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Electric Currents and Resistance

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The Electric Battery
Electric Current Defined
Resistance and Ohms Law
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The Electric Battery
Establishes electric current in a conductor
Chemical energy stored in the battery is
transformed to electric energy of the charge
carriers
Contains two oppositely charged electrodes
(terminals)
Potential difference exists between the terminals
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Battery and Current
+ -
Battery Symbol
Conducting Wire
-
+
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

f
l
o
w
Connect battery terminals together, the
potential difference between the terminals
creates an electric field inside the
conductor causing charges to move an
electric current.
The current flows from regions of high
potential to regions of lower potential.
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Electric Current
When charges of a like sign move a current is established. Let
us define current more precisely. Suppose the charges move
perpendicular to a surface of area A as shown.
A
+
+
+
+
+
I
The current is the rate that charge flows through this surface.
If Q passes through A in time t the the average current
during that period is
av
Q
I
t

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A
Average current:
+
+
+
+
av
Q
I
t

+
Instantaneous current:
I
dQ
I
dt
=
Units: Coulombs/sec or Ampere (A)
1C
1A
1s
=
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Direction of Current
-
+
electron flow current flow
Conventional current: Direction a positive charge would flow
This is opposite to the direction of electron flow in a conductor!
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Potential and Current
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) : in metal wires the current
flowing in the wire was proportional to the potential difference
between the two ends:
I V
Compare gravity
Water flowing down a hill -- the greater the change in
height (greater change in gravitational potential) the swifter
the water flows.
For electrical current, the greater the electrical potential
difference (or voltage) the greater the current.
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Ohms Law
I V
Ohm: Voltage and current were proportional:
Proportionality constant is the resistance Ohms law:
or
V
I V IR
R

= =
R is the resistance. Different for different materials
and for different shapes of wire.
1V
1
1A
=
Units of R : Volts/Amperes or Ohms ()
Resistor Symbol:
Conducting Wire (negligible resistance):
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Not all materials follow Ohms law!
Those that do are called ohmic
Those that do not are called nonohmic
I I
V
Nonohmic
V IR =
V
Ohmic
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Resistivity
A wire of length l and cross-sectional area A.
Experiments show the resistance R is proportional to l.
Experiments show the resistance R inversely proportional to A:
l
R
A
=
A
l
The constant of proportionality is known as the resistivity
Different for different materials (copper, aluminum, iron, etc.)
Temperature dependent.
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l R A
R or
A l
= =
A
l
Resistivity has units of Ohmmeters (m).
The reciprocal of the resistivity is called the conductivity .
1

=
Conductivity has units of (m)
-1
.
Resistivity not to be confused with mass density or
charge density.
Conductivity not to be confused with surface charge
density.
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Current and Potential
a b
I
Current flows from high potential to low potential.
So the electrical potential at a is higher than at b.
The current at a and b is, however, the same.
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Potential in a Resistor Loop
-
+
V
0
R
b c
d
a
I
a
b
c
d
d
V
V
0
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Microscopic Description of Current
In a conductor charges (electrons) are always in motion.
They move with speeds of about 10
6
m/s.
If no electric field is applied the net electron velocity is zero.
Then there is no net charge flow.
When electric field is applied to the conductor it causes the
electrons to drift in the opposite direction to the field.
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Collisions in the conductor causes the electrons to reach a steady
average drift velocity, v
d
.
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Can relate the drift velocity to the
current:
In time t the electrons move a
distance x = v
d
t.
Wire has a cross-sectional area A. In
time t electrons in the volume Ax =
Av
d
t pass through the cross-section A
of the wire.
Total charge that passes is Q = (# of
charges)(charge per particle).
If n is the number of charges N per
unit volume (n = N/V) :
( )( ) ( )
( )
d
Q N e nV e n Av t e = = =
d
Q
I - ne Av
t
= =
And the current is:
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d
Q
I - ne Av
t
= =
Define a current density as the current per unit cross-sectional
area J = I/A so
d
J - nev =
or in vector form:
d
J - nev =
r
r
The minus sign indicates that the direction of positive current is
opposite the drift velocity of the electrons.
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Example 1
12-gauge copper wire in a typical residential building has a cross-
sectional area of 3.31 x 10
-6
m
2
.
It carries a current of 10 A .
What is the drift speed of the electrons? The conduction electron
density for copper is 8.49 x 10
28
electrons/m
3
.
d
J - nev =
d
J I
v
ne neA
= =
4
28 3 19 6 2
10C/s
2.22 10 m/s
(8.49 10 m )(1.60 10 C)(3.31 10 m )
d
v


= =

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Return to Ohms Law
l
A
I
E
V
a
V
b
For wire, have V = El, and I = JA. Using Ohms Law, V = IR, can
use earlier results:
( )
V I R
l
El JA J l
A

=

= =


1
J E E

= =
r r r
or in vector form
1
J E E

= =
Ohms Law in terms of Current density and Electric Field