Mos & Metallurgy Lab

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METALLURGY &
MECHANICS OF
SOLIDS LAB
MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
`
LORDS INSTITUTE OF ENGINERING &

TECHNOLOGY,
HIMAYATSAGAR, HYD-32
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
METALLURGY LAB
1. STUDY OF METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
2. PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
3. PREPARATION OF MOUNTED SAMPLE
4. IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
5. INTRODUCTION TO CAST IRON
6. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
7. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF BRASS
8. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF COPPER STRUCTURE
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
STUDY OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (U.T.M.)

DEFLECTION OF BEAM
COMPRESSION TEST
IZOD TEST
CHARPY TEST
HARDNESS TEST
SPRING TEST
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METALLURGY
LAB
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
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METALLURGY LAB
1. STUDY OF METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
2. PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
3. PREPARATION OF MOUNTED SAMPLE
4. IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
5. INTRODUCTION TO CAST IRON
6. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
7. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF BRASS
8. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF COPPER STRUCTURE
Experiment No 1
STUDY OF METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
Aim: - To Study the Metallurgical Microscope
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Introduction: - The metallurgical microscope is the most important tool of

the metallurgist. It consist an objective and an eye-piece. Its primary
function is to reveal the details of the object. The clarity and the extent to
which the details are revealed depend on the degree to which these optical
systems are created.
Principle: - A horizontal beam of light from the light source is reflected by
means of a plane glass reflector downwards through the microscope
objective on the surface of the specimen some of this incident light reflected
from the specimen surface will be magnified and passing through the plane
glass reflector and magnified again by upper lens system of the eye-piece.
Constructional Details: - The table type microscopes are consist of
1. Stage: - A flat movable table supporting specimen. This can be moved up
or down by knobs.
2. Tubes: - The vertically movable tube containing eyepiece, objective and
plane reflector. The tube length varies from 160 mm to 250 mm.
3. Rough & fine focus Adjustments - The limbs of microscope carry the
coarse & fine adjustments to facilitate the
4. Objective The body tube carries revolving nose piece carrying the
three objectives. This enables quick change of the objective which helps for
a quick resolving the structure of metal, the magnification of lenses is
enlarged on focal length of the lens used
The important properties of an objective are1) Magnifying Power
2) Resolving Power.
It is the property by which an objective shows distinctly represented
two small adjacent bonds in the structure of the object. This is usually
expressed as number of lines per mm that can be separated which depends
on the numerical operator, the wavelength of the light used. Resolution is
particularly important during the microscopy of the micro constituents of
metals consisting of fine lamination with core resolution which appears as
one uniform area, where as an objective with higher numerical appearance
reveals deeper nature of the structure.
5. Eyepiece - It is named, as it is near to the eye. It is made up of various
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Powers such as _ 5, _ 10, _ 15 etc.

Uses The metallurgical microscope is useful in quality control department
in Industries to observe & study
1) Differential phases
2) Porosity or defects.
All these have a great effect on mechanical properties of material
List of Modern Microscopes
i) Watson Royal Microscope.
ii) Van Lanes Hock Microscope.
iii) Glass led Microscope.
iv) Baker series Microscope.
v) Leitr Microscope.
Experiment No. 2
PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
Aim To Prepare Specimen for metallographic examination.
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Introduction Metallographic or microscopy consists of the microscopic

study of the Structural characteristics of material or an alloy. The microscope
is thus the most important tool of a metallurgist from both, scientific &
technical study point view. It is possible to determine grain size & the size,
shape & distribution of various phases & inclusions which have a great effect
on the mechanical properties of metal. The microstructure will reveal the
mechanical & thermal treatment of the metal & it may be possible to predict
its behavior under a given set of conditions.
Experience had indicated the success in microscopic study depends
uponthe case taken in the preparation of specimen. The most expensive
microscope will not reveal the structure of a specimen that has been poorly
revealed .The procedure to be followed in the preparation of a specimen is
comparatively similar and simple & involves a technique which is developed
only after constant practice. The ultimate objective is to produce a flat,
scratch free, mirror like surface. The steps involved or required to prepare a
metallographic specimen properly are covered in the coming section
explained below.
Sampling The choice of sample for microscopic study may be very
important. If a failure is to be investigated the sampling should be chosen as
close as possible to the area of the failure & should be compared with one
taken from the normal section. If the material is soft, such as nonferrous
metals or alloy & non heat treated steels, the section is obtained by manual
hack sawing /power saw. If the material is hard, the section may be
obtained by use of an abrasive cut off wheels. This wheel is thin disk of
suitable cutting abrasive rotating at high speed. The specimen should be
kept cool during the cutting operation.
Rough Grinding Whenever possible the specimen should be of a size
&shape that is convenient to handle. A soft sample may be made flat by
slowly moving it up to & back across the surface of a flat smooth file. The
soft hard may be rough ground on a belt sander with specimen kept cool by
frequent dipping in water during the grinding operation. In all grinding &
polishing operation, the specimen should be moved perpendicular to the
existing scratches this will facilitate, recognition of stage when the deeper
scratches are replaced by shallower one characteristic of the finer abrasives.
The rough grinding is continued until the surface is flat & free from wire
brushes & all scratches due to hacksaw or cutoff wheel are no longer visible.
Intermediate Polishing After the previous processes the specimen is
polishing on a series of emery paper containing successively finer abrasive
( Si- C) . The first paper is usually no. 1 than 1/ 0, 2/0, 3/0, & finally 4/0.. The
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intermediate polishing operation using emery paper is usually done dry.

However in certain case such as preparation of soft material , Silicon Carbide
has greater removal rate & as it is resin bonded , can be used with a
lubricant , whichprevents overshooting of the sample, minimizes shearing of
soft metals & also provides a rising action to flush away surface removal
product so the paper will not be clogged.
Fine polishing - The time consumed & the success of fine polishing
depends largely on the case that we exercised during the previous polishing
processes. The final approximation to the flat , scratch free surface is
obtained by the use of a wet rotating wheel covered with a special cloth that
is charged by carefully sized abrasive particles. A wide range of abrasive is
available for final polishing, while many will do a satisfying job, these appear
to be presence of gamma form of aluminum-oxides (Al 2O3), for ferrous &
copper based materials & Cerium oxide for Aluminum, Magnesium & their
alloys, other final polishing abrasives often used are diamond , chromium
oxide & magnesium oxide etc.
A choice of proper polishing cloth depends upon the particular
materialbeing polished & the purpose of metallographic study. Many cloths
are available of varying lap or pile, from those having no pile, such as silk, to
those ofintermediate pile such as broad cloth, billiard cloth, canvas cloth &
finally to a deep pile such as velvet synthetic clothes are also available for
general purpose of which two under the trival names of gamal & micro cloth
are most widely used
Etching The purpose of etching is to make the many structural
characteristics of the metal or alloy visible. The process should be such that
the various parts of the microstructure may be clearly differentiated. This is
to subject the polished surface to chemical action.
In the alloys composed of two or more shapes. The competent
arerevealed during etching by a preferential attack of one or more of the
constituents by the reagent because of difference in chemical composition of
the phases. In uniform single phase alloy contact is obtained and the grain
boundaries are made visible because of difference in the rate at which
various grains are attacked by the reagent This difference in the rate of
attack by reagent which is mainly associated with angle of the different grain
structure section to the plane of the polished surface. Because of chemical
attack of the chemical reagent the grain boundary appears as valleys in the
polished surface light from the microscope hitting the side of these valleys
will be reflected but of the
Microscope making the grain boundaries appears dark lines
The section of the appropriate etching reagent is determined by metal
oralloys & the specific structure desired for viewing.
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Experiment No. -3
PREPARATION OF MOUNTED SAMPLE
Aim: Preparation of Mounted
mountingPress/cold setting resins.
samples
with
the
help
of
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Theory- Specimens that are very small or awkwardly shaped should be

mounted to favorite, intermediate & final polishing wires small rods steel,
sheet metal specimens, thin sections etc. must be approximately mounted in
a suitable material or rigidly damped in a mechanical mount
Synthetic plastic materials applied in a special mounting press will
yield a mount of uniform convenient size (usually 1 inch or 1.25 inch or 1.5
inch. In diameter) for handling in subsequent polishing operation. These
mounts when properly made are very resistant to attack by etching reagent
ordinarily used. The most common thermosetting resin for mounting is
Bakelite. Bakelite molding powders are available in variety of colors which
simplifies the identification of mounted specimen. The specimen & the
correct amount of bakelite powder are available in variety of cloves which
simplifies the identification of mounted specimen. The specimen & the
correct amount of bakelite powder are placed in the cylinder of the mounting
press. The temperature is gradually150 0 C & a molding pressure of about
4000 PSI is applied simultaneously since bakelite is set & curved when this
temperature is reached, the specimen mount may be ejected from the
molding die which is still hot.
Lucite is the most common thermosetting plastic resin for mounting. It
is completely transparent when properly mounted. This transparency is
useful when it is polished or when it is desirable for any other reason to see
the entire specimen in the mould mount unlike the thermosetting plastic, the
thermosetting resin dont undergo curing at the molding temperature, rather
they set on cooling. The specimen & a proper amount of Lucite powder are
placed in the mounting press & are subjected to the same temperature &
pressure as forBakelite (1500 c, 4000 PSI) After this has been reached, the
heating coil is removed & cooling fins are placed around the cylinder to cool
the mount to about 75 0 c in about 7 minutes while the molding pressure is
maintained. Then the mount be rejected from the mould, ejecting the mount
while still hot, or allowing it to cool slowly in the molding cylinder to ordinary
temperature before ejection will cause mount to remain opaque.
Small specimens may be continently mounted for metallographic
preparation in a laboratory made damping device. Thin sheet specimens
when mounted in a damping device, are usually alternated with metal. Filler
sheet which have approximately the same hardness as these specimens. The
use of filler sheet will preserve surface irregularities of the specimen & will
prevent to some extent the edges of the specimen from becoming rounded
during polishing
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Experiment No. 4
IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
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Aim- To study the Iron-Iron Carbide Equilibrium diagram and various

allotropic changes taking place in iron at different temperature &
composition of carbon.
Theory:The temperature at which the allotropic changes takes place in iron,
is influenced by allotting element .The important is carbon. The portion of
the iron-carbon alloy systems which are of intued. This is the part between
pure iron on interstitial compound iron carbide (Feo3) containing 6.67% of
carbon by weight diagram shows three horizontal lines which indicate
isothermal reactions. Generally, the solid solutions are represented in Greek
letters. The r solid solution is called austenite.
The portion of the diagram in the upper left hand corner is known as the
delta region of r-ferrite solid solution .The horizontal line at 1494C as being
a peritectic reaction line. The reaction equation can be written as
L+S
austinite
The max solubility of carbon is B.C.C r Fe is 0.1% C, while in F.C.C alpha.

Fe is much greater. The presence of carbon influence the delta is reversible
to gamma allotropic change. As carbon is added to iron the temperature of
allotropic changes increases from 1400 to 1414 at 0.1% c. Consider the
significance of the line NMPR.
On cooling the portion from B.C.C- delta Fe to F.C.C alpha-Fe for alloys,
containing less than 0.1%c.The portion MP represents the beginning of the
crystal. The structure changes by means of a peritectic reaction for alloys
between 0.1%c and 0.18% c. For alloys containing less than 0.18%c on
cooling the end of the crystal structure changes by means peritectic
reaction. In other words, the alloys between 0.18%c to 0.15%c. the
allotropic changes begin and end at constant temperature. Noted any alloy
containing more than
0.5%Cwill cut the diagram to the right position R and will solidify austenite
directly.
Eutectic Reaction: The eutectic point U is at 4.3%c and 1130c, since the
horizontal line JUD presents the eutactic reaction must takes place. Any
liquid that is present, when this line is reached must know solidify very fine
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estimate of the two phase, namely austenite and cementite. The eutectic
mixture has been given the name ladudnite equation is:
Liquid ---- austenite + cementite (eutectic mixture-ladudnite).
The eutectic mixture is not usually seen in the microscope.
Microstructure of austenite is not stable at room temperature and must
undergo another reaction during cooling.
Eutectoid reaction: There is a small solid solution area to the left of the
line CH. we know that 910 C represents the changes in the crystal structure
of pure iron from F.C.C(r) to B.C.C(alpha).The area is a solid solution of the
small amount carbon dissolved in the B.C.C(alpha) Fe and is called Ferrite.
The diameter shows third horizontal line DHF which represents a eutectoid
reaction . The eutectoid point J is at 0.8% c to 723 c. Any austenite presents
of ferrite and cementite called pearlite. The equation may be written as
Solid-----------ferrite + cementite
Below eutectoid temperature every alloy will be consists of a mixture of
ferrite and cementite. In the alloy containing less than 2% all known as steel
and those containing more than 2% are known as cast-iron. The steel range
in further sub divided by the euectoid carbon context 0.8% c. Steels
containing less than 0.8% are called hypo eutectoid steels. Similarly castiron with less than 4.3% c are hypo eutectoid cast-iron and above 4.3% c
are hypo eutectic cast-iron.
DEFINITIONS OF STRUCTURES:
CENENTITE: This is iron carbide or Fe3C contains about 6.67%C by weight.
It is hard and brittle compound with little tensile strength. It is the hardest
structure with the rhombic structure.
AUSTENTINE: This is name given to solid solution. It is solid solution of
carbon dissolved in iron max solubility is 2%C at 2065 F. It is not stable at
room temperature and is possible to contain austentine only under contain
conditions.
LEDEBURITE: This is eutectic mixture of Austentine and cementite.
Ledeburite contains around 4.3%C and is formed at temperature of 2065 F.
FERRITE: This is the name given solid solution. It is
solid
solution of small amount carbon dissolved in iron. The maximum solubility is
0.025%C at 1335 F and it is dissolved only 0.008C at room temperature.
This is the softest structure.
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PEARLITE: This is eutectoid mixture containing 0.80%C and is formed at

1333 F on very slow cooling. It is very fine lamellar mixture of ferrite and
cementile white ferrite back ground makes up most of eutectoid mixture
contains the plates of cementile.
MARTEN SITE: This is super saturated solution of carbon trapped in body
centered tetragonal structure. This is wet stable condition and as energy
applied. The carbon will be precipitated as carbide and iron becomes B.C.C.
There will be diffusion coalescence as temperature rises.
TROOSTITE: Heating in range from 450 F to 750% epsilon carbide
changer to orthorhombic cemtentite. Low carbon marten site becomes
B.C.C. Ferrite and retained austenite transformed to buried. The carbides are
too small and entire. Structure etcher rapidly to a block mass called
TROOSTITE the ductility increases slightly, but touches remains low.
SORBITE:
In range of 750-1200 F the cementite particular continue to
grow .The coalescence of carbide particular allow more of ferrite to be se
causing sample to etch lighter than lower temperature product. This is rapid
increase in hardness and toughness.
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Experiment No. 5
INTRODUCTION TO CAST IRON
AIM: To determine the structure of given cast iron specimen using
metallurgical microscope.
APPARATUS: Specimen, metallurgical microscope, etchant, emery paper.
MAGNIFICATION: 450X.
TYPES: There are mainly three types of cast irons, viz.,
1. Gray cast iron
2. Spheroidal or nodular cast iron
3. White cast iron
1.Grey cast iron: Grey cast iron is in the faces of graphite plates. It has
excellent damping capacity. So it is mainly used in bed of Lathe machine to
absorb vibrations.
Composition:
C:3.2-3.7%
Mn:0.5-1.0%
P:0.1-0.2%
S:2.0-3.5%
Properties:
Strength : 15-40Kg/mm2
Elongation: <1%
Hardness : 150-300BHN
Tensile strength is important in selecting Grey cast iron for parts that are
subjected to static load in directed tension. Such parts include pressure
vessels, housing valves. Iron above 40,000 Ps in tensile strength is usually
considered as high strength iron. The stress-strain curve does not show a
straight line position. Thus a definite modulus of elasticity cannot be
determined.
Compressive strength is important, when Grey iron is used for machinery
support like all the brittle materials. The compressive strength of grey cast
iron is much greater than its tensile strength as it is largely a function of
shearing strength.
The hardness of grey iron is an average result of the soft graphite in the iron
and the metallic matrix. Variation in graphite size and redistribution will
cause wide variation in hardness.
The microstructure is primary factor in determining the hardness of grey
cast iron. Increasing contents of carbon and silicon will result in decreasing
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hardness though the effect is not as marked on hardness as it is on tensile

strength since grey cast iron is the least expensive type of casting. Another
metal should be chosen only when the mechanical and physical properties of
grey cast iron are inadequate.
Uses: Grey iron is widely used in frames around the hazardous machinery.
Many types of great housing, enclosure for electrical equipment pump
housing and stream turbine housing are cast in grey iron because of low
cost. Used for motor frames, fire hydrants screw covers.
Exp. No. 5.1
MAGNIFICATION
100X
ETCHENT
BEFORE
OBSERVATION
FLAKES ARE VISIBLE
MATERIALS
GREY CAST IRON
WITH ETCHENT
MAGNIFICATION
ETCHENT
100X
2% NITAL
OBSERVATION - Micro structure reveals grey cast iron having flakes of

Graphite within background of ferrite with little amount of pearlite
MATERIALS
- GREY CAST IRON
2. Spheroidal or Nodular Cast Iron :

In nodular cast iron graphite is present in the form of Flakes tiny balls. Or
Spheroids. These tiny interrupts the continuity of the matrix, resulting in
high strength and toughness. Hence they are used in crane shaft gear
cylinder blocks, sheet metal disc etc. as they required no heat treatment.
Composition :
C ----> 3 to 3.5%
P ----> 0.025 to 2.25%
Si-----> 2 to 2.5%
Mn ----> 0.15 to 0.65%
S ----->0.15 to 0.04%
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Properties
Strength
38 to 80Kg/mm2
Elongation 6 to 20%
Hardness
100-300BHM
Exp No :5.2
MAGNIFICATION
100X
ETCHENT
BEFORE
OBSERVATION
- Microstructure Revels Spheroids Only
MATERIALS
- Nodular or S.G or Ductile C.I
MAGNIFICATION
100X
ETCHENT
2% Nital
OBSERVATION
- Microstructure Revels nodular iron showing
spheroids of graphite in a matrix of perlites with little amount of ferrite.
Because of shape of graphite it is known as Nodular Cast Iron. This type of
cast iron has better mechanical properties. These are made of selective
composition of cast Iron with the addition of nodulizing against before
pouring
MATERIALS
- Nodular or S.G or Ductile C.I
3. White Cast Iron :

In white Cast Iron most of the Carbon present in the combined form as
a cementite. This is obtained by the rapid cooling of Iron. It is lower in silica
contain and high in manganese content. When it is fractured it shows a
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white silica structure. The use of White cast iron is mostly as raw material
for malleable cast iron.
Composition
C ---->2.3 to 3%
P ----> 0.1 to 0.2%
Si-----> 0.5 to 1.3%
Mn ----> 0.5 to 1%
S ----->0.6 to 1%
Properties
Strength
140 to 175Kg/mm2
Hardness
350 to 500BHM
Exp. no. 5.3
MAGNIFICATION 100X
ETCHENT
BEFORE
OBSERVATION - Polynomials grains of normal (ferrite) with some

inclusions are seen .The dark areas are due to the differential orientations of
grains.
MATERIALS
- ARMCO (PURE IRON)
MAGNIFICATION 100X
ETCHENT
2% NITAL
OBSERVATION - Pearlite is arranged in an systematic array (dark

regions) in a background of cementite
MATERIALS
- white cast iron
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Experiment No. 6
EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
Aim : To determine the structure of given Plain Carbon Steel specimen using
Apparatus : Specimen, metallurgical microscope, Etchents and emery
papers
Magnification : 100X
Observation: The given specimen is dry polished using the emery paper, by
means of wet polishing machine the fine polish is done. When a
magnification of 100X is used, the specimen is observed under the
microscope, a scratch free surface, if not seen fine polish is repeated again
the dark spot on white back ground which can be observed on the specimen,
before etching are oxide unpurified the specimen is etched for 15 seconds.
the etchant Natal (nitric acid 1.5ml ether alcohol).
After etching the
specimen if properly washed. Now specimen is dried with a drier and the
specimen is observed under the microscope.
EUTECTIOD STEEL:
Steels containing 0.8% C are called Eutectoid steels. The microstructure
reveals a very fine plate like or lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite.
The degree of fineness depends on rate of cooling the white ferrite
background or matrix which makes up most of the eutectoid mixture,
contain the plate of cementite.
Properties: Tensile strength - 1,20,000 psi
Elongation
- 20% n 2 inches
Hardness
- Rock well C20

Rockwell 375 - 100
BHN 250 300
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Uses: Eutectoid steel is used to make knifes, cutting edges etc . also making
springs, shear blades, wind, chisels, cold sets, hammer, small casing dies.
1.MEDIUM CARBON STEEL: Medium carbon steel contains 0.4% C. the
change in low, medium and high carbon steel are mainly due to the relative
amount of ferrite and pearlite. The closer the carbon content to eutectoid
composition, the more pearlite will be present in the microstructure. The
medium carbon steel contain, approximately 50% pearlite. Thin layers of
ferrite are farmed in each side of the cementite plate. Process continues by
the formation of alternate layers of the cementite and ferrite to give the fine
layer point mixture known as pearlite.
Properties:
Tensile strength
75,000 Psi.
% yield point
- 44,000Psi
Reduction air area
-48%
Elongation % in
-30%
BHN
-165
Uses:
Most of the common hand tools, such as pliers, open end reaches and screw
drivers and made from medium carbon steels.
2.LOW CARBON STEEL: In this 0.2%C dissolved in the spaces of the F.C.C
iron takes place at 1666 F far pure iron and decreases in temperature with
increasing carbon content. The carbon which comes out from of the solution
is dissolved in the remaining austenite. So that, as cooling progresses and
the amount of ferrite increases, the remaining austinite reaches in carbon.
Just above upper critical temperature in the microstructure consists of 25%
austenite and 75% ferrite. The remaining 25% of austenite and containing
0.8%C now experiences eutectoid reaction.
Properties:
Approximate tensile strength:40,000(0.75) + 12,000 (0.25) 60,000 Psi
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Yield point
-36,000Psi
Reduction in area
- 64%
Elongation % in Zin
- 37%
BHN
-115
Uses: valves, gears, crank shaft, connecting rods, railway angles, fish plate,
small forging.
EXPERIMENT -6.1
MAGNIFICATION: 100%
ETCHANT
: BEFORE
OBSERVATION
: 100% OF Pearlite
Is seen in the form of alternative bands of cementite

And ferrite.
MATEIRAL: EUTECTIOD
MAGNIFICATION: 100%
ETCHANT
: 2% Nital
OBSERVATION
: around 50% OF Pearlite (dark areas seen)
In a background or material of ferrite light area) the specimen is medium

carbon steel austenitized at 840%C for 1 Hr and quenched in air and
tempered at 2000C for 1 HR. the structure is called tempered martensite.
The hardness is around 35 rockwell in C scale.
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MATERIAL: MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

EXPERIMENT -6.2
MAGNIFICATION: 100%
ETCHANT
: BEFORE
OBSERVATION
: Oxide impurities are variable
MATERIAL
: LOW CARBON STEEL
MAGNIFICATION: 100%
ETCHANT
: 2% Nital
OBSERVATION
: microstructure reveals low carbon
Steel showing 25% of perlite within the network of ferrite (white ore).
The specimen is low carbon steel containing 0.15%C. the steel is austinitised
at 900 0C far 1 hour and cooled in the furnace for 48 Hrs. the % of pearlite
is less as the percentage of carbon is also less.
MATERIAL: LOW CARBON STEEL
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Experiment No. 7
EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF BRASS
AIM : To determine the structure of given brass metal and alloys using
APPARATUS: Metallurgical microscope, polishing machine, driver,
medicated cotton, etchant.
PROCEDURE:
1. Firstly obtain a flat surface of the specimen by filling.
2. Support the polishing the paper, family of a flat glass plate.
3. Polish the specimen, under very light pressure resulting in forward
direction only.
4. Observe the scratches on specimen, the scratches should not be very
deep but at the same time, they should be uniformly in same direction.
When the above condition is satisfactory. Go the next finer paper.
5. After polishing on 4*0 paper. Wash our hands and specimen to do fine
polishing on the polishing wheels first use sio2, powder on wheel and wash
of the specimen to remove sio2, before going the second wheel. Finally use
magnesium powder as abrasive on another polishing wheel. Always keep the
cloth wet, other abrasives systems may be substituted.
MAGNIFICATION: 100X
ETCHANT: 2% per sulphate
OBSREVATION: The specimen is a pure brass annealed. The

microstructure is solid solution of brass. The light parts are due to oxide.
That is formed
MATERIAL : BRASS
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Experiment No. 8
EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF COPPER STRUCTURE
Aim:
To determine the structure of given copper metal and alloys using
APPARATUS: Metallurgical microscope, polishing machine,
paper, medicated cotton, etchant, wrier.
emery
PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
Firstly obtain a flat surface of the specimen by fining.

Support the polishing paper f no.1 on a flat glass plate.
Polish the specimen under very light pressure resulting in forward
direction only.
4.
Observe the scratches on specimen the scratch be uniformly in same
direction, when the above condition is satisfactory go to next finer
paper.
5.
After polishing on 4X0 paper wash our hands and specimen to do
fine polishing on the polishing wheel first use Sio2 powder on wheel
and wash of the specimen to remove Sio2 before going to second
wheel. Finally use magnesia powder as abrasive, another polishing
wheel always keep the clothe wet, other abrasive system may be
substructure.
MAGNIFICATION :
100 X
ETCHANT
2% PER SULPHATE
OBSERVATION :
The specimen is a pure copper annealed the
microstructure is solid solution of copper the black dots are due to cuprous
oxide that is formed rolling by oxides.
MATERIAL
COPPER.
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MECHANICS OF
SOLIDS LAB
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
STUDY OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (U.T.M.)

DEFLECTION OF BEAM
COMPRESSION TEST
IZOD TEST
CHARPY TEST
HARDNESS TEST
SPRING TEST
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
AIM: - Study of Universal Testing Machine (U.T.M.)
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OBJECT: - To Study the various component parts of the Universal Testing

Machine (U.T.M.) & test procedures of various practicals to be performed.
APPARATUS: - Universal Testing Machine with all attachment i.e. shears
test attachment, bending attachment, tension grips, compression test
attachment etc.
THEORY: - The Universal Testing Machine consists of two units.
1) Loading unit, 2) Control panel.
LOADING UNIT:It consists of main hydraulic cylinder with robust base inside. The piston
which moves up and down. The chain driven by electric motor which is fitted
on left hand side. The screw column maintained in the base can be rotated
using above arrangement of chain. Each column passes through the main
nut which is fitted in the lower cross head. The lower table connected to
main piston through a ball & the ball seat is joined to ensure axial loading.
There is a connection between lower table and upper head assembly that
moves up and down with main piston. The measurement of this assembly is
carried out by number of bearings which slides over the columns. The test
specimen each fixed in the job is known as Jack Job. To fix up the specimen
tightly, the movement of jack job is achieved helically by handle.
CONTROL PANEL:It consists of oil tank having a hydraulic oil level sight glass for checking the
oil level. The pump is displacement type piston pump having free plungers
those ensure for continuation of high pressure. The pump is fixed to the tank
from bottom. The suction & delivery valve are fitted to the pump near tank
Electric motor driven the pump is mounted on four studs which is fitted on
the right side of the tank. There is an arrangement for loosing or tightening
of the valve. The four valves on control panel control the oil stroke in the
hydraulic system. The loading system works as described below. The return
valve is close, oil delivered by the pump through the flow control valves to
the cylinder & the piston goes up. Pressure starts developing& either the
specimen breaks or the load having maximum value is controlled with the
base dynameters consisting in a cylinder in which the piston reciprocates.
The switches have upper and lower push at the control panel for the
downward & upward movement of the movable head. The on & off switch
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provided on the control panel & the pilot lamp shows the transmission of
main supply.
METHOD OF TESTING:Initial Adjustment: - before testing adjust the pendulum with respect to
capacity of the test i.e. 8 Tones; 10 Tones; 20 Tones; 40 Tones etc. For ex: A specimen of 6 tones capacity gives more accurate result of 10Tones
capacity range instead of 20 Tones capacity range. These ranges of capacity
are adjusted on the dial with the help of range selector knob. The control
weights of the pendulum are adjusted correctly. The ink should be inserted
in pen holder of recording paper around the drum & the testing process is
started depending upon the types of test as mentioned below.
TENSION TEST:Select the proper job and complete upper and lower check adjustment.
Apply some Greece to the tapered surface of specimen or groove. Then
operate the upper cross head grip operation handle & grip the upper end of
test specimen fully in to the groove. Keep the lower left valve in fully close
position. Open the right valve & close it after lower table is slightly lifted.
Adjust the lower points to zero with the help of adjusting knob. This is
necessary to remove the dead weight of the lower table. Then lock the jobs
in this position by operating job working handle. Then open the left control
valve. The printer on dial gauge at which the specimen breaks slightly return
back & corresponding load is known as breaking load & maximum load is
known as the ultimate load.
COMPRESSION TEST:Fix upper and lower pressure plates to the upper stationary head & lower
table respectively. Place the specimen on the lower plate in order to grip.
Then adjust zero by lifting the lower table. Then perform the test in the
same manner as described in tension test.
FLEXURAL OR BENDING TEST:Keep the bending table on the lower table in such a way that the central
position of the bending table is fixed in the central location value of the lower
table. The bending supports are adjusted to required distance. Stuffers at
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the back of the bending table at different positions. Then place the specimen
on bending table & apply the load by bending attachment at the upper
stationary head. Then perform the test in the same manner as described in
tension test.
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST:Place the specimen on the lower table & lift it up slightly. Adjust the zero
fixed value at the bottom side of the lower cross head. Increase the load
slowly ultimate load value is obtained. Then release the load slowly with left
control valve. Get the impression of a suitable value of five to ten millimeter
on the specimen & measure the diameter of the impression correctly by
microscope & calculate Brinell hardness.
SHEAR TEST:Place the shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists
of cutter. The specimen is inserted in roles of shear test attachment & lift the
lower table so that the zero is adjusted, then apply the load such that the
specimen breaks in two or three pieces. If the specimen breaks in two pieces
then it will be in angle shear, & if it breaks in three pieces then it will be in
double shear.
STUDY OF EXTENSOMETER:This instrument is an attachment to Universal / Tensile Testing Machines.

This measures the elongation of a test place on load for the set gauge
length. The least count of measurement being 0.01 mm, and maximum
elongation measurement up to 3 mm. This elongation measurement helps in
finding out the proof stress at the required percentage elongation.
WORKING OF THE INSTRUMENT:-The required gauge length (between 30to
120) is set by adjusting the upper knife edges ( 3 ) A scale ( 2 ) is provided
for this purpose . Hold the specimen in the upper and lower jaws of Tensile /
Universal Testing Machine. Position the extensometer on the specimen.
Position upper clamp (4) To press upper knife edges on the specimen. The
extensometer will be now fixed to the specimen by spring pressure. Set zero
on both the dial gauges by zero adjusts screws (7). Start loading the
specimen and take the reading of load on the machine at required elongation
or the elongation at required load. Force setter accuracies mean of both the
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dial gauge (8) readings should be taken as elongation. It is very important

to note & follow the practice of removing the extensometer from the
specimen before the specimen breaks otherwise the instrument will be
totally damaged. As a safety, while testing the instrument may be kept
hanging from a fixed support by a slightly loose thread.
TECHNICAL DATA:Measuring Range: 0 3 mm.
Least Count: 0. 01 mm.
Gauge Length adjustable from: 30 120 mm
Specimen Size: 1 to 20mm Round or Flats up to 20 x 20 mm.
Stress-strain graph of Mild Steel
Stress-strain graphs of different materials.
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Curve A shows a brittle material. This material is also strong because

there is little strain for a high stress. The fracture of a brittle material
is sudden and catastrophic, with little or no plastic deformation. Brittle
materials crack under tension and the stress increases around the
cracks. Cracks propagate less under compression.
Curve B is a strong material which is not ductile. Steel wires stretch

very little, and break suddenly. There can be a lot of elastic strain
energy in a steel wire under tension and it will whiplash if it breaks.
The ends are razor sharp and such a failure is very dangerous indeed.
Curve C is a ductile material
Curve D is a plastic material. Notice a very large strain for a small

stress.
The material will not go back to its original length

EXPERIMENT NO :-2
DEFLECTION OF BEAM
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AIM: -To determined youngs modulus of elasticity of material of beam

simply supported at ends.
APPARATUS: 1.Deflection of beam apparatus
2.Weights
3. Beam of different cross-sections and material (say wooden and Steel

beams)
4. Hanger
5. Dial indicator
DIAGRAM:-
Figure 1
THEORY:If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at
its center, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the
original position of the beams and its position after bending at different
points along the length of the beam, being maximum at the center in this
case. This difference is known as deflection In this particular type of loading
the maximum amount of deflection (ymax) is given by the relation,
ymax= W L3/48 EI (i)
E = WL3/48 I ------------- (ii)
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Where - is deflection at L/2 distance from the left end of

the beam
W =Load acting at the center, N
L =Length of the beam between the supports mm
E =Youngs modulus of material of the beam, N/mm2
I =Second moment of area of the cross- section (i.e., moment of
Inertia) of the beam, about the neutral axis, mm4
I=bd3/12
Y= d/2
BENDING STRESS
Where,
M = Bending moment, N-mm

I = Moment of inertia, mm.4
b = Bending stress, N/mm2, and
Y = Distance of the top fiber of the beam from the neutral
axis
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the arrangements of the setup as shown in the figure 1.
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2. Place the beam on the knife edges so as to project equally beyond each
knife edge. See that the load is applied at the centre of the beam
3. Note the initial reading of dial indicator at distance of L/4 from left end of
the beam
4. Add a weight of 0.5 kg and again note the reading of the dial indicator at
that same point.
5. Go on taking readings by adding 0.5kg each time till you have minimum
eight readings.
6. Find the deflection () in each case by subtracting the initial reading of
Dial indicator.
7. Calculate the bending stresses and Youngs Modulus for different loads
using relation
b = MY/I
E=WL3/48 I
8. Draw a graph between load (W) and deflection ().On the graph choose
any two convenient points and between these points find the corresponding
values of E.
OBSERVATION TABLE :S.N
o.
Load
W
(N)
Bending
moment
M= WL/4 ,Nmm
Bending
stress
b= MY/I
N/mm2
Deflection of the
beam
Initial Final
(mm)
RESULT:
Youngs
Modulus
EN/mm2
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1. The youngs modulus for steel beam is found to be----- N/mm 2 and from
graph ------- N/mm2.
2. The youngs modulus for wooden beam is found to be----- N/mm 2and
from graph ------- N/mm2
PRECAUTION
1. Make sure that beam and load are placed at proper position.
2. The cross- section of the beam should be large.
EXPERIMENT NO:-3
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COMPRESSION TEST
AIM- To Determine the Compressive Strength and Crushing Load of the
Brick
APPARATUS: Bricks, Vernier Caliper, Scale, Etc.
FORMULA: Compressive strength of concrete =
Load (Kgs)
Area of Specimen (cm2)

DIAGRAM:-
THEORY: - Bricks are used in construction of either load bearing walls or in

portion walls incase of frame structure. In bad bearing walls total weight
from slab and upper floor comes directly through brick and then it is
transverse to the foundation. In case the bricks are loaded with compressive
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nature of force on other hand in case of frame structure bricks are used only
for construction of portion walls, layers comes directly on the lower layers or
wall. In this case bricks are loaded with compressive nature of force. Hence
for safely measures before using the bricks in actual practice they have to be
tested in laboratory for their compressive strength.
PROCEDURE: 1.
Check the oil level is up to the mark.
2.
Check all pipeline joints are firmly tight. Ensure that pipeline doesn't
get buckled due to over tightening.
3.
Press the operating Handle in the bracket of the pump or push fit it
accordingly.
4.
Loosen the Dip stick and tighten the pressure Release valve.
5.
Keep the specimen to be tested between the upper and lower platen
leaving a small space between the top platen and the specimen say
5mm.
6.
Take a comfortable stance and start operating pump by moving the

long handle backwards and forwards slowly and firmly. Under High
pressure, use both your hands. The piston of the jack moves up and
touches the top surface of the upper platen. Pressure builds up and the
specimen gets loaded.
7.
Continue pumping till the black needle (slips back) leaving the redpointer at a certain reading. The reading indicated by the red pointer is
the maximum resistance offered by the brick i.e Compressive Strength
of the brick.
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8.
38
The pressure release piston of the jack specimen and keep the valve is
released gradually and the goes down. Remove the broken test next
one.
9.
Repeat the above steps.
CALCULATION:- Compressive strength of concrete= Load (Kgs)

Area of Specimen(cm2)
Therefore Crushing Load (Kgs)= (Compressive Strength of the

concrete) X (Area of the Specimen)
RESULT: - The compressive strength of brick sample is Found to be .

Kg/sq.cm.
The Crushing Load of brick sample is Found to be . Kgs
PRECAUTION: 1) Measure the dimensions of Brick accurately.
2) The range of the gauge fitted on the machine should notbe more
than double the breaking
load of specimen for Reliable results.
EXPERIMENT NO:-4
IZOD TEST
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AIM: - To Determine the impact strength of steel by Izod impact test

APPARATUS: - 1.Impact testing machine2. A steel specimen 75 mm X
10mm X 10mm
THEORY:-An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability of
material to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Static tension tests of
un notched specimens do not always reveal the susceptibility of a metal to
brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test.
Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the material.
Several engineering materials have to withstand impact or suddenly applied
loads while in service. Impact strengths are generally lower as compared to
strengths achieved under slowly applied loads. Of all types of impact tests,
the notch bar tests are most extensively used. Therefore, the impact test
measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by applying
an impulse load. The test measures the notch toughness of material under
shock loading. Values obtained from these tests are not of much utility to
design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to note
that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or
toughness of the same material under different condition. This test can also
be used to assess the ductile brittle transition temperature of the material
occurring due to lowering of temperature.
DIAGRAM
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PROCEDURE:lzod test
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the
steel specimen in impact testing machines vice in such away that the notch
face the hammer and is half inside and half above the top surface of the
vice.
2. Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is
already there, and lock it at that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the
operating manual supplied with the machine.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen
through its momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen.
Then it continues to swing. At its topmost height after breaking the
specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the pendulum falls back. Note
the indicator at that topmost final position.
5. Again bring back the hammer to its idle position and back.
IZOD TEST
Maximum Impact Energy of pendulum
164 Joules
Minimum value of scale Graduation -
2 Joules
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Angle of Drop of Pendulum
900
OBESERVATION:Izod Test.
Impact value of - Mild Steel __________N-m
RESULT:-The energy absorbed for Mild Steel is found out to be
________Joules.
PRECAUTION:1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.
2. Hold the specimen (lzod test) firmly.
3. Note down readings carefully.
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EXPERIMENT NO:-5
CHARPY TEST
AIM: - To Determine the impact strength of steel by Charpy test.
APPARATUS: - 1. Impact testing machine
2. A steel specimen 75 mm X
10mm X 10mm
THEORY:-An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability of
material to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Static tension tests of
un notched specimens do not always reveal the susceptibility of a metal to
brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test.
Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the material.
Several engineering material shave to withstand impact or suddenly applied
loads while in service. Impact strengths are generally lower as compared to
strengths achieved under slowly applied loads. Of all types of impact tests,
the notch bar tests are most extensively used. Therefore, the impact test
measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by applying
an impulse load. The test measures the notch toughness of material under
shock loading. Values obtained from the tests are not of much utility to
design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to note
that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or
toughness of the same material under different condition. This test can also
be used to assess the ductile brittle transition temperature of the material
occurring due to lowering of temperature.
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44
PROCEDURE :Charpy Test

1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the
steel specimen in impact testing machines vice in such a way that the notch
faces the hammer and is half inside and half above the top surface of the
vice.
2. Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is
already there, and lock it at that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen
through its momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen.
Then it continues to swing. At its topmost height after breaking the
specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the pendulum falls back. Note
the indicator at that topmost final position.
5. The specimen is placed on supports or anvil so that the blow of hammer is
opposite to the notch.
CHARPY TEST
Maximum Impact Energy of pendulum
300 Joules
Minimum value of scale Graduation
1 Joules
Angle of Drop of pendulum
1410
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OBSERVATION:Charpy test
Impact value of - Mild Steel _________ N-m
RESULT:The energy absorbed for Mild Steel is found out to be ___________
PRECAUTION:1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.
2. Hold the specimen firmly.
3. Note down readings carefully.
Joules.
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46
EXPERIMENT NO:-6
HARDNESS TEST
AIM: - To conduct hardness test on mild steel, carbon steel, brass and
aluminum specimens.
APPARATUS:- Hardness tester, soft and hard mild steel specimens, brass,
aluminum etc.
DIAGRAM:-
THEORY: The hardness of a material is resistance to penetration under a localized

pressure or resistance to abrasion. Hardness tests provide an accurate, rapid
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47
economical
way
of
determining
the
resistance
of
materials
to
deformation. There are three general types of hardness measurements

depending upon the manner in which the test is conducted:
a. Scratch hardness measurement,
b. Rebound hardness measurement
c. Indention hardness measurement.
In scratch hardness method the material are rated on their ability to scratch
one another and it is usually used by mineralogists only. In rebound
hardness measurement, a standard body is usually dropped on to the
material surface and the hardness is measured in terms of the height of its
rebound .The general means of judging the hardness is measuring the
resistance of a material to
indentation. The indenters usually a ball cone or pyramid of a material much
harder than that being used. Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or
diamond indenters are generally used in indentation tests; a load is applied
by Pressing the indenter at right angles to the surface being tested. The
hardness of the material depends on the resistance which it exerts during a
small amount of yielding or plastic. The resistance depends on friction,
elasticity, viscosity and the intensity and distribution of plastic strain
produced by a given tool during indentation.
DESCRIPTION
The dial fixed at the top has two scales (Black and Red) ~Black scale is used
for reading the Rockwell Hardness of Specimen. The screw Rod moves up
and down and carries the specimen. Flat and V anvil is given to hold the test
specimen. The Diamond Indenter is fixed at the top. 100 kgf Load is
selected. The loading and unloading lever is provided on the lower end of the
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Right side. Lever front position is 'A' position and lever rear position is 'B'
position.
PROCEDURE
1. The Test specimen is kept in the Anvil Table.
2. Turn the screw rod till the small dial pointer reads 3 and bigger black
dial pointer reads zero by keeping lever in position 'A
3. Turn the lever to position 'B'.
4. The pointer needle moves and stops. Again go back to position A and
note down the reading of the pointer in Black scale.
5. It gives the Rockwell Hardness.
6. For Brinell Test Select 187.5 Kgf Load and change the Indentor to
2.5mm Ball. Read the Brinell Hardness in Red Dial.
OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No
Specimen
Mild steel
Brass
Aluminum
Reading
Reading
Reading
Mean
RESULT:- The hardness of the metal is found to be

Mild steel
Brass
Aluminum =
PRECAUTION:METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
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49
1. Brinell test should be performed on smooth, flat specimens from which

dirt and scale have been cleaned.
2. The test should not be made on specimens so thin that the impression
shows through the
metal, nor should impression be made too close to
the edge of a specimen.
EXPERIMENT NO:-7
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50
SPRING TEST
AIM : To determine the stiffness of the spring & modules of the rigidity of the spring wire.
APPARATUS:
1) Spring testing Machine, 2) A spring, 3) venire calipers scale.
THEORY:
Springs are elastic member which distort under load & regain their original shape when
load is removed. They are used in railways, motor cars, scooters, motor cycles etc. According to
their uses springs are perform the following functions
1) To store energy as in clock springs.
2) To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
3) To apply forces to control motions as in brakes and clutches.
4) To measure the forces in spring bar.
5) To change variation characteristics of no. as in flexible moving of motors
The spring is usually made of either high carbon steel (6,7-10%) or medium carbon steel. Brass
18/8 stainless steel and other metal alloys are used for corrosion resistant. There are several types
of springs are available for different applications springs may be classified as helical springs,
leaf springs and flat springs depending upon their shape. They are fabricated of high shear
strength material such as high carbon alloy steel spring from element of not only mechanical
system but also structural system. In several cases it is essential to ideally complex structural
system by suitable springs.
PROCEDURE:
1) Measure the dia of the wire of the spring by using venire & dia of spring coil by
venire caliper.
2) Count the no. of turns.
3) Insert the spring in spring testing machine and load the spring by suitable weights and
note the corresponding axial deflections in tension or compression.
4) Increase the load and take corresponding axial deflection readings.
5) Plot a curve between load Vs deflection. The slope of the curve gives the stiffness of
the spring.
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TABULAR COLUMN FOR READING AND CALCULATION

I ) Tension Test
S.no
Load (W)
N
Deflection (mm)
Original Final
Stiffness (K= W/)

N/mm
Modulus Of
Rigidity (C)
Stiffness (K= W/)

N/mm
Modulus Of
Rigidity (C)
II ) Compression Test
S.no
Load (W)
N
Deflection (mm)
Original Final
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of venire caliper = .cm.
Dia of spring wire (d ) =mm (mean of 3 readings)
Dia of spring coil (D) = .mm (mean of 3 readings)
Mean coil diameter (Dm) = D d = ..mm.
No. of turns (N) = .
Stiffness or Spring Constant K= W/
8WDm3 N
Modulus of rigidity = ------------------,
Spring index = Dm/D
D4
Spring index = ..
PRECAUTIONS:
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52
1) The dia of spring should be measured accurately.

2) Deflection obtained in spring should be measured accurately.
RESULT:
The value of spring constant K of closely coiled helical spring is found to be
I) Under Compression ----------N/mm, and
II) Under Tension --------------N/mm

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LIET

LORDS INSTITUTE OF ENGINERING &

8. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF COPPER STRUCTURE

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB

STUDY OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (U.T.M.)

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

8. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF COPPER STRUCTURE

Introduction: - The metallurgical microscope is the most important tool of

Powers such as _ 5, _ 10, _ 15 etc.

Introduction Metallographic or microscopy consists of the microscopic

intermediate polishing operation using emery paper is usually done dry.

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

Theory- Specimens that are very small or awkwardly shaped should be

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

Aim- To study the Iron-Iron Carbide Equilibrium diagram and various

The max solubility of carbon is B.C.C r Fe is 0.1% C, while in F.C.C alpha.

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

PEARLITE: This is eutectoid mixture containing 0.80%C and is formed at

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

hardness though the effect is not as marked on hardness as it is on tensile

FLAKES ARE VISIBLE

GREY CAST IRON

OBSERVATION - Micro structure reveals grey cast iron having flakes of

- GREY CAST IRON

2. Spheroidal or Nodular Cast Iron :

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

- Microstructure Revels Spheroids Only

- Nodular or S.G or Ductile C.I

- Nodular or S.G or Ductile C.I

3. White Cast Iron :

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

Exp. no. 5.3

OBSERVATION - Polynomials grains of normal (ferrite) with some

- ARMCO (PURE IRON)

OBSERVATION - Pearlite is arranged in an systematic array (dark

- white cast iron

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

- Rock well C20

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

Reduction air area

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

Is seen in the form of alternative bands of cementite

: around 50% OF Pearlite (dark areas seen)

In a background or material of ferrite light area) the specimen is medium

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

MATERIAL: MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

: Oxide impurities are variable

: LOW CARBON STEEL

: microstructure reveals low carbon

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

OBSREVATION: The specimen is a pure brass annealed. The

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

Firstly obtain a flat surface of the specimen by fining.

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

STUDY OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (U.T.M.)

METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL

OBJECT: - To Study the various component parts of the Universal Testing

STUDY OF EXTENSOMETER:This instrument is an attachment to Universal / Tensile Testing Machines.

dial gauge (8) readings should be taken as elongation. It is very important

Stress-strain graph of Mild Steel

Mos & Metallurgy Lab

Mos & Metallurgy Lab