defi ni t i on (i.e. vol ume-t o-
surface r at i o, D32 ) and the ot her from the Ros i n-
Ramml er index were also used in t he analysis. The
pr edi ct i ons for coal bur n- out are compar ed agai nst
experi ment al dat a in Fig. 22 for pol ysi ze as well as
two mean di amet er models. The pol ysi ze model is in
except i onal l y good agreement with the dat a, sug-
gest i ng t hat the accuracy of pr oper t i es used in a
r adi at i on model are as cri t i cal or, maybe, even more
so t han the accuracy of the model itself (see also
Section 4.5).
Anot her model, based on the one- di mensi onal
Eddi ngt on (P1) appr oxi mat i on for pr edi ct i ng the
cont r i but i on of r adi at i on in "l ong" flames was given
by Kr ezi nski et al. 233 They obt ai ned the r adi at i ve
pr oper t i es of coal part i cl es using the complex
refractive index dat a of Fost er and Howar t h; v5
however, they di d not compar e model pr edi ct i ons
with experi ment al dat a.
5.4. Radiation in a Combust i ng Boundary Layer Along
a Vertical Wal l
Classical studies of boundar y l ayer diffusion
flames have neglected radi at i on, a.234.235 To i sol at e
the effects of r adi at i on in flames from the compl ex-
i t i es of fluid mot i on and to gai n bet t er under st andi ng
of r adi at i on heat t ransfer in fires, anal yses have been
made of a l ami nar, combust i ng boundar y l ayer al ong
a vertical wall. 236-23s The rat e of upwar d flame
spread over a vertical combust i bl e surface is an
i mpor t ant par amet er in the r anki ng of t he fire hazar d
offered by different materials. Typi cal l y, when the
flame hei ght reaches about 2 m, t he flow becomes
t urbul ent and r adi at i on heat t ransfer st art s to pl ay an
i mpor t ant role in the overall energy balance. Free,
mi xed and forced convect i on boundar y layers al ong
a vertical, burni ng wall have been st udi ed anal yt i c-
ally. Previ ous work on t hermal r adi at i on from flames
has been reviewed 239-24~ and related experi ment al
work has also been reported. 242 Here, we discuss the
results of numeri cal sol ut i ons obt ai ned for a steady,
l ami nar, radi at i ng, combust i ng, boundar y l ayer over
a vertical pyrol i zi ng fuel slab.
An anal ysi s has been devel oped for st eady free and
forced l ami nar combust i ng boundar y layers in which
a pyrol ysi s zone separat es the flame from t he fuel
surface 23s as shown in Fig. 23. The soot l ayer is on
the fuel side of the flame zone. Through the
t r anspar ent gas the combust i ng l ayer exchanges
r adi at i on with a di st ant bl ack wall, which is
mai nt ai ned at a specified t emperat ure. The chemi cal
energy lost to the system in the f or mat i on of soot is
neglected. The effects of r adi at i on on the local fields,
and excess pyr ol yzat e escaping downst ream at the
136 R. V1SKANTA and M. P. MENO0~
/
/
/
/
/
/
FUEL /
/
/
/
/
/
/
I e c u ~ o ~ v
LAYER EDGE
AME ZONE
AMBIENT AIR
FIG. 23. Schematic of a steady, two-dimensional, laminar.
radiating combusting boundary layer flame with soot on a
pyrolizing fuel slab. 238
top of the fuel slab are examined by assuming that
the dominant effect of the soot particles is on the
radiation heat transfer.
The conservation equations for mass, momentum
and species for a radiating-combusting boundary
layer are identical to those for a nonradiating
boundary layer s and therefore are not repeated here.
The energy equation is given as 23s
{ Oh t 3h\ ~ { k - - I t3h\-dq'+S
p/ u - - + v- - 1 = - - / - - (5.3)
where the enthalpy is defined as
7"
I1= f cpdT.
T
(5.4)
Assuming a spectraily gray, homogeneous medium
with a constant absorption coefficient, the local
radiative flux in the y-direction* can be expressed
a s 2 3 s
q , = 2 [ E b ~ . E 3 ( z ) - E
t
~ E 3 ( 17~ - - T)--J'- SEb(t)Ez(z -- t ) dt
0
t a
-- I Eb(t)E2(t - z)dt]. (5.5)
*There is an error in the expression for the radiation flux
given in Ref. 238, but this does not affect the validity of the
results obtained because of the approximations.
Here ~ = x y and T 6 =x 6 , where 3 is the boundary
thickness. In writing Eq. (5.5) a one-dimensional
radiative transfer model is used which is consistent
with the boundary-layer approximations.
Numerical solutions were reported for both forced
and free flow along a vertical pyrolizing fuel slab. 23s
The optically-thin approximation was assumed to be
valid for radiation. In the analysis of a combusting
boundary layer with radiation, the pyrolysis rate was
found to depend on nine dimensionless parameters
and the intensity of the external radiation flux. The
dimensionless heat of combustion (Dc) plays a
dominant role in determining the flame temperature
and makes it a significant parameter in radiating
systems. In addition, the optical thickness of the
boundary layer and the radiation parameter (Na)
affect the emission from the combusting boundary
layer. The surface temperature and the emissivity
characterize the surface emission, which can domin-
ate the flame radiation in the boundary layer for
solid fuels of small dimension. A comparison bet-
ween numerical and experimental pyrolysis rates
shows good agreement for a case where surface
emission dominates flame radiation, i.e. burning of
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) in air. Values of a
mean absorption coefficient and soot generation
rates were also obtained using the analysis. This type
of data could be used to quantify soot formation
models. 23s
5.5. I nt er act i on o f Conv e c t i on- Radi at i on in a Lami nar
Di f f usi on Fl a me
Most of the earlier and even some recent studies
dealing with high-temperature situations such as
those found in laminar diffusion flames have excluded
the effects of radiation (e.g. Refs 234, 235, 243-245).
In many situations radiation from the hot gases can
significantly alter temperature in both the flame itself
and in the surrounding regions as well as within the
flame structure. The relatively simple character of
diffusion flames in laminar stagnation-point flows
has led to several theoretical and experimental
studies of that system in which thermal radiation has
been incorporated in the analysis. 246- 249
Interaction of convection and radiation on the
temperature and species concentration distributions
in a diffusion flame located in the lower stagnation
region of a porous horizontal cylinder 246 and a
vertical flat plate 249 have been studied experiment-
ally and theoretically. The exponential wide-band gas
radiation model was employed in this inhomo-
geneous (nonuniform temperature and composition)
problem through the use of scaling techniques. Using
a numerical scheme, the compressible energy, flow,
and species-diffusion equations were solved simul-
taneously with and without the radiative component.
In the experiment, methane was blown uniformly
from the surface of the porous cylinder, setting up
Radiation heat transfer 137
Z . O
2 . 4
2 . 0
I . G
f , .
I
~ t 1.2
3
~ . 0 . 8
! I |
0 F 2600 c c / m l n
I[xponentlol Wide-Bond I do~l
- - m- - Groy GaS Model K'p-0.15
~ - ~ N o R o d i o t l v e I n t e r o c t i o n
Q I [ x p o r i m e n t o ! R u n I
O l[aoerimental Run 2
0.4
0 I ~-
0 I.O 2.0 3.0 4. 0 5.0
I I
FIG. 24. Comparison of theoretically predicted and experi-
mentally measured temperature protiles during methane
combustion around a horizontal porous cylindrical burner. 2'.6
(upon i gni t i on) a diffusion flame wi t hi n the free-
convect i on boundar y layer. Usi ng a Mach- Zehnder
i nt er f er omet er and a gas chr omat ogr aph, temper-
at ur e and composi t i on measurement s were obt ai ned
al ong the st agnat i on line. Excellent agreement has
been found between the t emper at ur e di st r i but i ons
based on the nongr ay wi de- band model and experi-
mental dat a (Fig. 24). Exami nat i on of Fig. 24 reveals
t hat t he wi de- band model yi el ded results t hat were
super i or to t hose t hat excluded r adi at i on- convect i on
i nt eract i on. It is evi dent from the figure t hat
r adi at i on- convect i on i nt er act i on lowers the pre-
di ct ed t emperat ures in the hi gh- t emper at ur e region
of the boundar y l ayer near t he flame front and raises
the t emper at ur e in the cool er region near the edge of
the boundar y layer. Fur t her mor e, t hi s i nt eract i on
effect increases for l arger fuel flow rates. 246 The effect
of r adi at i on i nt er act i on can be i nt erpret ed to result
from a t ransfer of energy by gaseous r adi at i on heat
t ransfer from the hot t er region to the cool er por t i on
of the boundar y layer, thus reducing the hi gher
t emperat ures and rai si ng the l ower ones.
An at t empt was made to det er mi ne an ar bi t r ar y
value of the Pl anck mean absor pt i on coefficient ~
which when used in a gray-gas model woul d yield
t emper at ur e profiles mat chi ng the experi ment al
results. 246 Al t hough the results of Fig. 24 demon-
st rat e t hat mat chi ng values of ~e may i ndeed exist, a
different value of a mean absor pt i on coefficient was
requi red for each fuel-flow condi t i on. It has been
shown in Section 4.5 t hat by changi ng the mean
absor pt i on coefficient it is possi bl e to mat ch experi-
ment al dat a wi t h predi ct i ons; however, t hi s appr oach
is not based on first pri nci pl es and requi res dat a for
each set of condi t i ons.
The experi ment al l y measured convective heat fluxes
at t he wall of the cyl i nder were found to be in bet t er
agreement wi t h the results cal cul at ed using t he wide-
band t han the gray-gas model. 246 Thi s further
support s t he performance of the nongr ay model and
shows t hat t he model is super i or to t hose based on
t he gray-gas model as well as the results t hat i gnor e
t he effects of r adi at i on. Measurement s of convect i ve
and r adi at i ve heat fluxes in a diffusion flame
sur r oundi ng a por ous cyl i nder burni ng dr ops of n-
hept ane have shown t hat r adi at i on heat t ransfer to
the cyl i nder is by no means negligible. 24s Radi at i on
account s for about 40 % of the t ot al heat t ransferred
to the cyl i nder, but the r adi at i on from gases (CO2
and H2 0 ) is onl y 20 % of t he t ot al r adi at i on, wi t h the
rest bei ng soot r adi at i on. For t hose t ypes of flames
where soot r adi at i on is mor e i mpor t ant t han gaseous
r adi at i on, t he use of a gr ay model woul d yield
reasonabl e results.
A si mi l ar i t y sol ut i on for an opposed l ami nar
diffusion flame wi t h r adi at i on has also been ob-
tained. 2'.8 In t hi s combust i on system a st ream of
oxi di zer appr oaches the st agnat i on poi nt on a
condensed surface and reacts with pyrol yzed fuel in a
thin diffusion flame wi t h a const ant - t hi ckness boun-
dar y layer. The fuel surface is assumed gr ay and
diffuse, and t he gas is consi dered gray. Onl y the
pyrol ysi s region is consi dered. Numer i cal results
were obt ai ned using the exponent i al kernel and
opt i cal l y- t hi n appr oxi mat i on for r adi at i on heat
transfer.
Anal ysi s reveals ei ght di mensi onl ess par amet er s
which cont rol t he system under i nvest i gat i on. Fi ve
paramet ers, i.e. the mass consumpt i on number, r; the
mass t ransfer number, B; t he Pr andt l number, Pr; a
di mensi onl ess heat of combust i on, D o the fuel
surface t emperat ure, 0,., are the combust i on groups,
and the t hree r adi at i on groups, the conduct i on/
gaseous r adi at i on paramet er, N~, the conduct i on/
ambi ent r adi at i on paramet er, N2, and the fuel
surface emi ssi vi t y, e,., are requi red to descri be the
combus t i ng- r adi at i ng system. The par amet er s D c
and 0w, which were of secondary i mpor t ance in
nonr adi at i ng systems, emerge from the anal ysi s with
new significance, domi nat i ng the paramet ers N~, N 2
and ew.
The effect of r adi at i on on the pyrol ysi s rat e and
unburned fraction of t ot al pyrol yzat e is shown in
Fig. 25 for axi symmet ri c combust i on. 248 The pyrol y-
sis rat e is seen to increase st rongl y with i ncreasi ng
di mensi onl ess heat of combust i on, D c. Thi s is
pr i mar i l y because of an increase in flame temper-
at ure (01 ~ O,.Dc). Li ke the mass fract i on of fuel at the
surface, the di mensi onl ess flame t emper at ur e 0y,
which for non- r adi at i ng flows can be det ermi ned a
pri ori from measurabl e quant i t i es, depends on all
138 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOq
I . o . . . . i . o
Rodi oti n9 t
- - - - - - Non.r(idiolin 9
o . s o. s -~
N
0 0
I.O I O
DIMENSIONLESS HEAT OF COMBUSTION, O c
FIG. 25. Pyrolysis rate and unburned pyrolyzate vs dimensionless heat of combustion for axisymmetric
flow with B= 1.0, r=0.22, 0,,.=2.0, N~ = 0.05, N 2 = 5 0 . 0 , and e = 1. 0. 248
ei ght par amet er s and is not predet ermi ned. The
pyr ol ysi s rat e wi t h r adi at i on is l ower due to the net
efflux of r adi at i on at t he surface. In general, the
influx of gaseous r adi at i on is insufficient to cancel
t he efflux of surface emi ssi on, hence a l ower pyrol ysi s
rat e results in compar i son to non r adi at i ve combus-
t i on. Lower pyr ol ysi s rates may result even when a
net influx of r adi at i on prevai l s because of t he
decrease in conduct i on caused by t he l ower flame
t emper at ur e due t o r adi ant loss from the combust i on
zone. At low D c, t he react i on releases l i t t l e energy to
count er surface emi ssi on losses, gi vi ng low pyrol ysi s
rates, whereas at l arge Dc much energy is released
whi ch easily overcomes surface losses and yields
l arge pyrol ysi s rates. 2as The net effect of r adi at i on on
pyrol ysi s appear s to be low for several reasons. The
pr oper t i es of real opposed diffusion flames are not
yet sufficiently well known to give accurat e para-
met er values. Those chosen for t he cal cul at i ons (see
capt i on of Fig. 25 and ot hers in Ref. 248) may not be
sufficiently real i st i c as t hey all t end to under est i mat e
t he differences between non- r adi at i ng and r adi at i ng
systems.
As dat a on r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of st agnat i on-
poi nt flames become avai l abl e, the appr oxi mat i on of
a const ant absor pt i on coefficient should be repl aced
wi t h a nonuni f or m one based on measured di st ri -
but i ons of soot volume fract i ons and CO 2 and H20
concent rat i ons. The ut i l i t y of the anal ysi s will then
come from bot h t he pr oper quant i fi cat i on of radi -
at i ve effects in opposed-fl ow diffusion flame experi-
ment s and from t he use of such systems to refine
techniques for i ncor por at i ng r adi at i on in combus-
t i on modeling.
5.6. EJJect oJ Radiation on a Planar, Two-Dimensional
Turbulent-Jet DiJJusion Flame
A si mpl e combust i on si t uat i on has been model ed
t o assess t he i mpor t ance of thermal r adi at i on in
est abl i shi ng t emper at ur e di st r i but i on in a t urbul ent
diffusion flame. 25 Al t hough, t urbul ent diffusion
flames have been extensively studied by Bilger and
his co- wor ker s ) 51- 25 3 t hey have not consi dered the
effects of r adi at i on. However, r adi at i on heat transfer
modifies t he t emper at ur e di st r i but i on which, in turn,
affects the combust i on process. Small changes in
peak t emperat ures have a large influence upon ni t r i c
oxi de pr oduct i on for a given residence time. It is of
interest to det er mi ne how the vari ous cont rol
st rat egi es such as l oweri ng combust i on ai r preheat or
reci rcul at i ng exhaust product s i nt o the combust i on
ai r affect the unwant ed ni t r i c oxi de emi ssi ons and
t he desi red r adi at i on heat transfer.
BLACK PLANE WALL
! 11111111111111111111111111111/ 6
AIR t
i JET
FUEL ~ MIDPLANE
f
Am ///7"//////////////////////// ///
BLACK PLANE WALL
FlG. 26. Schematicaldiagram ofaphme, radiatingjetconlinedbetweentwoparallelplates.
Radiation heat transfer 139
The physi cal model of t he pr obl em anal yzed by
James and Edwar ds 25 is shown schemat i cal l y in
Fig. 26. A pl anar j et of met hane is i nj ect ed with
vel oci t y ut,~,l i nt o a st ream of ai r flowing wi t h
vel oci t y u,~r paral l el t o t he fuel. Di f f usi on- cont r ol l ed
combust i on occurs in t he mi xi ng regi on of t he jet.
Pl ane-paral l el , i sot her mal and bl ack walls sym-
met r i cal l y l ocat ed above and bel ow t he j et form the
combust i on chamber. A soot -free flame is assumed to
exist so t hat mol ecul ar gas bands det er mi ne the
t hermal r adi at i ve t ransfer t o t he walls. Boundar y-
l ayer appr oxi mat i ons were used to si mpl i fy the
conser vat i on equat i ons, and nongr ay r adi at i on
descri bed by the exponent i al wi de band model for
mol ecul ar gas band r adi at i on was added to t he
energy equat i on. The model equat i ons for t urbul ent
combust i on of met han in a pl anar, enclosed j et -
diffusion flame were solved numerically.
The anal ysi s demonst r at es t hat real i st i c nongr ay
r adi at i ve t ransfer cal cul at i ons can be coupl ed to an
i mpl i ci t numeri cal met hod for sol ut i on of the hi ghl y
nonl i near par t i al di fferent i al conser vat i on equat i ons
wi t hout undue expendi t ur e of comput at i on time. The
results of comput at i ons have shown t hat the l arger
channel s ( A= 1 m and 10 m) have mar kedl y l ower
peak t emper at ur es because of gr eat er gaseous radi -
at i ve transfer. It was al so found t hat a given
reduct i on in mi ni mum combust i on t emper at ur e to
reduce ni t r i c oxi de f or mat i on coul d be accompl i shed
with a much less det r i ment al reduct i on of heat
t ransfer by reci rcul at i ng exhaust pr oduct i nt o the
combust i on ai r t han by reduci ng preheat.
5.7. Radiation Ji'om Flames
Gas- and l i qui d-fuel ed flames have numerous
appl i cat i ons and flame r adi at i on is an i mpor t ant
aspect of heat t ransfer in furnaces, i nt ernal combus-
t i on engines, ai r cr af t pr opul si on systems, flares,
unwant ed fires, etc. Thi s has mot i vat ed many studies
of flame r adi at i on and comprehensi ve, up- t o- dat e
reviews are avai l abl e. '*a'239.25'*'255 The issues of
concern here are nonl umi nous and l umi nous radi -
at i on from flames, pr edi ct i on of r adi at i on charact er-
istics given t he i nst ant aneous scal ar structure, and
t urbul ence/ radi at i on i nt eract i ons in simple l abor at or y
flames.
Significant progress has been made concerni ng
st ruct ure and pr edi ct i on of r adi at i on i nt ensi t y of
nonl umi nous flames. Nar r ow band- model predic-
t i ons TM for noni sot her mal mi xt ures of CO2, H2 0
and CO are in good agreement with the measure-
ments. The t ot al t r ansmi t t ance nonhomogeneous
model ( TTNH) of Gr os s handl er 256.257 has been
found to be about 500 t i mes faster t han nar r ow- band
models. The model has been appl i ed to several
real i st i c combust i on exampl es cont ai ni ng vari abl e
concent r at i ons of CO2, H20, CH4, CO and soot. It
was found t o be usually wi t hi n 10% of t he more
accurat e comput at i on. 2s 7
G4
I o.2
!
" s
~ 0 . 0
,z, ~ 4 i
, q
0.0
, , , . t . , o . . o
. . . . . s A . peso. H , 1T/ ' ~
- . - s ~ e , . , ~ o . I ] : W ' , . ~
, . . , o o o i Y l " \
" L ,1 v " , ~
_ s J ~ . J . J I % ~ J I " ' - ' ~ - . . . .
I I
_ x / O - 5 0
- ~ 1 ~ \ -
- -
1 . 0 2 . 0 3 . 0 4 ~
WAVELENGTH ( pm)
FIG. 27. Spectral radiation intensities ~r radial paths
through aturbulenthydrogen:airdiffusion flame. 25s
Est i mat es of spectral i nt ensi t i es emergi ng from
flames, based on pr edi ct ed mean scal ar propert i es,
ar e t ypi cal l y wi t hi n 20-30 % of the measurement s of
well-defined l abor at or y flames. 31,25'*.255 Thi s is com-
par abl e to the uncert ai nt i es in the nar r ow- band and
fl ame-st ruct ure models. Measured and predi ct ed
spectral r adi at i on intensities for a turbulent hydr ogen/
ai r diffusion flame are given in Fig. 27. Results are
shown for hor i zont al r adi al pat hs t hrough t he flame
at x/ D=50 and 90, t he l at t er posi t i on bei ng j ust
below the flame tip. Pr edi ct i ons use bot h time-
averaged scal ar pr oper t i es al ong t he pat h and
st ochast i c met hods which t ake i nt o account t urb-
ul ence/ radi at i on i nt eract i ons. The st ochast i c met hod
model s t he i nt er act i ons by assumi ng t hat t he flow
field consists of many eddi es which are uni form and
st at i st i cal l y i ndependent of each other. Eddy length
varies al ong the pat h length, and t i me-averaged
pr obabi l i t y densi t y ( PDF) of mi xt ure fract i on f for
each eddy is r andoml y sampl ed and scal ar propert i es
are found from the st at e rel at i onshi ps at the
cor r espondi ng value of J~ Once the scal ar propert i es
are known, the RTE is solved. The det ai l s of sol ut i on
can be found elsewhere. 31 Spect ral r adi at i on inten-
sities (Fig. 27) are domi nat ed by the 1.38, 1.87 and
2.7/~m wat er vapor bands in the range of 1-4/~m
shown. The st ochast i c met hod yields spectral inten-
sities which somet i mes are about a fact or of two
hi gher t han the mean pr oper t y met hod with the
measurement general l y falling between the two
predi ct i ons. These results suggest significant effects
of t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on i nt eract i ons. Fi ndi ngs for
car bon monoxi de/ ai r and met hane/ ai r flames, how-
ever, show smal l er effects for t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on
i nt eract i ons. 254.255
140 R. VISKANTA and M. P. M~,~GO~
Wor k on l umi nous flames has been l i mi t ed.
Si mi l ar results to t hose present ed in Fig. 27 have
been r epor t ed by Gor e and Faet h (cited in Refs 254
and 255) for a t urbul ent et hyl ene/ ai r diffusion flame.
The spect ra are domi nat ed by cont i nuum r adi at i on
from soot, however, t he effects of 1.38, 1.87 and
2.7/~m gas bands of t he H2 0 and t he 2.7 and 4.3 #m
gas bands of CO2 can still be seen. In t hi s case the
mean- pr oper t y met hod has pr ovi ded t he best quan-
t i t at i ve agreement wi t h t he dat a, but t he agreement is
consi der ed to be fort ui t ous in view of poor er
ext i nct i on pr edi ct i ons obt ai ned usi ng t he ap-
proach. 255 The pr edi ct i ons of cont i nuum r adi at i on
are very sensi t i ve to local t emper at ur e est i mat es, and
the assumpt i on opt i cal l y- t hi n r adi at i ve heat losses
are qui t e crude. Differences between mean pr oper t y
and st ochast i c pr edi ct i ons suggest significant effects
of t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on i nt er act i ons in l umi nous
flames. Mor e exact coupl ed st ruct ure and r adi at i on
anal ysi s coul d modi f y t he rel at i ve performance of the
mean- pr oper t y and st ochast i c met hods and suggest
t hat present l y avai l abl e model s must be i mproved.
Measurement s and pr edi ct i ons of t ot al r adi at i ve
heat fluxes to poi nt s sur r oundi ng the t urbul ent
hydr ogen/ ai r , 258 car bon monoxi de/ ai r , 259 met hane/
ai r, 26 and et hyl ene/ ai r TM diffusion flames have been
made. The di screpanci es between t he measured and
pr edi ct ed t ot al r adi at i on heat fluxes al ong t he axi s of
a t urbul ent met hane/ ai r diffusion flame (Fig. 28) are
wi t hi n t he or der of 10-30 %. Such levels of er r or are
si mi l ar to t he differences between pr edi ct i on and
measurement for t he spectral intensities. Compar abl e
1 . 0 I I I I
0 . 8
E
0. 6
X
: 3
. - I
t , I .
0 . 4
m.m
W
V-
< O.2
r,
O.0t-
0 800 1600 2400
AXIAL DISTANCE (ram)
FIG. 28. Total radiative heat flux distribution along the axis
of turbulent methane air diffusion flames at NTP. -' '
results have been obt ai ned for ot her l abor at or y
diffusion flames. Excellent agreement has been ob-
t ai ned between measured and predi ct ed r adi at i ve
heat flux di st ri but i ot rs paral l el t o t he axi's of
t urbul ent car bon monoxi de/ ai r diffusion flames. 259
The mean pr oper t y pr edi ct i ons agree very well wi t h
t he measurement s because t he effects of turbulence
r adi at i on i nt eract i on are small. The analysis correctly
predi ct s maxi mum heat fluxes near t he flame t i p as
well as t he effects of bur ner flow rate.
Di scussi on of t he effects of t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on
i nt er act i ons has been given by Faet h et aL 31'255 The
avai l abl e results show t hat t he i nt eract i ons are very
si gni fi cant for hydr ogen/ ai r diffusion flames, with
st ochast i c pr edi ct i ons bei ng as much as twice the
mean pr oper t y predictions. 2sa In cont rast , turbulence/
r adi at i on i nt er act i ons caused less t han a 30~o
i ncrease in spect ral r adi at i on i nt ensi t i es for car bon
monoxi de/ ai r and met hane/ ai r diffusion flames. Thi s
difference is at t r i but ed to the rel at i vel y r api d vari-
at i on of r adi at i on par amet er s (water vapor concen-
t r at i on and t emperat ure) near st oi chi omet r i c con-
di t i ons for hydr ogen/ ai r diffusion flames. The
st ochast i c met hods at.254~255 have many ad hoc
features and addi t i onal fundament al research effort
is needed t o devel op mor e rel i abl e met hods not onl y
for small l abor at or y flames but al so for scal i ng l arge
flames cont ai ni ng soot.
5.8. Combust i on and Radiation Heat TransJer in a
Porous Medi um
Al t hough flame r adi at i on pl ays an i mpor t ant rol e
in combust i on systems, a furnace requires a sufficient
volume for the heat i ng chamber to increase the
opaci t y of the fl ame and furnace for effective
r adi at i on heat t ransfer t o t he load. Moreover, the
l oad must be pl aced away from the react i on zone to
prevent t he emi ssi on of unbur nt species when its
surface t emper at ur e is low. These factors make it
difficult to reduce the size of a combust i on chamber
appreci abl y. Echi go 262,26a has shown t hat a porous
medi um of an appr opr i at e opt i cal thickness placed in
a duct is very effective in convert i ng ent hai py of a
flowing gas st ream to t hermal r adi at i on di rect ed
t owar d the hi gher t emper at ur e side. Successful appl i -
cat i ons to an i ndust ri al furnace, 262'263 to a combus-
t or of low cal ori fi c gas, 264 to a wat er t ube by
combust i on gases in por ous medi a, 265 and to ot her
systems 26a have been report ed. The t hermal structure
in t he por ous medi um wi t h i nt ernal heat generat i on
due to chemi cal react i ons has been st udi ed anal yt i c-
al l y and experi ment al l y, 265'2~6 and a review of the
wor k is avai l abl e. 26a'26~
A one- di mensi onal model in which r adi at i ve
t ransfer in a gas-sol i d t wo-phase system is t reat ed
ri gorousl y has been const ruct ed, and extensive
numeri cal cal cul at i ons have been performed for a
r adi at i on cont rol l ed flame. 267,26a The combust i on
1200
Chemi c al
Ki net i c s
Nucl eat i on
800
4O0
I f I I I I
. . . . 1538 W
o .... 1025 W
"~ ~ ' - - 5 1 3 W
O I I I I I I
-IO 0 1(3 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
I x {mm}
~ I P . - t a M- = I ~ PM-n
- 6 o , 3 5 ,,.35
r
FIG. 29. Comparison of measured and predicted temper-
ature structures in porous media for different combustion
loads. 2~8 The lower abscissa scale r is optical depth based
on the ~bsorption coefficient of the porous medium, and
PM-I, PM-I1 and PM-III are the abbreviations for porous
media I, I! ~md II!, respectively.
mi xt ure flows t hrough a por ous medi um and the
combust i on r eact i ons t ake pl ace in t he medium. The
results of compr ehensi ve cal cul at i ons show t hat the
t hermal st ruct ure (profiles of t emperat ure, local
r adi at i on flux, etc.) in t he hi gh por osi t y medi um
depends st rongl y on t he absor pt i on coefficient and
t ot al opt i cal t hi ckness of t he medi um as well as the
posi t i on of t he react i on zone. Go o d agreement
between pr edi ct ed and measured t emper at ur e di st ri -
but i ons has been obt ai ned and a dr ast i c t emper at ur e
decrease in t he por ous medi um has been re-
vealed. 266"26s The results have al so revealed remark-
abl e heat t ransfer and combust i on augment at i on.
Significant energy recovery has been achi eved from
the bur ned gas t o preheat t he combust i bl e mi xt ure
pr i or to ent eri ng t he react i on zone by pr opagat i on of
t hermal r adi at i on agai nst the flow di rect i on. Thi s is
de a f l y shown in Fig. 29 which compar es the
pr edi ct ed and measured par t i cul at e- phase (Te) temp-
erat ures in t he system. 26s In the figure, bot h the
di st ance x and also t he opt i cal dept h z al ong the
combust i on system are used as the abscissa. The
results show t hat as the combust i on l oad increases,
bot h t he measured and cal cul at ed t emperat ures
i ncrease uniformly. Thi s is a consequence not onl y of
the rel at i ve reduct i on of heat loss in compar i son to
heat generat i on dur i ng combust i on but al so due to
the essential nat ur e of r adi at i on heat transfer.
6 . A P P L I C A T I O N S T O C O MB U S T I O N S Y S T E MS
The advent of mor e powerful di gi t al comput ers
has pr ovi ded the means whereby mat hemat i cal
model i ng can be appl i ed to combust i on system
probl ems to faci l i t at e the ar duous t ask of t hei r
design. Thi s is now of gr eat i nt erest in view of the
current demands which system desi gners are requi red
to me e t - - i n part i cul ar, efficiency of combust i on at a
wi de range of oper at i ng condi t i ons and strict cont rol
of pol l ut ant emissions. The l at t er has become
i ncreasi ngl y st ri ngent in recent years for economi c
and pol i t i cal reasons. The present t rend is away from
the t r adi t i onal cut - and- t r y met hods, which are ex-
pensive and do not necessari l y pr oduce the opt i mum
design, t owar d fundament al model i ng of t he physi cal
and chemi cal processes occurri ng wi t hi n the combus-
t i on systems. Mul t i di mensi onal model i ng of two-
phase combust i on is bei ng appr oached with the ai m
of pr oduci ng al gor i t hms based on fundament al
I T w o P h a s e F l u i d
Me c h a n i c s
( T u r b u l e n t )
Par t i t l e Phase
R e a c t i o n
Devol at i l i zof i on)
e t e r . Oxi dat i on)
Radiation heat transfer 141
H e a t T r a n s f e r
( C o n v e c t i v e )
( R a d i a t i v e )
Phase
Tr a n s i t i o n s
( Ev a p o r a t i o n )
( C o n d e n s a t i o n )
Gas
P a r t i c l e
I n t e r a c t i o n
Gas Phase
R e a c t i o n
FIG. 30. Schematic representation of submodels for combustion of coal.
142 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGi3t~
pri nci pl es which can cor r el at e all of t he det ai l s of
combust i on systems. 3,269-272 The predi ct i ve pro-
cedures for a combust i on system model requi re
t heoret i cal and empi r i cal i nput s to descri be t urbul ent
flow, chemi cal ki net i cs, t her modynami c and t hermo-
physi cal pr oper t i es and ot her t r anspor t processes,
i ncl udi ng r adi at i on heat t ransfer (see Fig. 30).
Thi s section of the art i cl e discusses appl i cat i on of
the met hodol ogy descri bed in t he previ ous sect i ons
to pr act i cal combust i on systems. The emphasi s is on
the met hodol ogy and r adi at i on heat t ransfer results
r at her t han t he appl i cat i on of mat hemat i cal tech-
niques for design and per f or mance cal cul at i ons of
pract i cal systems. Even wi t h the advances in mai n-
frame comput er s t he difficulty of t reat i ng i nfrared
r adi at i on t ransfer ri gorousl y in nonhomogeneous
gases cont ai ni ng part i cl es lies pr i mar i l y in the
enor mous compl i cat i ons i nt r oduced by selective
gaseous emi ssi on and absor pt i on of r adi at i on as well
as scat t eri ng by i r r egul ar - shaped particles. Because of
t hi s compl exi t y pract i cal si mpl i fi cat i ons are necess-
ar y to keep the cal cul at i ons at a reasonabl e level. As
a compr omi s e between desi red accuracy and compu-
t at i onal effort, pract i cal met hods which are also
compat i bl e wi t h t he numer i cal al gor i t hms for sol vi ng
t he t r anspor t equat i ons are stressed, and r adi at i on
heat t ransfer in several different combust i on systems
is discussed. The body of l i t erat ure concerned wi t h
model i ng and eval uat i on of combst i on systems is
very large, and it is not pr act i cal in an art i cl e of
l i mi t ed scope to discuss even the mor e recent works.
Most of t he wor k r epor t ed has stressed model i ng and
eval uat i on of chemi cal l y react i ng t urbul ent flows and
combust i on and much less r adi at i on heat transfer.
The emphasi s in t hi s review is on t he latter.
6.1. Industrial Furnaces
One of the i mpor t ant par amet er s in assessing t he
performance of an i ndust r i al furnace is the heat flux
di st r i but i on to its t hermal l oad (sink). Met hods
based on fundament al pri nci pl es are now avai l abl e
using numeri cal techniques and di gi t al comput ers,
t hat per mi t det er mi nat i ons to be made for bot h gas-
and oil-fired i ndust r i al furnaces. In such furnaces
heat t ransfer to the l oad is pr edomi nant l y by t hermal
r adi at i on. The probl ems associ at ed wi t h pr edi ct i on
of r adi at i on heat t ransfer wi t hi n t he combust i on
chamber can be di vi ded in t wo mai n types:
(a) Eval uat i on of r adi at i on heat t ransfer at all
l ocat i ons in t he enclosure i f t he t emper at ur e
di st r i but i on and r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of the
combust i on pr oduct s are known; and
(b) Eval uat i on of r adi at i on heat transfer as well as
t emper at ur e and r adi at i ng species concent r at i on
di st ri but i ons.
Probl ems of t ype (a) are mor e st r ai ght - f or war d and
require devel opment of r adi at i on heat transfer models~
Pr obl ems of t ype (b) requi re the coupl i ng of t he
r adi at i on model, t hrough the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of
combust i on product s, to t he mat hemat i cal t r anspor t
model t o predi ct the t emper at ur e and r adi at i ng
species concent r at i on di st ri but i ons. Wi t h t he pres-
ently avai l abl e al gori t hms, 3"5'269 -271 the l at t er t ype
probl ems requi re an i t er at i ve sol ut i on procedure
which is r at her t i me-consumi ng.
A val i dat ed comput er model has been used to
const ruct a det ai l ed energy flow (Sankey) di agr am for
an i ndust ri al furnace. 273 The di agr am (Fig. 31) shows
t hat mor e t han hal f of t he heat to the l oad comes
from t he refract ory wall. Of the balance, par t is
convect i on ( 4~) , par t is di rect r adi at i on from the
flame (6 ~), and par t is flame/wall r adi at i on absor bed
by the gas which has been r e- r adi at ed by the wall
(6 9/o). The furnace shows a t hermal efficiency of 35 ~o
wi t h t he t ypi cal hi gh flue loss and i ndi cat es the
i mpor t ance of t he wal l -t o-wal l r e- r adi at i on effect.
Wi t h t he except i on of different magni t udes, Fig. 31
shows a t ypi cal pat t er n for all i ndust r i al nat ur al gas
and oi l fired furnaces. As the flame becomes mor e
opaque and/ or the wall t emperat ures dr op t here will
be obvi ousl y mor e r adi at i on from t he flame and less
from the wall. Also, as t he wall t emperat ures dr op
t here will be smal l er r adi at i on exchange between the
walls and t he load.
The cl ose exami nat i on of Fig. 31 cl earl y i ndi cat es
why t here has been so l i t t l e at t ent i on given t o the
cal cul at i on of convect i ve heat t ransfer i nsi de fur-
naces. In i ndust r i al furnaces convect i ve heat t ransfer
usually account s for a very small fract i on of the t ot al
heat t ransfer to t he load. Local convect i ve heat
t ransfer coefficients have been measured at a surface
heat ed by gases 274 and empi r i cal cor r el at i ons for the
average Nussel t number have been report ed for
di fferent l y-di rect ed gas st reams i nci dent on the
load. 274-276 An i nt erest i ng finding of the experi-
ment al st udy 274 was t hat in the absence of combus-
t i on the average heat t ransfer coefficient at the l oad
surface was about 35 W/ m2K, while in the presence
of combust i on the values were from 80 to 120 W/m2K,
suggesting al most a t hreefol d enhancement of con-
vective heat t ransfer by combust i on.
Radi at i on in furnaces pr edomi nat es over con-
vection; therefore, mor e emphasi s has been given to
r adi at i on over the years and t he r adi at i ve transfer
4-5 277 281
t heory has been much more fully developed, -
and presently capabi l i t y exists to predict simultaneous
t hree-di mensi onal flow, heat t ransfer and react i on
rat es i nsi de furnaces. 269'27! However, the t heor y has
out st r i pped experi ment al val i dat i on, which is in a
much mor e pr i mi t i ve state, but even in this ar ea a
number of paper s descri bi ng di rect compar i sons
between pr edi ct i ons and experi ment al dat a have
appeared, t 69, 282 - 288
The results obt ai ned for a model furnace using
the phenomenol ogi cal furnace-performance equat i ons
have been used to det ermi ne the rel at i ve i mpor t ance
of the model paramet ers. 2s Anal ysi s of the results
led to t he concl usi on t hat the flame emi ssi vi t y was of
Radiation heat transfer 143
~ / A u T / / ~ ~ ~ ~ CONVECTION TO I..O A D 4/m L
FItJ. 31. Energy flow (Sankey) diagram for one operating point of un industrial furnace, illustrating the
four different contributions to output .'rod the effect of wall-to-wall radi~,tion exchange, z-3
T y p e 1: S t i r r e d V essel
, - - t -
''
~ H e o t F l u x O i s t r i ~
T y p e 2 : P l u g F lo w
T y p e 3 : Tw o - D im ensional
' , x ~ - . ~ : - F-~T-j ---:t:_F-_ a . . i
Heo! Fl ux Oistrib.
HG. 32. Schematic representation of it furnace illustrating
different heat transfer models. 2as
second- or der i mport ance. The ot her factors (in the
or der of decreased i mport ance): heat t ransfer to the
l oad (sink), excess ai r, process temperature, flame/load
t emper at ur e difference, l oad absor pt i vi t y and wall
losses, were of gr eat er significance. These concl usi ons
were reached, however, by general i zi ng from some
r at her specific condi t i ons; and some aspect s of the
anal ysi s coul d be consi dered arguable.
The model s for anal yzi ng heat t ransfer in
i ndust ri al furnaces are of t hree t ypes (see Fig. 32):
(1) the "st i rred vessel" (zero-di mensi onal )
mode145.273.277.278,281,285-289 which yields onl y the
t ot al heat t ransfer rat e wi t hout pr ovi di ng infor-
mat i on on the local heat flux di st r i but i on, (2) the
"plug-flow" (one-di mensi onal ) model z76,2s,zs2-2ss
which is capabl e of predi ct i ng the l ocal heat flux in
the furnace al ong t he flow di rect i on, and (3) the
mul t i - di mensi onal model 269.271 which can predi ct
t wo-di mensi onal heat flux di st r i but i on at the l oad
surface. The first two model s are bei ng used rout i nel y
in engi neeri ng desi gn cal cul at i ons, and these model s
are discussed here in great er detail.
6.1.1. Stirred vessel model
Let us consi der a schemat i c di agr am of a furnace
(Fig. 33) and appl y the "st i rred vessel" model to
cal cul at e the heat t ransfer rat e t o the load. Accor di ng
to the model '.5.277,278.2al the combust i on product s
are assumed t o be gr ay and at a uni form t emperat ure.
The t emper at ur e and t he r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of the
l oad and of the refract ory walls are assumed to be
uni form but different. A st eady-st at e, overall energy
bal ance on t he l oad can be wri t t en as
/~/1 -/~/2 = Q, + Qe (6.1)
Here/~/~ and/ : / 2 are the nt hal py inflow and outflow
rates. Wi t hi n the framework of the zonal appr oxi -
144 R. VISKANTA and M. P. ME~Gi~t~
Fuel fit A I r
,0,,
Y , , ' / , / / , / / / / / ' / / / / / / / / /
~aml~stloa
Products
o., T,
/ ~> ~ o . e / r , , A '
/ / I Lo,,
/
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
Waste Gases
= = ~ .
~,.r=.~
FIG. 33. Schematic diagram of a stirred furnace model.
mat i on for r adi at i on heat exchange, the heat t ransfer
rat e to the l oad can be expressed as 277'2al
O~--- A, [h(T~ - T~)+ , f r _ , , a( T~ - T])] (6.2)
where h is the average convect i ve heat t ransfer
coefficient at the l oad, and " ~ s - m is Hot t el ' s r adi at i on
exchange f act or or A~- ~_ m is t he t ot al r adi at i on
exchange area. Thi s fact or is a rat her compl i cat ed
funct i on of the gas emi ssi vi t y, wall emi ssi vi t y and the
si nk- t o- r ef r act or y ar ea rat i o, and expressi ons are
avai l abl e in the l i t erat ure. 45'287 The heat losses
t hrough t he walls of the furnace can be expressed as
Qt = UoAo(Tm - T, ) (6.3)
where U0 and Ao are t he overal l heat t ransfer
coefficient and ar ea of t he refract ory walls, respec-
tively; and T,, and T, are the mean combust i on
product s and ambi ent ai r t emperat ures, respectively.
Subst i t ut i on of Eqs (6.2) and (6.3) i nt o Eq. (6.1), and
assumpt i on of negl i gi bl e wall heat losses allows the
resul t ant equat i on to be wri t t en as
+- 0~-0,,, = ( 1 / Ko ) ( 0 ~ - 0 ~ ) (6.4)
l + St 1 ~ l + St
where the di mensi onl ess vari abl es and par amet er s
are defined as
0 =T " 0 T~ ;nCpm
" 7 , ;
A ~ . _ ma T 3
hA~
S t = : ~ .
rnC pra
In t hi s equat i on, T~ is a fictitious gas i nl et t empera-
ture in which the heat losses t hrough t he walls of the
furnace have been account ed for; m and q,,. are the
gas mass flow rat e and the mean specific heat of the
gas, respectively, and Ko and St are the Kona kov and
St ant on numbers, respectively. The heat transfer rat e
to the sink, Eq. (6.2), can be expressed in di mensi on-
less form as
Qs
F s - -
A ~ _ , , a T~
= [ 0 ~ - O] + ( S t ' Ko XOm- 0,)]. (6.5)
For t he special case when convect i ve heat t ransfer to
the l oad is negl i gi bl e in compar i son to r adi at i on
( St =0) , Eq. (6.4) simplifies to
Ko( 1 - 0m) = 0~- - 0] . (6.6)
By el i mi nat i ng the mean combust i on- pr oduct tem-
perat ure, the di mensi onl ess heat t ransfer rat e can be
expressed as
r ~= Ko[ 1 - ( F, + 0 ~)z/'*]. (6.7)
Extensive cal cul at i ons have been r epor t ed for the
di mensi onl ess mean gas t emper at ur e and heat trans-
fer rat e and the results can be found in the
literature. 2aS-za7 Experi ment s have also been per-
formed and compar ed wi t h model predi ct i ons. 2s6'2a7
Fi gur e 34 shows a compar i son between the measured
and the cal cul at ed average heat fluxes in an experi-
ment al combust i on chamber havi ng a 1.25 m long
firing space and two different cross-sect i ons (0.4 m x
0.4 m and 0.4 m x 0.8 m). The results show t hat the
stirred-vessel heat transfer model can be successfully
appl i ed to t hose furnaces in which there is no
appr eci abl e axi al dr op of the mean gas t emperat ure.
Thi s condi t i on is roughl y met in combust i on cham-
bers fired with hi gh-vel oci t y burners and in furnaces
where the flame length is appr oxi mat el y equal to the
furnace length. Under these condi t i ons, a maxi mum
er r or of _+20% can be expected in cal cul at i ng t he
absor bed heat flow to the l oad bei ng heated. In
pr edi ct i ng the energy consumpt i on of the furnace,
this woul d mean a maxi mum error of _+ 10 ~oo . 2 8 6
100
F~naee Crog-Seellon In mmZ= LOO,t.O0 ~Or,9 ~
Io, 06 V
6 0
- . . \
"1-
"~ d" k
0
0 200 too 600 oCo i Ooo 1200 'v, OO
Surface Temperature (~)
FIG. 34. Compari son of measured and predicted average
heat fluxes in a furnace as a functi on of the l oad
t emper at ur e, z8~
Radiation heat transfer 145
6.1.2. Plug f l ow model
A schemat i c di agr am of the "pl ug-fl ow" model is
shown in Fig. 35. The t emper at ur e of t he gas
(combust i on product s) is assumed to depend on the
coor di nat e x in t he flow di rect i on. Thi s means t hat
t he plug flow model can be consi dered to consi st of
an i nfi ni t e number of st i r r ed vessels. The t emper at ur e
and the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of the l oad and walls are
assumed const ant but different. Based on a gray-gas
and zonal appr oxi mat i on for r adi at i on heat exchange,
the st eady- st at e energy bal ance on a cont r ol volume
of gas of length dx gives
dT~(x) . , ,
- - W{ e , a[ T, ( x ) - - T, ]
thepm dx
+h[T~j (x)- T~] } - Po Uo [ T ~ ( x ) - T j (6.8)
where W and P0 ar e t he furnace wi dt h and peri met er,
respectively, and lg is the effective gas emi ssi vi t y
which account s for t he refract ory walls and ot her
surfaces in t he furnace. In di mensi onl ess form, the
energy equat i on for the gas t emper at ur e can be
wri t t en as
dO._ (1/KoXO4_O~)_St(O_O~)
d
where
x T~ 0 _ 7 " ;
" = '
Ko= DiCpm h WL
St . . . . .
WLi , . f l T 3 ~ncp~
UoPoL
dP o -
thcmn
Anal yt i cal sol ut i ons of Eq. (6.9) and its special forms
have been obt ai ned and gr aphi cal results re-
ported.29'291
Extensive numeri cal cal cul at i ons of the gas tem-
perat ures al ong t he furnace using the stirred-vessel,
stirred-vessel-cascade, plug flow and t he modi fi ed
zonal model s have been report ed for furnaces havi ng
const ant and varyi ng si nk temperatures. 292'293 A
compar i son of t emper at ur e di st r i but i ons using five
zones (sections) al ong the furnace is given in Fig. 36.
The publ i shed results show t hat as the number of
sections in t he furnace increases, t he t emper at ur e
di st r i but i on pr edi ct ed empl oyi ng the stirred-vessel-
cascade and the modi fi ed zonal model s appr oaches
t he t emper at ur e cal cul at ed using the plug-flow model,
As expected for a single section al ong t he furnace, the
stirred-vessel and t he modi fi ed zonal model s predi ct
pr act i cal l y i dent i cal gas t emperat ures in the furnace.
- - ~ 0 ( 0 . - - 0 ~ ) ( 6 . 9 )
~
d Q , ,
H Products I l dO~ H U I ' T !
. . . . . . . . . . . . - . : ' H
FIG. 35. Schematic diagram of a plug flow model.
6.1.3. Multi-dimensional models
The comput at i onal met hods which have been
devel oped are abl e to compl ement , but not replace,
empi r i cal l y based design procedures. Thi s is because
chemi cal l y react i ng t urbul ent flows are not fully
underst ood, and it is provi ng par t i cul ar l y difficult
to el i mi nat e the deficiencies of exi st i ng turbulence
models. In the absence of rel i abl e turbulence model s
it is har dl y possi bl e to subject any of the ever-
i ncreasi ng number of combust i on and r adi at i ve
1800
1600
ca
1400
E
1200
O
i t \ x )
o
\ \ ' ' { o ) ' '
,~. Plug Flow
\
\
, S f i t r e 1 %%
Vessel ~ ~ .
Zonol ~
i i i
\
%- - Pl ug Flow
2 x _ ~ ~ . , . Stirred Vessel
;!.,... / :aecade
\
Stirred Vessel
Zonal
i
0 1 4 i i 1 i i
0 2 0. 6 0 8 0 0. 2 0. 4 0. 6 0. 8 LO
x~
FIG. 36. Comparison of gas temperature distributions along a one-zone la) and five-zone ( b) furnace
predicted by different models: Ko= 1, K=0.1 m- ] i:~j=0.104, ~==0.8, h/h=2/l, l/h=20/l, T~= 773 K. 2<j3
J?gCS 13: 2-D
146 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG(~(;
t ransfer model pr oposal s to a st ri ngent assessment.
Nevertheless, t wo-di mensi onaP ,294.295 (among others)
and t hr ee- di mensi onal 269.271.296 combust i on valid-
at i on studies reveal, for gaseous combust i on at least,
t hat pr edi ct i ons which are obt ai nabl e are sufficiently
rel i abl e t o be of i nt erest to combust i on engineers.
Gener al comput er - based procedures for the predic-
t i on of gaseous-fired rect angul ar and cyl i ndri cal
combust i on chamber s have been devel oped and a
review is a va i l a bl e : The zonal, flux, discrete-
or di nat es and fi rst -order spheri cal har moni cs ( P :
appr oxi mat i on) met hods have been assessed. For
nat ur al gas and oil fired furnaces onl y t hree species
(CO2, HzO and soot ) cont r i but e si gni fi cant l y to the
t r anspor t of r adi at i on in the infrared. The compu-
t at i ons have been car r i ed out on the gr ay or at most
on a wei ghed sum-of-t he-gray gas bases. Reasonabl e
agreement s are r epor t ed between measured and
pr edi ct ed fluxes (see Ref. 5 for compari sons). Unfor-
tunately, t he or i gi nal references includes l i t t l e det ai l
on how the mean abs or pt i on coefficients needed in
the r adi at i ve t ransfer model s have been det ermi ned.
It is suspected t hat the aut hor s had t o do consi der-
abl e "fi ne-t uni ng" of these model par amet er s to bri ng
about good agreement between model pr edi ct i ons
and dat a. The sensi t i vi t y of t he results t o r adi at i ve
pr oper t i es have al r eady been discussed in Section 4.5.
It shoul d be poi nt ed out t hat in the studies
discussed by Khal i l 5 and ot her s 269 t he emphasi s has
been on model i ng chemi cal l y react i ng t urbul ent flow
and combust i on and much less on real i st i c model i ng
of r adi at i on heat transfer. The general pr edi ct i on
procedures whi ch descri be the comput at i on of flow,
reaction, and heat t ransfer in t he combust i on region
of a typical, nat ur al gas-fired i ndust ri al glass pro-
duci ng furnace are sufficiently devel oped to const i -
tute a useful design tool. 269 Economi c handl i ng of
t hree-di mensi onal geomet r i c features is consi der abl y
enhanced by the use of special gri ds and t he separat e
cal cul at i on of the bur ner and bul k combust i on
chamber regi ons in a manner which t akes i nt o
account t he differing features of t hei r flows. The
pr edi ct i ons demonst r at e the value of comput at i ons
to furnace desi gners for t he range of oper at i ng
paramet ers. Recently, t he r adi at i ve t ransfer has been
t reat ed in sufficient det ai l using the di scret e t ransfer
met hod which cont ai ns some features of the zone,
discrete or di nat es and Mont e Car l o procedures. 24
The combust i on product s are t reat ed as gr ay and
scat t eri ng by part i cl es, such as soot aggl omerat es has
been neglected.
A det ai l ed di scussi on of anal yt i cal model i ng of
pract i cal combust i on chambers and furnaces, in-
cl udi ng a very extensive review of the l i t er at ur e has
recently been given by Robinson. 271 A three-
di mensi onal mat hemat i cal model is const ruct ed of a
l arge t angent i al l y-fi red furnace of the t ype used in
power - st at i on boilers. The model is based on a set of
13 differential equat i ons governi ng the t r anspor t of
mass, momentum and energy, t oget her with addi t i onal
250
2O0
150
5O
0
- 50
i , i , , i ,
- - - - - - / T I i " I000 K
.'Wilh
Tuth/RQa. Inl w.
Willloul Turb./Ro4. I n t l r .
I I I I I I I I I
0 0.2 04. 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/L
FIG. 37. Effect of preheated air fuel mixture temperature
and turbulence, radiation interaction on heat flux distri-
bution along a two-dimensional furnace burning methane:
H= 1 m. L=5 m, ~ = 1500 K. e~=0.8, e, =0.6. 3
equat i ons const i t ut i ng subsi di ar y model s of turbu-
lence, chemi cal react i on and r adi at i on heat t ransfer
phenomena. A six-flux, gr ay gas model is used to
predi ct r adi at i ve transfer. Comput er - memor y l i mi t -
at i ons restrict t he amount of geomet ri cal det ai l t hat
can be i ncl uded and prevent the use of a finite-
difference gr i d havi ng the desi red fineness. The model
is val i dat ed agai nst experi ment al dat a acqui red on
two large, nat ur al gas-fired furnaces.
Recently, the effect of t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on inter-
act i on in a t wo- di mensi onal , nat ur al gas-fired, indus-
t ri al furnace has been examined. 3 Based on an
appr oxi mat e anal ysi s of r adi at i ve transfer, the results
of cal cul at i ons show t hat t he effect of t urbul ence/
r adi at i on i nt eract i on on combust i on and scalar
pr oper t i es is small for a preheat ed f uel - ai r mi xt ure
when t he flame occupies a small volume of the
furnace. However, when t he flame occupi es a large
volume fract i on of the combust i on chamber the
i nt eract i on is qui t e significant. Anot her reason why
the effect of the i nt eract i on is l arger for T; = 300 K
t han for T~=1000 K is because t he t emper at ur e
fl uct uat i ons are l arger for the former case. The effect
of t he i nt er act i on on the t ot al heat flux al ong the
furnace shown in Fig. 37 clearly i ndi cat es the need to
account for t urbul ence when predi ct i ng r adi at i on
heat t ransfer in large, hi gh- t emper at ur e combust i on
systems. The net local heat flux to the si nk (load) can
become negat i ve for t he case when the t urbul ence/
r adi at i on i nt er act i on is neglected, because the as-
sumed si nk t emper at ur e ( Ts= 1500 K) is hi gher t han
t he local effective t emper at ur e of the combust i on
products.
6.2. Coal-Fired Furnaces
Radi at i on heat t ransfer in coal-fired furnaces has
received consi derabl e at t ent i on for more than 60 yr
because of the real i zat i on that it is the domi nant
mode of heat t ransfer in such systems. The earl i er
Radiation heat transfer 147
wor k on t he subject has been discussed by Doleza1297
and mor e recent studies have been reviewed by
Blokh. 4 The l at t er vol ume in par t i cul ar cont ai ns a
l arge body of f undament al r adi at i on pr oper t y dat a,
measured spect ral and t ot al i nci dent r adi at i on fluxes
al ong t he hei ght of different capaci t y furnaces as well
as empi r i cal cor r el at i ons for anal yzi ng t he t hermal
per f or mance of coal -fi red boilers. An up- t o- dat e
di scussi on of coal combust i on model s in which
r adi at i on heat t ransfer has al so been consi dered is
avai l abl e. 3 Despi t e the consi der abl e progress in the
devel opment of anal yt i cal met hods of engi neeri ng
science and despi t e an i ncreasi ng under st andi ng of
fundament al combust i on processes, t he design or
per f or mance pr edi ct i ons of coal -fi red furnaces may
still be consi dered as an ar t based pr i mar i l y on
empi r i cal knowl edge and the i ngenui t y of t he com-
bust i on engineer. Thi s is par t i cul ar l y true for large
boi l er furnaces because of t hei r ext remel y compl i -
cat ed geomet r y and boundar y condi t i ons 4'272'29s as
well as the l ack of confi dence in t he exi st i ng
anal yt i cal methods. Scal e-up and advanced perform-
ance anal yses of boi l er combust i on chambers have
been devel ope d272 using l abor at or y and/ or small
model furnace dat a. In spi t e of maj or i mpr ovement s
in t he anal yt i cal met hods for pr edi ct i ng the perform-
ance of coal -fi red furnaces 3'272 t here is still di st rust
by pract i cal furnace desi gners of the anal yt i cal
met hods because of geomet ri cal restrictions, probl ems
of st abi l i t y, compl exi t y of t he new met hods, l i mi t ed
appl i cabi l i t y of the models, etc.
In t hi s section we discuss t he use of mor e recent
model s to predi ct r adi at i on heat t ransfer in rel at i vel y
si mpl e furnaces, for the pur pose of gai ni ng i mpr oved
under st andi ng of r adi at i ve t ransfer and of the
rel at i ve i mpor t ance of t he model paramet ers. It is
hoped t hat t hi s woul d pr ovi de t he br i dge between the
scientific communi t y which is devel opi ng compre-
hensive combust i on system model s and furnace
designers who are at t empt i ng to solve pract i cal
probl ems based on empi r i cal knowledge. Reference is
made to l i t er at ur e which discusses met hods for
eval uat i on of t hermal performance of l arge boi l er
furnaces.
Det ai l ed reviews of r adi at i on heat t ransfer in
pul veri zed coal -fi red furnaces are avai l abl e. 4"272"299
Radi at i on heat t ransfer in furnaces is due to gaseous
and par t i cul at e cont r i but i ons. Emi ssi vi t y dat a for the
maj or emi t t i ng gaseous species CO2 and H2 0 are
general l y adequate. 4.64 Ot her gaseous species (e.g.
CO, SO2, NO, N2 0 ) are usually of secondary
i mpor t ance because of low concent rat i on. Local
vari at i ons in gas t emperat ure and species composi t i on
are subject to mor e uncer t ai nt y t han t he emi ssi vi t y
data. Cont r i but i ons to part i cl e r adi at i on in pulver-
ized coal -fi red systems usually results from coal
(char), soot a ndf l y- a s h. I nf or mat i on requi red for
predi ct i ng radi at i ve transfer includes different particle
concent rat i ons, size di st r i but i ons, compl ex i ndi ces of
refract i on and t emperat ure. 2~'* Fi nal l y, t he mi neral
mat t er deposi t ed ont o surfaces of coal -fi red furnaces
can great l y affect r adi at i on heat t ransfer due to the
al t er at i on of i t s emissivity. 7s Mi neral mat t er and ash
deposi t ed on walls of the tubes can also i ncrease
gr eat l y t he t hermal resi st ance to heat conduct i on
across the deposi t , and some si mpl e conduct ance
model s have been developed.'*
Dat a for soot, car bon and coal refract i ve i ndi ces
are general l y (but not necessari l y very accurat el y)
avai l abl e, '*'64 but significant uncer t ai nt y exists in the
part i cl e concent r at i on and size di st ri but i ons. In
gasifiers and staged combust i on systems, which
oper at e fuel-rich for ni t rogen oxi de pol l ut ant cont rol ,
soot r adi at i on may be par t i cul ar l y i mpor t ant . Unless
the soot - vol ume- f r act i on di st r i but i on in t he medi um
is known accurately, r adi at i on heat t ransfer to the
chamber walls can not be predi ct ed with confidence.
Fl y-ash part i cl es great l y influence the r adi at i ve
pr oper t i es of the flame and of the combust i on
product s in a pul veri zed-coal fired furnace. Dat a for
fly-ash are much less certain. 4'79-83 There is signifi-
cant var i at i on in t he refractive i ndi ces of pul veri zed-
coal and fly-ash with the t ype of coal, mi neral mat t er
in the coal, as well as the combust i on process itself.
Experi ment s have revealed t hat t he refract i ve index
of fly-ash part i cl es formed dur i ng the combust i on of
even one coal shows qui t e l arge differencesfl 7 Lowe
e t al. 3 have shown t hat in l arge boi l ers fly-ash
exerts a much great er effect on heat t ransfer to the
heat - absor bi ng surfaces in a furnace t han the aero-
dynami cs and ki net i c charact eri st i cs of a pulverized
coal burn-out. Radi at i on from fly-ash part i cl es
exceeds subst ant i al l y the cont r i but i on of bot h tri-
at omi c combust i on gases, as well as char and soot
part i cl es' * Cont r i but i on to r adi at i ve transfer by char
part i cl es is essent i al l y over the length of the flame. At
the end of the furnace t he concent r at i on of t he char
part i cl es is small, and t here t hey exert very l i t t l e effect
on t he r adi at i on heat flux at the wall.
400
300
q r , z , ,
(kW/m , 200
I 0 0
0
0 I0
g
c+s+g
2 4 6 8
z On)
FIG, 38. Effect of combustion products composition on the
radiation heat fl ux distribution along the wall of a
pulverized coal-fired furnace; (c=coal, f=fly-ash, s=soot,
g= combustion gases), for soot J,, = 2 m - 1.2,4
148 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOt;
Radi at i on heat t ransfer in a cyl i ndri cal , pul veri zed
coal-fired combust i on furnace has been predi ct ed
bot h on a gr ay 214 and nongr ay s9 basis. The
cal cul at i ons were car r i ed out by assumi ng the
t emper at ur e and r adi at i ng species concent r at i on
di st r i but i ons in t he furnace. The r adi at i ve charact er-
istics of t he coal part i cl es were pr edi ct ed from t he
Mi e t heory, aft er first assumi ng a coal part i cl e size
di st r i but i on. Det ai l s of r adi at i on heat t ransfer and
sensi t i vi t y cal cul at i ons can be found elsewhere. 214
The cont r i but i ons of t he different const i t uent s (coal,
fly-ash, soot and combust i on gases) on the local
r adi at i ve flux al ong the furnace are shown in Fig. 38.
It is cl ear from t he figure t hat neglect of the fly-ash
cont r i but i on and i ncl usi on of soot absor pt i on yields
a dr amat i c change in t he r adi at i ve t ransfer in the
medi um and at the cyl i ndr i cal wal l s (see curves
denot ed as c + f + g and c + s + g ) . The mai n reason
for t hi s di screpancy is t he repl acement of st rongl y
scat t eri ng fly-ash part i cl es by st rongl y absor bi ng
soot particles. The addi t i on of soot to coal +f l y- ash
+ gas mi xt ures (c + f + g) si mpl y decreases the r adi at -
ive flux on the cyl i ndr i cal wall since a gr eat er
fract i on of t he r adi ant energy is bei ng absor bed by
the medi um itself. It shoul d be ment i oned, however,
t hat t he effects pr edi ct ed 6'2~4 in t hi s way may be
exaggerat ed since in these cal cul at i ons the energy
equat i on is not solved. When r adi at i ve t ransfer is
t aken i nt o account in t he energy equat i on, the
t emper at ur e woul d change in a manner t hat woul d
par t i al l y compensat e for t he effects of changes in
r adi at i ve propert i es.
The results of sensi t i vi t y studies 214 have shown
t hat accurat e knowl edge of number density, t emper-
at ure and part i cl e concent r at i on di st r i but i ons are
mor e cri t i cal t han the det ai l ed i nf or mat i on about the
index of refract i on of part i cl es and gas concent r at i on
di st ri but i ons. The t ype of coal used affects r adi at i ve
transfer rel at i vel y little; however, t he neglect of fly-
ash out si de of the flame zone has been shown to have
a pot ent i al for l arge errors. Apparent l y, the accuracy
of r adi at i ve t ransfer pr edi ct i ons is not onl y l i mi t ed
by t he sol ut i on techniques of t he r adi at i ve t ransfer
equat i on or the pr edi ct i on of r adi at i ve propert i es,
but most l y by the accuracy of part i cl e concent r at i on
and combust i on pr oduct t emper at ur e di st r i but i ons
which are mor e t i me-consumi ng to eval uat e in the
needed detail.
The i mpor t ance of t he spat i al di st r i but i on of
r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of pul veri zed-coal and fly-ash in
pr edi ct i ng r adi at i on heat t ransfer accurat el y was al so
shown by Lowe e t a / . 3 In t hei r anal ysi s they
empl oyed Hot t el ' s zonal met hod to solve for radi -
at i ve t ransfer in a ut i l i t y t ype pulverized, coal-fired
furnace. They showed t hat furnace heat t ransfer was
i nsensi t i ve t o t he t ype of coal and coal fineness and
concl uded t hat combust i on dat a were adequat e for
cal cul at i on of r adi at i ve heat transfer. Lowe e t al . 3
recommended research on i gni t i on, combust i on
st abi l i t y and r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of fly-ash.
Current reviews of coal -fi red combust i on model s
are avai l abl e 2'3 t here is no need t o r epeat these
comprehensi ve discussions. Recent r adi at i ve t ransfer
model i ng for i ncl usi on in comprehensi ve multi-
di mensi onal combust i on codes has focused on mor e
efficient di fferent i al and flux met hods, 31-303 but
t here are exceptions. For example, Truel ove 34 used
a di scr et e- or di nat es met hod, which is more t i me-
consumi ng to eval uat e; however, to si mpl i fy t he
pr ocedur e the gas was consi dered to be gr ay and the
part i cl es were assumed t o be bl ack and nonscat -
tering. The classical Hot t el zonal met hod is compu-
t at i onaUy inefficient for use in mul t i di mensi onal
codes. In addi t i on, t here are concept ual and numer-
ical difficulties in adopt i ng t he met hod when ani so-
t r opi cal l y scat t eri ng part i cl es are present in the
combust i on products.
Avai l abl e comput er model s for scale-up and per-
formance pr edi ct i ons of boi l er combust i on chambers
have been reviewed. 272 The st at e-of-t he-art model for
pr edi ct i ng r adi at i on heat transfer in a compl i cat ed
boi l er combust i on furnace is based on advanced
Mont e Carl o t ype techniques. The model is des-
cr i bed in mor e det ai l elsewhere t oget her with exam-
ples of its pract i cal appl i cat i on. 272 It is shown how
pi l ot pl ant -scal e results can be scaled up wi t h the
hel p of t he model to predi ct full-scale per f or mance of
par t i cul ar boi l er furnaces. The uncert ai nt i es in pre-
di ct i ng t emperat ures and heat fluxes are also dis-
cussed. It is poi nt ed out t hat for pul veri zed coal -fi red
boi l ers maj or uncert ai nt i es are caused by the un-
known slagging and fouling pat t erns in t he furnace,
and an ash deposi t i on model coul d hel p to reduce
these uncertainties.
Recently, Fi vel and and Wesse1298 have devel oped
a very det ai l ed and extensive comput er model to
predi ct t he performance of t hree-di mensi onal pulver-
ized coal -fi red furnaces. They have account ed for
al most all of the i mpor t ant physical phenomena t hat
can be expected in such systems, i ncl udi ng turbu-
lence, chemi cal react i ons, devol at i l i zat i on, char oxi-
dat i on as well as r adi at i on heat transfer. Al t hough
they have consi dered different size part i cl es (e.g.
pol ydi spersi ons) and eval uat ed the r adi at i ve proper-
ties of part i cl es from Mi e theory, scat t eri ng in the
medi um has been consi dered i sot ropi c. The combus-
t i on gas pr oper t i es have been obt ai ned using the
Edwards wi de- band model, a5 and the average
pr oper t i es of t he gas- par t i cl e mi xt ure have been
cal cul at ed using the averagi ng t echni que pr oposed
by Wessel. ' 26 The r adi at i ve t ransfer equat i on has
been solved using the di scret e t ransfer met hod of
Lockwood and Shah; 23"24 however, t he met hod
has been revised first t o avoi d ar bi t r ar y r adi at i ve
source/ si nk t erms encount ered in cert ai n volume
elements due to numeri cal diffusion. Wal l emi ssi vi t y
and t hermal conduct ance of ash deposi t s can pr ovi de
a maj or resistance t o heat transfer from the f l ame-
combust i on product s to the walls of the furnace, and
these factors were account ed for in the analysis. Fl ow
Radiation heat transfer 149
FIG. 39. Heat flux isopleths on furnace walls (in W/m2). 29s
pat t erns, gas t emperat ure, concent r at i on and heat
flux di st r i but i ons have been predicted. In Fig. 39 the
heat flux di st r i but i on on the walls of t he furnace is
depicted. Not e t hat t hi s figure shows the furnace as
unfolded. These t ypes of results can be helpful in
i dent i fyi ng pot ent i al sl aggi ng/ foul i ng probl ems on
membr ane walls or convect i on-pass elements.
Model s of t hi s t ype are essential to under st and the
complex, large-scale, pul veri zed coal -fi red furnaces
and are val uabl e engi neeri ng design tools. The
r adi at i on heat t ransfer model needs to be i mpr oved
to make it mor e realistic. Ani sot r opi c scat t eri ng by
part i cl es has been neglected and soot has not been
t aken i nt o account ; therefore, t he enhancement or
bl ockage of r adi at i on by the soot l ayer is not
considered. However, as the aut hor s claim, the model
is still in t he i ni t i al stages of val i dat i on, and further
modi fi cat i ons in the radi at i on model would definitely
i mpr ove its rel i abi l i t y.
6.3. Gas Turbine Combustors
It is well est abl i shed t hat in gas t urbi ne combus-
t ors a l arge fract i on of the heat t ransferred from the
gases to t he l i ner walls is by radi at i on. The r adi at i on
is due to two cont ri but i ons: (1) the nonl umi nous
r adi at i on emi t t ed by gases such as CO2, H20, CO
and others, and (2) the l umi nous r adi at i on emi t t ed by
soot part i cl es in the flame. The l umi nous cont ri -
but i on from the soot depends on t he number and size
of the soot particles. In t he pr i mar y combust i on zone
most of the r adi at i on emanat es from the soot
part i cl es produced in the fuel-rich regi ons of the
flame. At high pressures encount ered in modern
150 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGO~:
turbines, the concent r at i ons of soot part i cl es is
sufficiently l arge to pr oduce hi gh enough opaci t i es
and consequent l y soot r adi at es as a bl ackbody. It is
under these condi t i ons t hat r adi ant heat i ng of the
l i ner wal l s is most severe and poses seri ous probl ems
to l i ner ' dur abi l i t y. 35
An excellent up- t o- dat e review of r adi at i on heat
t ransfer from t he fl ame in gas t ur bi ne combust or s has
been prepared. 6 Met hods for est i mat i ng nonl umi nous
r adi at i on t oget her with vari ous anal yt i cal (global)
models for flame r adi at i on in enclosures are discussed,
but at t ent i on is focused mai nl y on the fact ors t hat
govern t ot al r adi at i on heat t ransfer to the l i ner wall.
The i mpact of r adi at i on heat t ransfer on combust or
design features, combust or oper at i ng condi t i ons, fuel
composi t i on and fuel spr ay charact eri st i cs are dis-
cussed. A need for bet t er under st andi ng of r adi at i ve
t ransfer t o est abl i sh real i st i c model s for pr edi ct i ng
local heat flux di st r i but i on is emphasi zed. The
under st andi ng can be useful in devel opi ng anal yt i cal
t ool s which may l ead to i mpr oved l i ner dur abi l i t y in
future desi gns by pr escr i bi ng opt i mum ar r angement s
for the quant i t y and di st r i but i on of fi l m-cool i ng air.
In turn, t hi s appr oach can al so l ead to reduct i ons in
the t i me and cost of l i ner devel opment . 35
The simple, gl obal met hods based on the mean-
bcam-l engt h concept for pr edi ct i ng flame emi ssi vi t y
reviewed 6 are not capabl e of pr edi ct i ng local radi -
at i on heat flux di st r i but i on al ong t he l i ner wall.
Fur t her mor e, si mpl e met hods cannot account prop-
erly for r adi al and axi al nonuni f or mi t i es of temper-
ature, species concent r at i on and r adi at i ve pr oper t i es
of the s oot - gas mixtures. Thi s is a seri ous short -
comi ng because the combust or desi gner al l ocat es film
cool i ng ai r based on t he t ot al heat flux at the l i ner
wall. In the absence of rel i abl e heat flux predi ct i ons,
the desi gner must over pr ot ect the liner. Too much
cool ai r near t he walls, however, can reduce combus-
t i on efficiency, i ncrease pol l ut ant emissions, and
di st or t the t emper at ur e pat t er n at the combust or
outlet, which stresses the t ur bi ne blades.
The local r adi at i ve flux di st r i but i ons at the l i ner
wall of a t ypi cal gas t ur bi ne combust or have been
pr edi ct ed usi ng t he Ps - appr oxi mat i on for r adi at i on
transfer. 36 The mean t emper at ur e and soot concen-
t r at i on di st r i but i ons al ong the combust or were based
on experi ment al dat a. 37 The effects of axi al and
r adi al t emper at ur e and soot concent r at i on di st ri -
but i ons, t ype of fuel, and scat t eri ng by fuel dropl et s
were investigated. It was found t hat t he axi al and
r adi al t emper at ur e and soot concent r at i on di st ri -
but i ons i mpact ed the local r adi at i ve flux al ong the
l i ner wall in several ways. In Fig. 40, t he r adi at i ve
fluxes t o the cyl i ndri cal wall cal cul at ed for r adi al l y
uni form (solid lines) and radi al l y nonuni form (dashed
lines) soot concent r at i on di st r i but i ons are compared.
The medi um with a uni form r adi al soot concen-
t r at i on yi el ded l arger r adi at i ve flux at the l i ner walls,
at peak, t han the nonuni f or m profile. The temper-
at ure di st r i but i on was assumed uni form for bot h
1600 I J t
12oo
R~
~ , , \ / /
I
0 ~
0 2 4 6 8
z / r ,
FIG. 40. Effect of fuel type (K-kerosi ne and R50-fuel blend)
and of radial soot concentration distribution on radiation
heat flux at the cylindrical gas turbine combustor wall II-
uniform and 2,3-nonuniform radial soot distributions). 3""
soot profiles. In practice, such a nearl y uni form soot
concent r at i on profile, t hough unlikely, mi ght come
about i f film cool i ng ai r of the combust or penet rat ed
i nt o the combust i on zone sufficiently to quench the
soot oxi dat i on process.
The results suggest t hat accurat e cal cul at i on of the
r adi at i on heat flux at the combust or wall woul d
require bot h the r adi al t emper at ur e and soot concen-
t r at i on di st r i but i ons in the products. Indeed, the
r adi al t emper at ur e di st r i but i on had great er i mpact
on the t ot al r adi at i ve heat flux than t he t ype of fuel
for the condi t i ons exami ned in the study. 36 However,
scat t eri ng of r adi at i on by fuel dropl et s in a gas
t urbi ne combust or was found to be negl i gi bl e in
compar i son t o absor pt i on by soot. The average
r adi at i ve heat flux cal cul at ed by the P3-approxi -
mari on compar ed reasonabl y well with results based
on the mean-beam-l engt h cal cul at i ons used in the gas
t urbi ne combust or industry. 6"as However, the P3-
model results were abl e t o pi npoi nt l ocat i ons of
maxi mum r adi at i ve flux at the l i ner wall.
The pr obl em of t hree-di mensi onal t wo-phase com-
bust i on has been appr oached with the ai m of
pr oduci ng an al gor i t hm based on fundament al
pri nci pl es which correl at e all of the det ai l s of
combust i on occurri ng wi t hi n a gas t ur bi ne combus-
t i on can. "~'3s'39 A mat hemat i cal model of the
t hree-di mensi onal , t wo-phase react i ng flows in gas
t urbi ne combust or s has been devel oped which t akes
i nt o account t he mass, moment um, and energy
coupl i ngs between the phases, The model i ncorpor-
ates an accurat e represent at i on of the dr opl et
di st r i but i ons encount ered in gas t urbi ne combust ors,
Radiation heat transfer 151
and solves the relevant equat i ons for the t raj ect ory
and evapor at i on of dr opl et s numeri cal l y in a
Lagr angi an frame of reference, using a finite-
difference sol ut i on of t he gover ni ng equat i ons of the
gas. Radi at i ve t ransfer is model ed using the six-flux
appr oxi mat i on, but i nf or mat i on on the r adi at i ve
pr oper t i es of the combust i on product s used in the
cal cul at i ons is not provi ded. The emphasi s in the
results r epor t ed is on flow and combust i on para-
meters as no results on r adi at i ve t ransfer are given.
6.4. Internal Combustion Engines
Radi at i on heat t ransfer in diesel engines is domi n-
at ed by the cont i nuum r adi at i on emi ssi on by soot
part i cl es, which are present dur i ng the combust i on
process. Radi at i on al so occurs from the carbon
di oxi de and wat er vapor molecules, but because t hat
energy is concent r at ed in spect ral bands r at her t han
over the ent i r e spect rum its effect is subor di nat e with
respect to t he energy emi t t ed by the soot. Radi at i on
is al so emi t t ed in bands by many of the i nt er medi at e
species formed dur i ng combust i on, but t hei r effect is
assumed to be even less i mpor t ant .
In spar k- i gni t i on engines, where t he combust i on is
usually soot free, the r adi at i on heat t ransfer is al ways
small compar ed to the convect i on heat transfer. The
same seems to be the case in diesel engines duri ng
those t i mes in the cycle when soot is not prevalent.
Dur i ng combust i on t he r adi at i on heat t ransfer is of
the same or der of magni t ude as the convect i on heat
transfer; whet her 25, 50 or 150y,, of the convect i on
heat t ransfer is a poi nt ar gued about even in the
current literature. The argument s stem from the facts
t hat (1) unequi vocal heat t ransfer measurement s are
not possible, and (2) t he rel at i ve i mpor t ance of
convect i on compar ed to r adi at i on is hi ghl y depen-
dent upon t he engine design and oper at i ng charact er-
istics. In cer ami c- l i ned engines the convect i on heat
transfer is expected to be reduced mor e t han the
r adi at i on heat transfer, and thus r adi at i on will be
rel at i vel y mor e i mpor t ant t han convection.
Par amet r i c studies of r adi at i on heat t ransfer in
diesel engines have been recently reported, an-an3
The met hod devel oped by Chang et aL 3j'3~n calcu-
lates spectral and t ot al i nt ensi t y at the chamber walls.
It is based on t he i nt egral form of the RTE al ong the
l i ne-of-si ght and uses i n-cyl i nder species and temper-
at ure di st r i but i ons as well as a coor di nat e t ransfor-
mat i on to ai d in t he i nt egrat i ons. The met hod is
i ncompat i bl e with the finite-difference combust i on
models, but can yi el d accurat e results for r adi at i ve
t ransfer al ong the line-of-sight. Spheri cal har moni cs
(P~- and P3-) appr oxi mat i ons have al so been appl i ed
to predi ct r adi at i on heat t ransfer for the condi t i ons
encount ered in a diesel engine. It has been shown
t hat t he P~- appr oxi mat i on is comput at i onal l y very
cost effective in compari son to the P3-approxi mat i on,
al t hough it over pr edi ct s the t ot al r adi at i on heat loss
to the engine walls by 20 ~ and the local r adi at i on
1 2
Pu
L o - e p , , / _ ~ _
~ O . G / / ~ ' , onstan!
o . z . ~ f ....#."
"~O" O" I0 " 20"
CA
FIG. 41. Comparison of total radiation heat losses to a
diesel engine cyJinder wall as a function of crank angle
(CA). .~13
heat flux to the walls adj acent to thin gas zones by as
much as 1 0 0 ~ . 313
The most i mpor t ant advant age of differential
model s (like the spheri cal har moni cs appr oxi mat i on)
is t hei r fl exi bi l i t y to al l ow for var i at i on of r adi at i ve
pr oper t i es wi t hi n the medium. In Fig. 41 the t ot al
r adi at i ve flux to diesel engine walls is compar ed at
different crank angles for const ant and spat i al l y
varyi ng ext i nct i on coefficient di st r i but i ons 3n 3 which
were obt ai ned from publ i shed experi ment al data. 3~4
It is cl ear from t hi s figure t hat using a mean
ext i nct i on coefficient to si mpl i fy the r adi at i ve trans-
fer cal cul at i ons can not al ways be justified, as the
fluxes may be under pr edi ct ed by about a fact or of
three. The r adi at i on from soot has been found to be
much st ronger t han t hat from the gases. 3~J In
addi t i on, the spectral results al so reveal di st i nct
spectral selectivity due to the st rong gas r adi at i on
bands of CO2 and H2 0 at elevated pressures.
As in gas turbines, scat t eri ng of r adi at i on by fuel
dropl et s in diesel engines was also found to be
negl i gi bl e compar ed to absor pt i on by soot. 3z 3 Use of
an average homogeneous (posi t i on i ndependent )
absor pt i on coefficient in the engine to si mpl i fy
r adi at i on cal cul at i ons was found to be unjustifi-
able. 3~a It was also shown t hat the di st r i but i on of
r adi at i ve flux at the head and piston was i ncorrect l y
predi ct ed and t hat the t ot al heat loss coul d be
underpredi ct ed by as much as 60 ~o.
6.5. Fires as Combustion Systems
Fl ame r adi at i on pl ays an i mpor t ant role in the
flame structure, spread and heat transfer from
unwant ed fires. A recent review 7 has focused on basi c
aspect s of fire and has present ed an el ement ary but
unified t reat ment of the phenomenon by consi deri ng
bot h urban and wi l dl and fires. Several ot her re-
views 31"43'239'240'315'316 have t reat ed aspects of
flame r adi at i on and have cont r i but ed great l y to the
phenomenoi ogy. The i nt erest ed r eader is referred to
these reviews for books and ori gi nal research paper s
152 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOg:
in the field, and the special issues of Combustion
Science and Technology (Vol. 39, Nos. 1--6 and Vol.
40, Nos. 1-4, 1984) on Fi r e Science for Fi r e Safety,
honor i ng Professor Howar d W. Emmons in which
numer ous paper s concerned with fires are included.
It has now been accept ed t hat r adi at i on is the
domi nant mode of heat transfer in fires of large scale,
whereas convect i on (or conduct i onI is the domi nant
mode of heat t ransfer of very small scale fires.
Det ai l ed heat t ransfer measurement s have demon-
st rat ed t hat r adi at i on heat t ransfer from fuel surfaces
t ypi cal l y exceeds free convect i on heat t ransfer for
char act er i st i c fuel lengths great er t han 0.2 m. 239
Nonl umi nous and l umi nous r adi at i on from t urbul ent
di ffusi on flames has been recently discussed and
the i mpor t ance of t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on i nt er act i ons
has been recently poi nt ed out by Faet h et
al. 31'254'255 Dur i ng t he l ast decade t here have been
numer ous cont r i but i ons to the l i t er at ur e concerned
wi t h r adi at i on heat t ransfer in fires, and it is not
possi bl e to do j ust i ce to t hem in t hi s very short
account.
Buoyant encl osure flows have appl i cat i ons to
furnaces and in such phenomena as fire spread in
r ooms and buildings. Numer i cal and experi ment al
st udi es of t wo- di mensi onal and t hr ee- di mensi onal
t urbul ent buoyant , si mpl e and compl ex enclosures
have been summari zed by Yang and Lloyd. 317 The
results obt ai ned have demonst r at ed t hat first-
pri nci pl e numer i cal finite-difference cal cul at i ons,
t oget her with a simple, yet r at i onal al gebr ai c turbu-
lence model, can pr ovi de reasonabl e pr edi ct i ons to a
vari et y of buoyancy- dr i ven vented enclosure-flow
phenomena when compar ed to cor r espondi ng experi-
ment al data. The geomet ri es consi dered unvent ed
and vented enclosures, ai rcraft cabi n compar t ment s
and others, but the effects of radi at i on were neglected.
At hi gher t emperat ures t hermal r adi at i on gener-
al l y pl ays a si gni fi cant role in affecting the heat
t ransfer in enclosures such as rooms and buildings,
and i nt eract i ons between t hermal r adi at i on and
nat ur al or mi xed convect i on must be account ed for
in the descr i pt i on of t he pert i nent moment um and
energy t ransfer processes. Recent di scussi ons on
numeri cal model i ng of nat ur al convect i on- r adi at i on
i nt er act i ons in mul t i di mensi onal enclosures are
avai l abl e. 3~a'319 The i nt er act i ons depend on the
r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of the absorbi ng, emi t t i ng and
scat t eri ng medi a filling the enclosure, a met hod of
cal cul at i ng mul t i di mensi onal r adi at i ve t ransfer and
t he numeri cal sol ut i on of the gover ni ng equat i ons
for buoyant flows. Current knowl edge in these sub-
areas has been discussed. On the basi s of these
reviews,3~ s.319 it is apparent t hat nat ural convect i on-
r adi at i on i nt er act i ons in buoyant enclosure flows ar e
still in t he devel opi ng stage. An efficient overall
comput at i onal scheme is still l acki ng, and met ho-
dol ogi es which have been devel oped for nat ural -
convect i on i nt er act i on studies do not appear to have
been appl i ed to gai n i mpr oved under st andi ng or
model i ng of fire phenomena. Several studies are
ment i oned here.
Cooper st udi ed fires in enclosures and descri bed
the ceiling j et resulting from the fire, 32 the effect of
buoyant source in st rat i fi ed layers, 32~ and the effect
of side walls in gr owi ng fires. 322 However, onl y in the
l ast paper di d he consi der the effect of r adi at i on
using si mpl e expressi ons for r adi at i ve transfer to
est i mat e t he wall t emperat ure. Bagnar o et al. 323
devel oped a model to predi ct experi ment al r oom fires
under st eady and t ransi ent condi t i ons. They used a
moment met hod ~77 to solve the r adi at i ve transfer
equat i on in t hr ee- di mensi onal enclosures. To repre-
sent the combust i on gas cont r i but i on they empl oyed
a sum-of-gray-gases model. Thei r results showed
good agreement with experi ment al data. Also,
Mar kat os and Peri cl eous 324 st udi ed the effect of
r adi at i on on fires in t hr ee- di mensi onal enclosures.
They empl oyed the six-flux model of Spal di ng (see
Subsect i on 4.4.1) for the sol ut i on of RTE. However,
in nei t her of these studies is the dependence of the
r adi at i ve pr oper t i es on the posi t i on (i.e. concen-
t r at i on and t emperat ure) in the medi um consi dered
in detail.
Ti en and Lee 43 have pr ovi ded a comprehensi ve
summar y of the r adi at i ve pr oper t i es of nonhomo-
geneous and par t i cul at e cont ai ni ng medi a t ypi cal of
the flame envi ronment . These dat a can then be used
in r adi at i on- ener gy transfer models, which, in turn,
det er mi ne the charact eri st i cs of i gni t i on and fire
spr ead for the condensed fuel. TM 6.325 - 331 Dur i ng
the combust i on of condensed fuels, pyrol ysi s at the
fuel surface produces numerous and var i ed hydro-
car bon gases and soot. The fuel vapors diffuse to the
flame zone where they react exot hermi cal l y with
oxygen diffusing from the ot her side of the flame
zone. Energy released from t he flame zone heat s the
fuel surface, thus mai nt ai ni ng the existing pyrolysis,
creat i ng new areas of pyrolysis, and spreadi ng the
fire. The pyrol yzed gases absor b energy in the
i nfrared and at t enuat e the feedback r adi at i on to t he
fuel surface. Thi s feedback mechani sm becomes
i mpor t ant when t he gases are st rongl y absor bi ng and
are soot y or when the pat hl engt h becomes large, as in
large-scale fires. For sol i d and l i qui d fires, the
combust i on rate is cont rol l ed by the heat transfer
from the combust i on zone to the fuel surface. In
large-scale fires ( L>0. 7 m) fire energy is domi nat ed
by r adi at i on, Qnd the combust i on rat e is cont rol l ed
by r adi ant feedback from the flame to the fuel
surface. Blockage effects by the pyrol i zed gases and
part i cul at es near the fuel surface (discussed in
Section 5.2) can at t enuat e significantly the i ncomi ng
r adi at i on flux. Current anal yt i cal model s for pre-
di ct i ng the r adi at i on heat flux to the fuel surface
consi st ent l y over pr edi ct the pyrol ysi s rat e because
the bl ockage effect is not account ed for. The
assumpt i on of an i sot hermal and homogeneous flame
for large scale fires may al so lead to significant errors.
The l ack of r adi at i ve propert y dat a for r adi at i on
Radiation heat transfer 153
heat t ransfer cal cul at i ons is a maj or l i mi t at i on in
i mpr ovi ng current fire models. Radi at i ve pr oper t i es
of common combust i on gases and opt i cal const ant s
for soot and si mpl e cal cul at i on schemes for deter-
mi ni ng the emi ssi on coefficients of l umi nous flames
have been reviewed. 43 The pr oper t i es for some of the
hydr ocar bon gas species whi ch are evolved by the
pyrol ysi s of condensed fuels, such as plastics, have
been publ i shed recently. 332- 33,, Radi at i ve pr oper t i es
of such gas species as et hyl ene (C2H4), et hane (C2H,),
pr opane (C3Hs), met hyl met hacr yl at e (C3HsO2), and
ot her s which are maj or species in pyrol i zed gases are
needed. The wi de- band 35 and super - band 4'~ model
par amet er s need to be generat ed from experi ment al
dat a for the r adi at i vel y i mpor t ant gases. Tot al
emi ssi vi t y chart s can be devel oped for each gas once
the band par amet er s have been det ermi ned. These
char t s gr aphi cal l y express the dependence of t ot al
emi ssi vi t y on the t emperat ure, pressure, and opt i cal
pat hl engt h of the emi t t i ng gas and great l y si mpl i fy
the cal cul at i on of fl ame r adi at i on problems. How-
ever, band i nf or mat i on becomes necessary when
different gases are combi ned which have over l appi ng
bands in or der to det er mi ne the correct i on. Pre-
di ct i ons of r adi at i ve t ransfer in large-scale fires based
on dat a from smal l -scal e flames in l abor at or y
experi ment s, however, have been very l i mi t ed in
accuracy and requi re much mor e research at t ent i on.
The t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on i nt er act i ons and coupl ed
effects of r adi at i on and flame st ruct ure for small
l abor at or y flames were discussed in Section 5.7. They
were found to be mor e i mpor t ant for l umi nous than
for nonl umi nous flames. Since smoke (soot) is
generat ed in open, compar t ment and bui l di ng fires
which are much l arger in scale t han small l abor at or y
flames, the t ur bul ence/ r adi at i on i nt eract i ons are
expected to be even mor e si gni fi cant because of the
large and hi ghl y var i abl e local opaci t i es t hat may be
encount ered in these t ypes of systems. The buoyant
smoke pl ume gener at ed by a large fire also involves
r adi at i on exchange wi t hi n itself and wi t h its envi ron-
ment. The heat and part i cul at es released by a fire
creat e complex flow pat t er ns which are det ermi ned
by a vari et y of factors. The i nt er act i ons of r adi at i on,
t urbul ence and flow st ruct ure as well as the feedback
between t hem in l arge fires ar e t opi cs which have
received pr act i cal l y no research at t ent i on and are not
underst ood.
7. CONCLUDI NG REMARKS
By hi ghl i ght i ng recent devel opment s in model i ng
r adi at i ve transfer, the present review ai ms to increase
recogni t i on t hat very often r adi at i on pl ays an
i mpor t ant , if not t he domi nant , rol e in heat t ransfer
not onl y in l arge and i nt er medi at e but al so in small
combust i on systems. Neglect of r adi at i on cannot
be j ust i fi ed in model i ng combust i on phenomena.
Model i ng of r adi at i ve t ransfer in combust i on sys-
tems can be r at her "forgi vi ng" because r adi at i on is a
JPEC8 13 : 2- g
"' long range" or "act i on at a di st ance" t r anspor t
process. In many physi cal si t uat i ons r adi at i on can be
model ed wi t hout det ai l ed i nput of complex chemistry,
chemi cal l y react i ng t urbul ent flow and knowl edge of
the fl ame and the react i on region.
Thi s review has concent r at ed on r adi at i on heat
t ransfer in combust i on systems. It is cl ear from the
review t hat r adi at i on from flames and combust i on
product s requi res det ai l ed i nf or mat i on on the radi -
at i ve pr oper t i es of the combust i on gases and part i c-
ulates. Despi t e the many efforts which have been
devot ed to the probl em, the met hods devel oped for
r adi at i on heat t ransfer in mul t i di mensi onal geo-
met ri es are far from sat i sfact ory, par t i cul ar l y when
t emperat ures and gas par t i al pressures and part i c-
ul at e concent r at i ons are varyi ng al ong t he pat h
length. The cal cul at i on of r adi at i on in combust i on
systems is qui t e involved, and most of t he techniques,
except t hose which are called flux or differential
appr oxi mat i ons, are i ncompat i bl e with t he numer-
ical al gor i t hms for sol vi ng the fluid dynami cs-
t r anspor t equat i ons.
Dur i ng the course of the review, a number of
pr obl em areas have been i dent i fi ed and are discussed
in the article. Some specific r ecommendat i ons for
work in model i ng r adi at i ve transfer in combust i on
systems are the following:
(1) Radi at i ve pr oper t y dat a of less common gases
such as et hyl ene (C2H4), et hane (C2H~,), as well
as pr opane (C3Hs) and ot her mor e i mpor t ant
radi cal s are needed. Radi at i ve pr oper t i es of
part i cul at es encount ered in pul veri zed coal com-
bust i on such as fly-ash, char and ot hers need to
be predi ct ed and verified experimentally. There
is a very l arge uncert ai nt y in the r adi at i ve
pr oper t i es of these t ypes of part i cul at es t hat
have been report ed in the literature. Most of the
pr oper t i es of part i cl es have been obt ai ned at
condi t i ons much different than those encoun-
t ered in flames; therefore, it is still not cl ear
whet her these dat a can be used with confidence
for combust i on studies.
(2) There has been progress in model i ng the t hermal
r adi at i on pr oper t i es of gases and particulates.
However, more research effort is needed, es-
pecially on physi cal l y and anal yt i cal l y well-
founded represent at i ons t hat are si mpl e and
conveni ent for use in comput er codes of com-
bust i on systems. Consi der i ng t hat a charact er-
i st i c length is always requi red for use in the
models and t hat such a length can not be
ri gorousl y defined for most pract i cal multi-
di mensi onal systems, it is cl ear t hat the concept
needs addi t i onal research at t ent i on.
(3) The nongr ay effects have been recognized as
bei ng very i mpor t ant and it is known t hat the
gr ay appr oxi mat i on overpredi ct s the emi ssi on
of r adi at i on from flames with low soot content.
The cal cul at i ons of r adi at i ve t ransfer for non-
154 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG0~
homogeneous, noni sot hermai flames on a non-
gray basis would enable accurate predictions of
flame emission for a wide range of pathlengths~
The results could then be used to establish
scaling relations and to assess the range of
validity of the gray analysis.
(4) In combust i on systems involving the burni ng of
solid fuels such as pulverized coal, the particles
and gases surrounding them are at different
temperatures. Analytical models based on
experiment need to be developed to predict
radiative transfer and temperatures in such
systems. The slip between particles and gases
must be considered. This is not onl y i mport ant
for predicting accurately the flow and temper-
ature fields, but also necessary for the under-
st andi ng of soot format i on and soot volume
fraction distribution in the medium.
(5) In most practical, large-scale combust i on sys-
tems the chemically reacting flow is turbulent.
The question needing an answer is to what
extent the interaction of turbulence and radi-
at i on will modi fy the flow properties, radiative
transfer and temperature in the combust i on
system. In turn, this will affect the chemical
reactions, radiating species concent rat i ons and
their distributions as well as the flame structure.
This may be particularly i mport ant in large-
scale, highly turbulent flames and fires con-
taining soot.
(6) Rigorous and relatively simple models for
handling radiative transfer in one-dimensional
and some two-dimensional geometries are avail-
able; however, there is still a need for effective,
accurate, and simple-to-use multidimensional
models. Radiative transfer should be accounted
for in the thermal energy equation when model-
ing combust i on phenomena. The accuracy of the
radiation model should be compatible with t hat
of the combust i on model. The calculations
should be interactive in nature, t hat is, radiative
properties should be predicted from the know-
ledge of the gas and particle concentrations, and
these properties should then be used in calcu-
lating local radiation heat transfer, temperature
distributions and local radiating species concen-
trations. Because of the nonlinearities of the
processes, such calculations will, most likely,
have to be carried out iteratively.
(7) Effort should be devoted to develop approxi-
mate, but physically sound, relations Claws") for
scaling radiative transfer in combust i on systems.
Such relations are needed for scaling small
l aborat ory flames (combustion systems) to large
scale ones typical of real or practical combus-
tion systems. Most likely some of these laws will
be empirical in nature; therefore, experimental
dat a will be needed for small laboratory, proto-
types as well as full-scale systems to validate the
relations.
(8) Research effort should be devoted to experiment-
ally validating the radiative transfer model(s) in
order to demonst rat e the potential usefulness of
the methods t o the analysis and design of
practical systems.
Acknowledgements Much of the aut hor' s recent work
reported in t hi s review was supported by CONOCO. Inc.
t hrough a grant to the Coal Research Cent er of Purdue
University. It is a pleasure to acknowledge CONOCO' s
interest in fundamental radi at i on heat transfer research
rehlted to combust i on systems. The aut hors wish to express
t hei r appreci at i on to Miss Nancy Rowe for her dedicated
help in t ransformi ng t hei r notes i nt o a polished manuscript.
The aut hors are also i ndebt ed to t he anonymous reviewers
for poi nt i ng out typographical errors and for suggesting
i mprovement s in the presentation.
REFERENCES
1. ORAN, E. S. and Bo)us, J. P., Prog. Energy Combust.
Sci. 7, 1 (1981).
2. SMOOT, L. D., Prog. Energy Combust. Sci., I0, 229
(1984).
3. SMOOT, D. L. and SMITH, P. J., Coal Combustion and
G a s i f i c a t i o n , Plenum Press. New York (1985).
4. BLOKH, A. G., Heat TransJer in Steam Boiler Furnaces,
Energoatomizdat, Leni ngrad (1984) (in Russian) (to be
published by Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washing-
ton, D.C.).
5. KHALIL, E. E., Modeling Furnaces and Combustors,
Abacus Press, Tunbri dge Wells, Kent (1982).
6. LEFEBVRE, A. H., Int. J. Heat Mass Tran.~fer 27, 1493
(1984).
7. WILLIAMS, F. A., Prog. Energy Combust. Sci, 8, 317
(1982).
8. Kuo, K. K., Principles of Combustion, Wiley, New
York (1986).
9. BIRD, R. B., STEWART. W. E. and LIGHTFOOT, E. N..
Transport Phenomen,:, Wiley, New York (1960).
10. SAMPSON, D. H., Radiative Contributions to Energy and
Momentum Transport in a Gas, Interscience Pub-
lishers, New York (1965).
11. VINCENn, W. G. and KRUGER, JR., C. H., Introduction
to Physical Gas Dynamics, Wiley, New York (1965).
12. PREISENIX)RFER, R. W., Radiative Transfer Theory on
Discrete Spaces, Pergamon Press, New York (1965).
13. HARMS, E. G. and SIMON, A., Physics Fluids 3, 255
(1960).
14. OSBORN, R. K. and KLEVANS, E H., Ann. Phys. 15, 105
(1961).
15. CHANDRASEKHAR, S., Radiative TransJer, Oxford Uni-
versity Press, London (1950)(also Dover Publications,
New York (1960)).
16. KOURGANOFF, V., Basic Methods in TransJer Problems,
Oxford University Press, London (1952).
17. SOBOLEV, V. V., A Treatise on Radiative Tran,~fer, D.
Van Nost rand, Princeton, N.J. (1963).
18. BORN, M. and WOLF E., Principles of Optics, 2nd Edn,
Pergamon Press, Oxford (1964).
19. OZi~lg, M. N., Radiative Transfer and Interactions with
Conduction and Convection, Wiley, New York (1973).
20. SIEGEL, R. and HOWELL, J. R., Thermal Radiation Heat
Transfer, 2nd Edn, Hemisphere, Washington, D.C.
(1981).
21. CARLSON, B. G. and LATHROP, K. D., Computing
Methods in Reactor Physics, H. Greenspan, C. N.
Kelber and D. Okrent (Eds), Gor don and Breach,
Science Publishers Inc., New York (1968).
Radi at i on heat t ransfer 155
22. LEDOUX, P. and WALRAVEN, TH., Htmdhuch der Physik,
S. Flugge (Ed.), Vol. 11, pp. 353-604, Spri nger Verl,'tg,
Berlin 11958[
23. SIMON, R., J. qu,mtre Spectrosc. radiot. Tron.~/i i, 3
11963).
24. TOWNSEND, A. A., J. Fluid Mech. 3, 361 11958).
25. SHRED, G. M. and AKMAYEV, R. A., Atmos. Ocean.
Phys. I0, 894 11974).
26. PRINN, R. G., J. atmos. Sei. 34, 1386 11977).
27. PEARCE, B. E. and VARMA, A. K., Radi at i on-t urbul ence
i nt eract i on in a tactical missile exhaust plume, AI AA
Pap. No. AIAA-81-1110 (1981).
28. TAN, E. and FOSTER, P. J., Heat TransJer--1978,
Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Vol. 3, pp. 403-408,
Washi ngt on, D.C. 11978).
29. FERGUSON, C. R. and MELLOR, A. R., Radiative heat
transfer from gas t urbi ne flames, AS ME Pap. No. 79.
GT-144 (1979).
30. SONG. T. H. and VISKANTA, R., J. Thermophys. Heat
Transfer 1, 56 0987).
31. FAE-IrH, G. M., JE'NG, S.-M. and GORE, J., Heot Tron.~/br
in Fire and Combustion Systems, C. K. Law, Y. Jaluria.
W. W. Yuen and K. Miyasaka (Eds), pp. 137-151,
ASME, New York (1985).
32. GOODY, R. M., Atmospheric RadiatiotL Oxford Univer-
sity Press, London 11964).
33. TIL~,~, C. L., Adranees in Heat Tran.~/er, T. F. Irvine, Jr.
and J. P. Hart net t (Eds), Vol. 5, pp. 254-324, Academic
Press, New York (1968).
34. LrdDWIG. C. B,, MALKMUS, W., REARDON, J. G. and
THOMSON, J. A. L., Handbook o/ i nJi ' ared Radiation
From Combustion Gases, R. Goul ard and J. A. L.
Thomson (Eds), NASA SP-3080, Washington, D.C.
11973).
35. EDWARDS, D. K., Adranees in Heat TransJer, T. F.
Irvine, Jr and J. P. Hart net t (Eds), Vol. 12, pp. 115-193,
Academic Press, New York (1976).
36. EDWARDS, D. K. and MENARD, W. A., Appl. Opt. 3, 621
(1964).
37. TIES, C. L. and LOWDER, J. E., Int. J. Mass Tran.~fer 9,
698 11966).
38. Hsmn, T, C. and GRnF, R., Int. J, Heat Mass Trons.]t,r
15, 1477 11972).
39. EDWARDS, D. K. and BALAKRISHNAN, A., Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer 16, 25 11973).
40. FELSKE, J. D. and TIEN, C. L., int. J. Heat Mass
Trtmsfer 17, 155 11974).
41. TIWARI, S. N., Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 20, 741
(1977).
42. TIWARI, S. N., Adwmees in Geophysics, B. Saltzman
(Ed.), Vol. 20, pp. 1-85, Academic Press, New York
11978).
43. T~EN, C. L. and LEE, S. C., Prog. Energy Combust. SoL 8,
41 (1982).
44. Yu, Q. Z., BROSMER, M. A. and TIEN, C. L., Proceedings
of the 1985 International Symposium on Heat Transfer,
Beijing, Chi na 11985) (to appear).
45. MI~GO~:, M. P., Modeling of radi at i ve heat transfer in
mul t i di mensi onal enclosures using spherical har-
monics approxi mat i on, Ph.D. Thesis, Purdue Univer-
sity, West Lafayette, IN (1985).
46. HOTTEL, H. (2. and SAROFIM, A. F., Radiatire Tran.~/er,
McGraw Hill, New York 11967).
47. EDWARDS, D. K. and MATAVOSIAN, R., J. Heat
TransJer 106, 684 (1984).
48. LECKNER, B., Combust. Flame 19, 33 (1972).
49. MODAK, A. T., Fire Res. I, 339 11979).
50. STEWARD, F R. and KOCAEFE, Y. S., Heat TronsJer--
1986, C. L. Tien, V. P. Carey, and J. K. Ferrell (Eds),
Vol. 2, pp. 735-740, Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,
Washington, D.C. (1986).
51. TAYLOR, P. B. and FOSTER, P. J., Int. J. Heat Mass
TransJer 17, 1591 11974).
52. SMrm, T. F., SHEN, Z. F. and FRIEDMAN, J. N., J. Heot
Transfer 104. 602 (1982[
53. FARAG, I. H., Heat Transfer 1982, U. Grigull, E.
Hahne, K. St ephan and J. St raub (Eds), VoL 2. pp.
489-492. Hemisphere, Washington, D.C. (1982).
54. COPALLE, A. and VERVlSCH, P., Combust. Flame 49. 101
11983).
55. GROSSHANDLER, W. L., Int. J. Heot Mass Tran.~fer 23,
1447 11980).
56. VISKANTA, R., lnt. J. Heot Moss Tron,~/er 7, 1047
(1964[
57. TRAUGOTT, S. C., J. quontve Spectrosc. radiat. TransJer
8, 971 11968).
58. PATCH, R. W., J. quantve Speetrosc. radiat. Transfer 7,
611 11967).
59. MENGO~, M. P. and VISKANTA, R., Heat Transf er--
1986, C. L. Tien, V. P. Carey. and J. K. Farrell (Eds),
Vol. 2, pp. 815-820, Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,
Washington, D.C. 11986).
60. FELSKE, J. D. and TIEN, C. L., Combust. Sei. Teehnol. 7,
25 11973).
61. MENGO~:, M. P. and VISKANTA, R., J. Heat TransJer
108, 271 11986),
62. CROSBII~ A. L. and VISKANTA, R., J. qutmtt'e Spectrosc.
radiat. TronsJ~,r 9, 533 (1969).
63. BEER, J. M.. J. inst. Fuel 37, 286 11964).
64. SAROFIM, A. F. and HOTTEL, H. C., Heat TronsJer--
1978, Vol. 6, pp. 199-217, Hemisphere Publishing
Corp., Washington, D.C. 11978).
65. VAN DE HULST, H. C., Light Scattering by Small
Particles, Wiley, New York 11957) (also Dover, New
Yor k 11981 )).
66. KERKER, M.. The Scattering of Light, Academic Press,
New York 11969).
6% FLAGAN, R, C., Seventeenth Symposium (International)
on Combustion, pp. 97-104, The Combust i on Institute,
Pittsburgh, PA 11979).
68. CHYLEK, P., GRAMS, G. W. and PINNIeK, R. G., Science
193, 48011976).
69, FIELD, M. A., GILL, D. W., MORGAN, B. B. and
HAWKSLEY, P. G. W., Combustion of Pulveri=ed Coal,
The British Coal Utilization Research Association,
Leatherland (I 967).
70. DALZELL, W. H. and SAROFIM, A. F., J. Heat TransJer
91, 100 (1969).
71. LEE, S. C. and TIEN. C. L., Eighteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion. pp. 1159-1166, The
Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1980).
72. BARD, S. and PAGNI, P. J., J. Heat Transfer 103, 357
11981).
73. FELSKE, J. D., CHARALAMPOPOULOS, T. T. and HURA,
H. S., Combust. Sci. Teehnol. 37, 263 (1984).
74. FELSKE, J. D., HSU, P.-F. and KtJ, J. C., J. quontre
Spectrose. radiat. Transfer 35. 447 11986).
75. FOSTER, P. J. and HOWARm, C. R., Carbon 6, 719
11968).
76. BREWSTER, M. Q. and KtmITOMO, T., Proceedings of
ASM E- J S M E Thermal Engineering Joint Confi, rence.
Vol. 4, pp. 21-26, ASME/ JSME, New York 11983).
77. WYATT, P. J., Appl. Opt. 19, 975 11980).
78. WALL, T. F., LOWE, A., WmnERLEY, L. J. and STEWART,
!. McC., Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 5, 1 (1979).
79. Low~,A., Srt~V^RT, I. McC. and WALL, T. F., Seventeenth
Symposium {International) on Combustion, pp. 105-114,
The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 11979).
80. GROSSHANDLER, W. L. and MONT~RO, S. L. P., J. Heat
TransJer 104, 587 (1982).
81. GOODWIN, D. G. and MITCHNER, M., Measurements o f
the near infrared optical properties of coal ash, AS ME
Paper No. 84-HT-41 (1984[
82. GUPTA, R. P. and WALL, T. F., Combust Flame61, 145
(1985[
83. GOODWlN, D. G., Infrared Optical Const ant s of Coal
156 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG0~
Slags, Topical Rep. No. T-255, High Temperat ure Gas
Dynami cs Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering
Depart ment , St anford University, Stanford, CA (1986).
84. CHENG, R. J., Light Scattering by Irregularly Shaped
Particles, D. W. Schuerman ted.), pp. 69-78, Plenum
Press, New York (1980).
85. WIRBERLEY, U J. and WALL, T. F., Combust. Sci.
Technol. 48, 177 (1986).
86. MCLEAN, W. J., HARDESTY, D. R. and POHL, J. H.,
Eighteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
pp. 1239-1248, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh,
PA (1981).
87. SEEKER, W. R., SAMUELSEN, G. S., HEAP, M. P. and
TROLINGER, J. D., Ei~jhteenth Symposium (International)
on Comh,stion, pp. 1213-1226, The Combust i on
lnstitue, Pittsburgh, PA (I 981 ).
88. WISCOMBE, W. J. and MUGNAI, A., Single Scatterimj
Ji'om Nonspherical Chebyshev Particles: A Compendium
of Calculations, NASA Reference Publication 1157,
Washi ngt on, D.C. (1986).
89. MIE, G., Ann. Phys. 25, 377 (1908).
90. BOHREN, C. F. and HUEFMAN, D. R., Absorption and
Scatterimj of Light by Small Particles, Wiley, New
York (1983).
91. WAIT, J., Can. J. Phys. 33, 189 (1955).
92. LIOU, K., Appl. Opt. 11,667 (|972).
93. COHEN, A. and ALPER, P., Appl. Opt. 18, 2738 11979).
94. COHEN, A., HARACZ, R. D. and COHEN, L. D., J. appl.
Phys. 58, 1135 (1985).
95. YEn, C., J. opt. Sot'. Am. 55, 39011965).
96. ASANO, S. and YAMAMOTO, G., AppL Opt. 14, 29 (1975).
97. DAVE, J. V., I BM JI Res. 13, 302 (1969).
98. WISCOMBE, W., Mi e Scattering Calculations: Improve-
ments in Technique and Fast, Vector-Speed Computer
Codes, NCAR TN-140 + STR, Boulder, CO (1979).
99. WISCOMBE, W., Appl. Opt. 19, 1505 (1980).
100. ME(, K., MORGAN, M. and CHANG, S., Electromagnetic
Scatterimj, P. Uslenghi ted.), pp. 359-392, Academic
Press, New York (1978).
101. YEn, C. and MEI, K., Light Scattering./?ore Irregularly
Shaped Particles, D. W. Schuerman tEd.), pp. 201-206,
Plenum Press, New York (1980).
102. WATERMAN, P., Proc. I EEE 53, 805 (1965).
103. WATERMAN, P., Phys. Rev. D3, 825 (1971).
104. BARaER, P. and YEn, C., Appl. Opt. 14, 2864 (1975).
105. KELLER, J., J. opt. Sot'. Am. 52, 116 (1962).
106. HARRINGTON, R., Field Computations hy Moment
Methods, MacMillan, New York (1968).
107. YEn, C. Phys. Rev. 135, 1193 (1964).
108. OGUCHI, T., Radio Sei. 8, 31 (1973).
109. POLLACK. J. and Cvzza, J., J. atmos. Sci. 37, 868 (1980).
110. SCHUERMAN, D. W., Light Scattering f rom Irregularly
Shaped Particles, Plenum Press, New York (1980).
111. MUGNAI, A. and W[SCOMaE, J. W., Appl. Opt. 25, 1235
(1986).
112. MENGO(;, M. P. and VISKANTA, R., Combust. Sci.
Technol. 44, 143 (1985).
113. BUCKIUS, R. O. and HWANG, D, C., J. Heat TransJer
102, 99 (1980).
114. VISKANTA, R., UNGAN, A. and MENGOq, M. P.,
Prediction of radiative properties of pulverized coal
and fly-ash polydispersions, AS ME Pap. No. 81. HT-
24, ASME, New York (1981).
115. BUCKIUS, R. O., Heat TransJer--1986, C. L. Tien, V. P.
Carey and J. K. Ferrell (Eds), Vol. 1, pp. 141-150,
Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C.
(1986).
116. STEPHENS, G. L., Appl. Opt. 23. 954 (1984).
117. MACKOWSKI, D., ALTENK1RCH, R. A. and MENGOq, M.
P., Combust. Sci. Technol. (in press).
118. SIEGEL, R., Radiative behavi our of a gas layer seeded
with soot, NASA TN D-8278, Washington, D.C.
11976).
119. HUFFMAN, D. R. and BOHREN, C. F., Light Scatterinq by
Irregularly Shaped Particles, D. W. Schuerman led.),
pp. 103-11 I, Plenum Press. New York (1980).
CHu, C. M. and CHURCHILL, S. W., J. Ol't. Soc. Am. 45,
958 (1955).
MCKELLAR, B. H. J. and Box, M. A,, J. atmos. Sci. 38,
1063 (1981).
JOSEPH, J. H., WISCOMBE, W. J. and WEINMAN, J. A., d.
atmos. Svi. 33, 2452 (1976).
CRUStaL, A. L. and DAVIDSON, G. W., J. quantve
Spectrosc. radiat. Transfi'r 33, 391 (1985).
CLARK, G. C., CHU, C. M. and CHURCHILL, S. W., J.
opt. Sot'. Am. 47, 81 (1957).
BREWSTER, M. Q. and TIEN, C. L., Int J. Heat Mass
TransJer 25, 1905 (1982).
WESSEL, R. A., Heat TransJer in Fire and Combl~stion
Systems, C. K. Law, Y. Jaluria, W. W. Yuen and K.
Mi yasaka (Eds), pp 239-249, ASME, New York (1985).
127. SCrtOLAND, E. and SCHENKEL, P., Heat TransJer--
1986, C. L. Tien, V. P. Carey, and J. K. Ferrell lEd.),
Vol. 2, pp 763-768, Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,
Washi ngt on, D.C. (1986).
128. CAR'nGNV, J. D., Heat Transfer--1986, C. U Tien, V.
P, Carey and J. K. Ferrell (Eds), Vol. 2, pp. 769-772,
Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C.
(1986).
129. SKOCYPEC, R. D. and BUCKIUS, R. 0. , Int. J. Heat Mass
TransJ~,r 2% 1 11984).
130. SKOCYPE, C, R. D., WALTERS, D. V. and BUCKIUS, R. O..
Comhust. Sci. Tevhnol. 47, 239 (1986).
131. DAVlSON, B., Neutron Transport Theory, Clarendon,
Oxford 11958).
132. CASE, K. M. and ZWEIEEL, P. F., Line,n" Transport
Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA (1967).
133. LEWIS, E. E. and MILLER, JR., W. F., Comp,tational
Methods t~] Neutron Transport, Wiley, New York
(1984).
134. VISKANTA, R., Advances in Hem Tran.~]er, T. F. Irvine
and J. P. Hart net t (Eds), Vol. 3, pp. 175-251, Academic
Press, New York (1966).
135. CRUSH]E, A. L. and DOUGHERTY, R. L., J. qutmtre
Spectrosc. radiat. Transfi, r 25, 551 11981).
136. HUNT, G. E., J. Inst. mathl Applic'. 3, 181 (1967).
137. CHENG, P., Thermal Control and Radiation, C. L. Tien
tEd), Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, pp.
269-308, MIT Press, Cambri dge (1973).
138. DUA, S. S. and CHE~G, P., Int. J. Heat Mass Tran.~/br
18, 245 (1975).
139. CRUStaL, A. L. and SCHRENKER, R. G., J. quantve
Spectrosc. radiat. TransJ~,r 20, 507 11982).
140. CRUSH(E, A. L. and FARRELL, J. B., J. quantve Spectrosc.
radiat. TransJer 31,397 (1984).
141. CROSR]E, A. L. and SCHRENKER, R. G., J. quantve
Spectrosc. radiat. Transfer 33, 101 (1985).
142. SELgUK, N., J. Heat Transfer 107, 648 (1985).
143. MCKEE, T. B. and Cox, S. K., J. atmos. Sci. 31, 1885
(1974).
144. DAVIES, R., J. atmos. Sci. 35, 1712 (1978).
145. HOWELL, J. R. and PERLMUTTER, M., J. Heat TransJer
86, 116 (1964).
146. HOWELL, J. R., Advances in Heat TransJer, T. F. lrvine
and J. P. Hart net t (Eds), Vol. 5, pp. 1-54, Academic
Press, New York (1968).
147. TAN]GUCHI, H., Bull J.S.M.E. 12, 67 (1969).
148. STEWARD, F. R. and CANNON, P., Int. J. Heat Mass
TransJer 14, 245 (1971).
149. TANIGUCHI, H., KUDO. K., HAYASAKA, H., YANG, W.-J.
and TASHIRO, H., Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Heat TransJer, T. C. Mi n and J. L. S. Chen (Eds),
ASME HTD--Vol . 40, pp. 29-36, New York (1984).
150. BROWN, F. B. and MARTIN, W. R., Pro W. nucl. Energy
14, 269 (1984).
151. HOTTEL, H. C. and CUmiN, E. S., A.I.Ch, E. JI 4, 3
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
Radi at i on heat t ransfer 157
(1958)~
152. VERCAMMEN, H. A. J. and FROMENT, G. F., Int. J. Hetat
Mass Transfer 23, 328 (1980).
153. NOnLE, J. J., Int. J. Heat Mass Transjer 18, 261 (1975).
154. SMITH, T. F., BYUN, K.-H. and FORD, M. J., Heat
TransJer--1986, C. L. Tien, V. P. Carey and J. K.
Ferrell (Eds), Vol. 2, pp. 803-808, Hemisphere,
Washi ngt on, D.C. (1986).
155. LARSEN, M. E. and HOWELL, J. R., J. Heat Trans./er
107, 936 (1985).
156. HOWELL, J. R., Radiative transfer in mul t i di mensi onal
enclosures with part i ci pat i ng media, AS ME Pap. No.
83-HT-32 (1983).
157. STEWARD, F. R. and TENNANKORE, K. N., J. Inst.
Energy LII, 107 (1979).
158. SIDDALL, R. G., Heat TransJer--1986, C. L. Tien, V. P.
Carey and J. K. Ferrell (Eds), Vol. 2, pp. 751-756,
Hemisphere Publ i shi ng Corp., Washi ngt on, D.C.
(1986).
159. WHITNEy, C., J. quantve Spectrosc. radiat. Transfer 14,
591 (1974).
160. KROOK, M., Astrophys. J. 122, 487 (1955).
161. VISKANTA, R., Fortschr. VeT Tevh. 22A, 51 (1984).
162. INCROPERA, F. P., CRAIG, T. D. and HOUF, W. G., J.
quantve Spectrosc. radiat. Transjer 31,139 (1984).
163. SIDDALL, R. G., J. Inst. Fuel 47, 101 (1974).
164. MENGOt~, M. P. and VISKANTA, R., J. quantve Spec-
trosc. Tad(at. TransJer 29, 381 (1983).
165. ABRAMZON, M. N. and LISIN, F. N., High Temp. 22, 95
(1984).
166. SIDDALL, R. G. and SELCUK, N., Trans. I.Ch.E. 57, 163
(1979).
167. SPALDING, D. B., Personal notes (1970).
168. WHITACRE, G. R. and MCCANN, R. A., Compari son of
met hods for prediction of r adi ant heat flux distri-
but i on and temperature, AS ME Pap. No. 75-HT-9
(1975).
169. GOSMAN, A. D. and LOCKWOOD, F. C., Fourteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp. 661-671,
The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1973).
170. RICHTER, W. and QuicK, R., Heat TransJer in Flames,
N. H. Afgan and J. M. Beer (Eds), pp. 95-109, Scripta
Book Co., Washi ngt on, D.C. (1974).
171. DOMOTO, G. A. and WANG, W. C., J. Heat TransJer96,
385 (1974).
172. LowEs, T. M., BARTELDS, H., HEMP, M. P.,
MICHELFELDER, S. and PAl, B. R., Heat TransJer in
Flames, N. H. Afgan and J. M. Beer (Eds), pp. 179-190,
Scripta Book Co., Washi ngt on, D.C. (1974).
173. Cnu, C. M. and CHURCHILL, S. W., J. phys. Chem. 59,
855 (1955).
174. VARMA, S. A., Pulverized Coal Combustion and Gasifi-
cation, L. D. Smoot and D. T. Prat t (Eds), pp. 311-315,
Plenum Press, New York (1979).
175. FIVELAND, W. A., A discrete ordi nat e met hod for
predicting radi at i ve heat transfer in axisymmetric
enclosures, ASM E Pap. No. 82-HT-20 (1982).
176. DEMARCO, A. G. and LOCKWOOD, F. C., Riv. Combust.
29, 184 (1975).
177. LOCKWOOD, F. C. and SHAH, N. G., Heat TransJer--
1978, Vol. 2, pp. 33-40, Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,
Washington, D.C. (1978).
178. JEANS, J. H., Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc. 78, 28 (1917).
179. POMRANING, G. C., Ann. Phys. 27, 193 (1964).
180. BAYAZITOg:-LU, Y. and HIGENYI, J., AI AA Jl 14, 424
(1979).
181. FLETCHER, J. K., Nucl. Sci. Enong 84, 33 (1983).
182. HIGENYI, J. and BAYAZITO~LU, Y., AI AA Jl 18, 723
(1980).
183. HIGENYI, J. and BAYAZITOOLU, Y., J. Heat Trans/er
102, 719 (1980).
184. AHLUWALIA, R. K. and Ira, K. H., Int. J. Heat Mass
TransJer 24, 1421 (1981).
185. RATZF, L III, A. C. and HOWELL, J. R., J. Heat TransJer
105, 333 (1983).
186. LIOU, K. N. and Ou, S. C., J. atmos. Svi. 36, 1985
(1979).
187. MENGO~, M. P. and V1SKANTA, R. , J. quantve
Spectrosc. Tad(at. TransJer 33, 533 (1985).
188. SHOKAIR, I. R. and POMRANING, G. C., J. quantve
Spevtrosv. Tad(at. Transfer 25, 325 (1981 ).
189. YVON, J., J. nucl. Energy I 4, 305 (1957).
190. SOtIFF, D. and ZIEmNG, S., Nucl. Sci. Engng 7, 172
(1960).
191. OZa,~K, M. N., MENNING, J. and HALG, W., J. quantve
Spectrosc. Tad(at. Transfer IS, 1101 (1975).
192. UNNO, W. and KONDO, M., Pubis astr. Soc. Japan 28,
347 (1976)
193. WILSON, S. J. and SEN, K. K., J. quantve Spectrosc.
Tad(at. TransJer 35, 467 (1986).
194. LATHROP, K. D. and BmNKLEY, F. W., TWOTRAN-II:
An interface exportable version of the TWOTRAN
code for two-dimensional t ransport , Rep. LA-4848-
MS, Los Alamos Scientific Laborat ory (1973).
195. LATHROP, K. D., THREETRAN- - A program to solve
the mul t i group discrete ordi nat es t ransport equat i on
in (x,y,z) geometry, Rep. LA-6333-MS, Los Alamos
Scientific Laborat ory (1976).
196. CARLSON, B. G. and LEE, C. E., Mechanical quadrat ure
and the t ransport equation, Rep. LA-2573, Los Alamos
Scientific Laborat ory, Rep. LA-2573 0961).
197. HOUF, W. G. and INCROPERA, F. P., J. quantve
Spevtrosc. Tad(at. TransJer 23, 101 (1980).
198. KHALIL, H., SHULTIS, J. K. and LESTER, T. W., Num.
Heat Transfer 5, 235 (1982).
199. FIVELAND, W. A., J. Heat TransJer 106, 699 (1984).
200. GERSTL, S. A. W. and ZARDECK, A., Appl. Opt. 24, 81
(1985).
201. LATHROP, K. D., Nuvl. Sci. Engng 32, 357 (1968).
202. LATHROP, K. D., Nucl. Sci. Engng 45, 255 (1971).
203. SHAH, N. G., New met hod of comput at i on of radi ant
heat transfer in combust i on chambers, Ph.D. Thesis,
Imperial College, London, England (1979).
204. LOCKWOOD, F. C. and SHAH, N. G., Eighteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp. 1405-
1414, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA
(1981).
205. TANIGUCHI, H., YANG, W.-J., KUDO, K., HAYASAKA, H.,
OGUMA, M., KUSAMA, A., NAKAMACHI, I. and OKIGANI,
N., Heat TransJer--1986, C. L. Tien, V. P. Carey and
J. K. Ferrell (Eds), Vol. 2, pp. 757-762, Hemisphere
Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C. (1986).
206. EDWARDS, D. K., Heat TransJer in Fire and Combus-
tion Systems, C. K. Law, Y. Jaluria, W. W. Yuen and K.
Mi yasaka (Eds), pp. 273-278, ASME, New York
(1985).
207. SEL(~UK, N. and SIDDALL, R. G., Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 19, 313 (1976).
208. HARSHVARDHAN, WEtNMAN, J. A. and DAVIES, R.,
Transport of infrared radi at i on in cuboidal clouds,
NASA TM-82116 (1981).
209. PR[]SENDORFER, R. W. and STEPHENS, G. U, J. atmos.
Sci. 41,709 (1984).
210. STEPHENS, G. L. and PREISENDORFER, R. W., J. atmos.
Svi. 41,725 (1984).
211. VAN DE HULST, H. C., Multiple Light Scattering,
Tables, Formulas and Applications, Vol. 1, Academic
Press, New York (1980).
212. RAZZAQUE, M. U., KLAN, D. E. and HOWELL, J. R., J.
Heat Transfer 105, 933 {1983).
213. SELg:UK, N., SIDDALL, R. G. and BEER, J. M., Sixteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp. 53-62,
The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1976).
214. ML~GOg:, M. P. and VISKANTA, R., Combust. Sci.
Technol. 51, 51 (1987).
215. PICCIRELLI, R. A., AaLUWALIA, R. K. and IM, K. H.,
158 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENGOg:
Heat Transfer in Fire and Combustion Systems, C. K.
Law, Y. Jaluria, W. W. Yuen and K. Mi yasaka (Eds).
pp. 231-238, ASME, New York (1985).
216. LAURENDEAff, N. M., Proud. Energy Combust Sci. 4, 221
(1978).
217. LAW, C. K., Proo. Energy Combust. Sci. 8, 171 (1982).
218. CHOI, S. and KRUGER, C. H., Combust. Flame 61, 131
(1985).
219. VISKANTA, R. and MERRIAM, R. L., J. Heat Transfltr 90,
248 (1968).
220. GROSSHANDLER, W. I., Combust. Flame 55, 59 (1984).
221. TIMOTHY, L. D. , SAROFIM, A. F. and BEER, J. M.,
Nineteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
pp. 1123-1130, The Combust i on Institute, Pi t t sburgh
(1982).
222. SOTIRCHOS, S. V., Proceedings of the First Annual
Pittsburgh Coal Conference, pp. 176-189, Pittsburgh,
PA, US Depar t ment of Energy Rep. CONF 840971
(DE 85012243) (Sept. 17-24, 1984).
223. SO~RCHOS, S. V. and AMt~DSON, N. R., Ind. Engng
Chem. Fundam. 23, 191 (1984).
224. SOaaRCHOS, S. V. and AMtmDSON, N. R., A.I.Ch.E. JI
30, 537 (1984).
225. KOOKER, D. G., Combust. Flame 49, 141 (1983).
226. SOHRAB, S. G. and LAW, C. K., Int. J. Heat Mass
TransJer 27, 291 (1984).
227. LEE, K. Y., ZHONG, Z. Y. and TIEN, C. L., Twentieth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp. 1629-
1636, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA
(1984).
228. LEE, K. Y. and TIE~, C. L., Combust. Sci. Technol. 43,
167 (1985g
229. LEE, K. Y. and TIEN, C. L., Int. J. Heat Mass TransJer
29, 1237 (1986).
230. ARPACI, V. S. and TABACZYNSKI, R. J., Combust. Flame
57, 169 (1984).
231. XJEU, D. V., MASUDA, T., COGOLL J. G. and ESSENHIGH,
R. H., Eighteenth Symposium (International) on Com-
bustion, pp. 1461-1469, The Combust i on Institute,
Pittsburgh, PA (1980).
232. CO<~OLI, J. G. and ESSENHIGH, R. H., Combust. Sci
Teehnol. 16, 177 (1977).
233. KREZINSKI, J. R., BUCKIUS, R. V. and KRIER, H., Prog.
Energy Combust Sei. 5, 31 (1979).
234. TsuJi, H., Proo. Energy Combust. Sei. 8, 93 (1982).
235. LAW, C. K., Prog. Energy Combust. Sei. 10, 29 (1984).
236. LIU, C. N. and SHIH, T. M., J. Heat Transfer 102, 724
(1980).
237. SInULraN, M., KULKARNI, A. K. and ANNAMALA1, K.,
Eighteenth Symposium {International) on Combustion,
pp. 611-617, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh
(1981).
238. BIER, R. A., PAGNI, P. J. and OKO8, C. I., Combust. Sci.
Teehnol. 39, 235 (1984).
239. DERIs, J., Seventeenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, pp. 1003-1016, The Combust i on Institute,
Pi t t sburgh (1979).
240. CALCOTTE, H. F., Combust. Flame 42, 215 (1981).
241. JENG, S-M., LAI, M-C. and FAETH, G. M., Combust Sei.
Technol. 40, 41 (1984).
242. BIER, P. A. and PAGNI, P. J., J. Heat Transfer 105, 109
(1983).
243. RAMACHANDRA, A. and RAJUNANDAN, B. N., Comhust.
Sci. Technol. 38, 59 (1984).
244. DIXON-LEWlS, G., DAVID, T., GASKELL, P. H. et al.,
Twentieth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
pp. 1893-1904, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh
(1984).
245. HAMINS, A. and SESHADlU, K., Twentieth Symposium
(International) on Combustion, pp. 1905-1913, The
Combust i on Institute, Pi t t sburgh 0984).
246. NEGRELLI, O. E., LLOYD, J. R. and NOVOTNY, J. L., J.
Heat Transfi, r 99, 212 (1977).
247. ABDEL-KHALIK, S., TAMARU. T. and EL-WAKIL, M. M.,
Heat TransJer in Flames, N. H. Afgan and J. M. Beer
(Eds), pp. 365-373, Scripta Book Co., Washi ngt on,
D.C. (1974).
248. KINOSHITA, C. M. and PAGNI, P. J., Eighteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp. 1415-
1425, The Combust i on Institute, Pi t t sburgh (1980).
249. LIu, K. V,, LLOYD, J. R. and YANG, K. T., int. J. Heat
Mass Trans./er 24, 1959 (1981).
250. JAMES, R. K. and EDWARDS, O. K., J. Heat TransJer 99,
221 (1977).
251. KENT, J. H. and BILGER, R. W., Fourteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion, pp. 615-625, The Com-
bustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1973).
252. BILGER, R. W. and BECK, R. W., Fifteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion, pp. 541-552, The Com-
bust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1975).
253. STARNER, S. H. and BILGER, R. W., Eighteenth
Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp. 921-930,
The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1981).
254. FAETH, G. M., Heat TransJer--1986, C. L. Tien, V. P.
Carey and J. K. Farrell (Eds), Vol. 1, pp. 151-160,
Hemisphere Publ i shi ng Corp., Washi ngt on, D.C.
(1986).
255. FAETH, G. M., GORE, J. P., CHUECH, S. G. and JENG, S.-
M., A. Re~. num. Fluid Mech. Heat Transfl, r lin press~
256. GROSSHANDLER, W. L., lnt. J. Heat Mass TransJer 23,
1147 (1980).
257. GROSSHANDLER, W. L. and NGUYEN, H. D., J. Heat
Transfer 107, 445 0985).
258. GORE, J. P., JENG, S.-M. and FAETH, G. M., J. Heat
TransJer 109, 165 (1987).
259. GORE, J. P., JENG, S.-M. and FAETH, G. M., Spectral
and total radi at i on properties of t urbul ent car bon
monoxi de/ ai r diffusion flames, AI AA Pap. No. 86-
0294 (1986).
260. JENG, S.-M. and FAE'n-I, G. M., J. Heat TransJer 106,
886 (1984).
261. GORE, J. P. and FAETH, G. M., Twenty First Symposium
(International) on Combustion, The Combust i on Insti-
tute, Pi t t sburgh (in press).
262. ECHIGO, R., Heat Transfer--1982, Vol. VI, pp. 361-
366, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C.
(1982).
263. ECHIGO, R., High Temperature Equipment, A. E.
Sheidlin (Ed.), pp. 41-72, Hemisphere Publishing
Corp., Washington, D.C. (1986).
264. ECHIGO, R., KURUSU, M., ICHIMIYA, K. and
YOSHIZAWA, Y., AS ME- J S ME Thermal Engineering
Joint Con/erenee, Y. Mori and W.-J. Yang (Eds), Vol.
IV, pp. 99-103, ASM E-JSME, New York (1983).
265. ECHIGO, R., HANAMURA, K., YOSHlZAWA, Y. and
TOMIMURA, T.. Proceedings hlternational Symposium on
Heat Trans/er, Vol. 3, pp. 186-193, Beijing (1985).
266. YOSHIZAWA. Y., ECHIGO, R., TOMIMURA, T.,
HANAMURA, K. and KODA. M., Trans. J.S.M.E., B-51,
466 ~1985).
267. ECHIGO, R., Proceedings of the US-Japan Joint Heat
TransJi, r Seminar, San Diego, CA (Sept. 1985).
268. ECHIGO, R., YOSHIZAWA, Y., HANAMURA, K. and
TOMIMURA, T., Heat Transfer--1986, C. L. Tien, V. P.
Carry and J. K. Ferrell (Eds), Vol. 2, pp. 827-832,
Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C.
(1986).
269. GOSMAN, A. D., LOCKWOOD, F. C., MEGAHED, I. E. A.
and SHAH, N. G., J. Energy6, 353 (1982).
270. BoYSON, F., AYERS, W. H., SWITHENBANK, J. and PAN,
Z., J. Energy 6, 368 (1982).
271. ROBINSOn, J. F., J. Inst. Fuel58, 116 (1985).
272. RICHTER, W., Scale-up and advanced performance
analysis of boiler combustion chambers, AS ME Pap.
No. 85-WA/ HT-80, ASME, New York (1985).
273. ENOMOTO, H., ESSENHIGH, R. H. and TSAI, Y.-W., Heat
Radi at i on heat t ransfer 159
t ransfer in a cont i nuous model furnace: A compari son
of theory and experiment, AS ME Pap. No. 75-HT-5,
ASME, New York (1975).
274. Gr~RMt~RDONK, R., Glastech. Ber. 36, 886 (1963).
275. LEBEDEV, V. I. and SOKOLOV, V. A., Glass Ceram. 3 3 ,
352 (1976).
276. LEBEDEV, V. I. and SOKOLOV, V. A., Glass Ceram. 3% 6~
(1980).
277. HOT'rEL, H. C., J. Inst. Fuel 34, 220 (1961).
278. HOTTEL, H. C., SAROnM, A. F. and FARAG, I. H.,
Combustion Technology: Some Modern Developments,
Chap. VII, Academic Press, New York (1974).
279. BEER, J. M., Combustion Technology: Some Modern
Det'elopments, Chap. VIII, Academic Press, New York
(1974).
280. ESS~HIGH, R. H., THEKDL A. C., MAt~OUTRE, G. and
TSAI, Y., Combustion Technology: Some Modern
Developments, Chap. XIII, Academic Press, New York
(1974).
281. HOTTEL, H. C., Heat TransJer in Flames, N. H. Afgan
and J. M. Beer (Eds), pp. 5-28, Scripta Book Co.,
Washi ngt on, D.C. (1974).
282. JOHNSON, T. R. and BEER, J. M., Fourteenth Symposium
(International) on Combustion, pp. 639-649, The Com-
bustion Institute, Pi t t sburgh, PA (1973).
283. STEWARD, F. R., OStJWAN, S. and PlCOT, J. J. C.,
Fourteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
pp. 651-660, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh,
PA (1973~
284. MICHELFELDER, S. and LOWES, T., Glasteeh. Ber. 46, 99
(1973g
285. JESCHAR, R. and SCHUPE, E., Gas Win'me l nt l 22, 473
(1973).
286. GUNTHER, R., JESCHAR, R., POTKE, W. and SCHUPE, W.,
Gas Warme l nt l 23, 381 (1974).
287. SCHUPE, W. and JESCHAR, R., Gas Warme Int l 24, 64
(1975).
288. MICHELFELDER, S., Glastech. Ber. 50, 193 (1977).
289. DETKOV, S. P., J. Engng Phys. 46, 464 (1984).
290. HAOVIG, S., J. Inst. Fuel 35, 129 (1970).
291. HADVIG, S., J. Inst. Fuel 35, 202 (1970).
292. FRISCH, V., JESCHAR, R. and POTKE, W., Gas Warme
Int l 31,421 (1982).
293. FmSCH, V., JESCHAR, R. and POTKE, W., Gas Warme
Int l 31,476 (1982).
294. HUTCHINSON, P., KHALIL, E. E. and WHITELAW, J. H.,
Turbulent Combustion, L. A. Kennedy (Ed.), pp.
211-228, AIAA, New York (1978).
295. GOSMAN, A. D., LOCKWOOD, F. C. and SALOOJA, A. P.,
Seventeenth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
pp. 747-760, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh
(1979).
296. ABou ELLAIL, M. M. M., GOSMAN, A. D., LOCKWOOD,
F. C. and MEGAHED, I. E. A., Turbulent Combustion, L.
A. Kennedy (Ed.), pp. 163-190, AIAA, New York
(1978).
297. DOLEZAL, R., Large Boiler Furnaces, Elsevier,
Amsterdam (1967).
298. FIVELAND, W. A. and WESSEL, R. A., FURMO: A
numerical model for predicting performance of three-
dimensional pulverized-fuel fired furnaces, AS ME
Pup. No. 86-HT-35 (1986).
299. GOODRICH, A. M. and READ, A. W., Pray. Energy
Combust. Sei. 2, 83 (1976).
300. LowE, A., WALL, T. F. and STEWART, I. McC.,
A.I.Ch.E JI 23, 440 (1977).
30l. LOCKWOOD, F. C., SALOOJA, A. P. and SYED, S. A.,
Combust. Flame 38, 1 (1980).
302. LOCKWOOD, F. C. and SALOOJA, A. P., Combust. Flame
54, 23 (1983).
303. LOCKWOOD, F. C., RIzvL S. M. A., LEE, G. K. and
WHALEY, H., Twentieth Symposium (International)on
Combustion, pp. 513-522, The Combust i on Institute,
Pittsburgh, PA (1984).
304. TRUELOVE, J. S., Twentieth Symposium (International)
on Combustion, pp. 523-530, The Combust i on Insti-
tute, Pi t t sburgh (1984).
305. LEFEBVRE, A. H., Gas Turbine Combustion, Chap. 8,
Hemi sphere Publ i shi ng Carp, Washington, D.C.
(1983).
306. ME~GiJg:, M. P., CUMMINGS, W. G., l i t and VISKANTA,
R., J. Propul. Energy 2, 241 (1986).
307. NAJJER, Y. S. H. and GOODYEAR, E. M., J. Heat
Transfi, r 105, 82 (1983).
308. SWlTI-IENBANK, J., TURAN, A. and FELTON, P. G., Gas
Turbine Combustor Design Problems, A. H. Lefebvre
(Ed.), pp. 249-314, Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,
Washington, D.C. (1980).
309. EWAN, B. C. R., BOYSON, F. and SWITHENBANK, J.,
Twentieth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
pp. 541-547, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh
(1984).
310. CHANG, S. L. and RHEE, K. T., Comput at i on of
radi at i on heat transfer in diesel combustion, SA E Pap.
No. 831332 (1983).
311. CHANG, S. L., YANG, X. L. and RrIEE, K. T.,
Proceedings on the InteJ~ational Symposium on Diag-
nostics and Modeling of Combustion in Reciprocating
Engines, JSME/ SAE/ MESJ, Tokyo, Sept. 4-6 (1985).
312. CHAPMAN, M., FRIEDMAN, M. C. and AGI-IAN, A., A
time-dependent spatial model for radi ant heat transfer
in diesel engines, SAE Pap. No. 831725 (1983).
313. MENt~OtT, M. P., VISKANTA, R. and FEROUSON, C. R.,
Mul t i di mensi onal modeling of radi at i ve heat transfer
in diesel engines, SAE Pap. No. 850503 (1985) (also in
SAE Trans.--1985).
314. WHITEHOUSE, N. D. and SHAHAD, H. A. K., Flows in
Internal Combustion Engines, T. Uzkan (Ed.), ASME,
New York (1984).
315. ANNONYMOUS, A review of compart ment models,
Nat i onal Bureau of Standards, Rep. BSI R 83-2684
(1983).
316. MUDAN, K. S., Prog. Energy Combust. Sci., 10, 59
(1984).
317. YANG, K. T. and LLOYD, J. R., Natural Convection:
Fundamentals and Applications, S. Kakac, W. Aung
and R. Viskanta (Eds), pp. 303-329, Hemisphere
Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C. (1985).
318. YANG, K. T. and LLOYD, J. R., Natural Convection:
Fundamentals and Applications, S. Kakac, W. Aung
and R. Viskanta (Eds), pp. 381-410, Hemisphere
Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C. (1985).
319. YANG, K. T., Heat TransJer--1986, C. L. Tien, V. P.
Carey and J. K. Ferrell (Eds), Vol. 6, pp. 131-140,
Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C.
(1986).
320. COOPER, L. Y., Nineteenth Symposium (International)
on Combustion, pp. 933-939, The Combust i on Insti-
tute, Pittsburgh, PA (1982).
321. COOPER, L. Y., Twentieth Symposium ~lnternational) on
Combustion, pp. 1567-1573, The Combust i on Institute,
Pittsburgh, PA (1984).
322. COOPER, L. Y., Combust. Sci. Technol. 40, 19 (1984).
323. BAGNARO, M., LAOU1SSET, M. and LOCKWOOD, F. C.,
Fire Dynamics and Heat Transfl, r, J. G. Quintiere, R. L.
Alpert and R. A. Altenkirch (Eds), pp. 107-117, ASME,
New York (1983).
324. MARKATOS, N. C. and PEmCLEOUS, K. A., Fire
Dynamics and Heat Transfi, r, J. G. Quintiere, R. L.
Alpert and R. A. Altenkirch (Eds), pp. 115-124, ASME,
New York (1983~
325. JOULAIN, P., MOST, J. M., FUSEAU, Y. and SZTAL, B.,
Seventeenth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
pp. 1041-1051, The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh,
PA (1978).
326. BRZUSTOWSKI, T. A. and TWARDUS, E. M., Nineteenth
160 R. VISKANTA and M. P. MENG0~
Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp. 847-854,
The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1982).
327. HWANG, L. C. and LITTON, C. D., Twentieth Sym-
posium (International) on Combustion, pp. 1673-1679,
The Combust i on Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1984).
328. WICHMAN, I. S., Combust. Sci. Technol. 40, 233 (1984).
329. HAYNES, B. S. and WAGNER, H. G., Prog. Energy
Combust. Sci. 7, 229 (1981).
330. ALBINI, F. A., Comhust. Sci. Technol. 42, 229 (1985).
331. ALBINI, F. A., Combust. Sci. Technol. 45, 101 (1986).
332. BROSMER, M. A. and TIEN, C. L., J. quantve Spectrosc.
radiat. TransJt, r 33, 521 (1985).
333. BROSMER, M. A. and TILm, C. L., Heat TransJer 107,
943 (1985).
334. BROSMER, M. A. and TIEN, C. L., Combust. Sci. Technol.
48, 163 (1986).