EINTH012

Rolta Academy:Engineering Design Services
CHAPTER 10
CONTROL ALES
10!0 "NTROD#CT"ON
Estimates reveals that a substantial portion approximately 8-10% of total
capital expenditure of the chemical process industry is used for the
procurement of valves. In terms of the number of units also, valves exceed
any other piping component. ence proper thought is given for selection of
valves. !he first step in selection is to determine exactly "hat function the
valve is expected to perform after it has been installed. #alves are installed on
e$uipment%piping to perform any one of the follo"ing functions&
1.isolation
'.regulation
(.nonreturn
).*pecial purpose.
1.0 I*+,-!I+.
/-!E
0-,,
1,2/
1I*!+.
3I-1/4-5
02!!E46,7
1I.8
'.0 4egulation
/lobe
.eddle
0utterfly
3iapghram
1iston
1inch
(.0 .on return
8hec9 valves
).0 *pecial purpose
5ulti port
6lush bottom
6loat
,ine blind
:nife gate.
$%at are &all alves'
Instrumentation Engineering 1
- ball valve ;li9e the butterfly valve, one of a family of valves called $uarter
turn valves< is a valve that opens by turning a handle attached to a ball inside
the valve. !he ball has a hole, or port, through the middle so that "hen the
port is in line "ith both ends of the valve, flo" "ill occur. =hen the valve is
closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flo" is bloc9ed.
!he handle position lets you >see> the valve?s position.
0all valves are durable and usually "or9 to achieve perfect shutoff even after
years of disuse. !hey are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications
;and are often preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this purpose<.
!hey do not offer the fine control that may be necessary in throttling
applications but are sometimes used for this purpose. !he body of ball valves
may be made of metal, ceramic, or plastic. !he ball may be chrome plated to
ma9e it more durable.
!here are three general body styles of ball valves& split body, top entry, and
"elded. !here are three general types of ball valves& full port, standard port,
and reduced port.
- full port ball valve has an oversi@ed ball so that the hole in the ball is the
same si@e as the pipeline resulting in lo"er friction loss. 6lo" is unrestricted,
but the valve is larger.
- standard port ball valve is usually less expensive, but has a smaller ball and
a correspondingly smaller port. 6lo" through this valve is one pipe si@e
smaller than the valve?s pipe si@e resulting in slightly restricted flo".
In reduced port ball valves, flo" through the valve is t"o pipe si@es smaller
than the valve?s pipe si@e resulting in restricted flo".
- trunnion ball valve has a mechanical means of anchoring the ball at the top
and the bottom.
5anually operated ball valves can be closed $uic9ly and thus there is a
danger of "ater hammer. *ome ball valves are e$uipped "ith an actuator that
may be pneumatically or motor ;electric< operated. !hese valves can be used
either for on%off or flo" control. - pneumatic flo" control valve is also
e$uipped "ith a positioner, "hich transforms the control signal into actuator
position and valve opening accordingly.
(ig 10!1 &all alve
$%at are &)tter*ly alves'
- butterfly valve is a particular type of valve that uses either a circular vane or
a disc as the shut-off mechanism. 0utterfly valves have a $uic9
opening%closing $uarter-turn mechanism that is used to control the flo" of
li$uid through a piping system. !hey typically pivot on axes perpendicular to
the direction of flo" inside the flo" chamber. 8ompared "ith ball valves,
butterfly valves do not have poc9ets to trap fluids "hen the valve is in the
closed position. 0utterfly valves are fre$uently used as throttling devices,
controlling the levels of flo" in various positions& entirely closed, entirely open
or partially open. !hey can control various substances of air, li$uid or solid
currents and are situated on a spindle that allo"s for flo" in a single
direction.0utterfly valves are offered in many si@ed diameters, resulting in
different flo" rates. *maller valve assemblies may be used "here space is
limited. :no"ing the pipe dimensions, desired flo" rate and material is
important "hen considering a valve investment. Installation time is typically
lo" compared to some other types of valves, and additional parts are
unnecessary to "or9 and maintain the valve.
0utterfly valves have a lever that allo"s the operator to open or close the
valve to control the flo". !hese valves are part of a family 9no"n as rotary
valves, "hich are defined by the $uarter turn that is used to move from the
open to closed position and vice versa. !his results in a lo"er surface friction,
"hich means that these valves can be smaller than others and still operate
efficiently.0utterfly valves are available in numerous closure types and body
configurations, depending on the type of flo" control needed. !hese types of
valves are commonly composed of metals, li9e aluminum and stainless steel,
but also can be made from various plastics. +ne 9ind, flange butterfly valves,
can be mounted bet"een flanges. -nother, lug butterfly valves, uses metal
inserts that are attached to the valve?s boltholes. 2sing an independent set of
bolts for each flange, this valve assembly is fixed bet"een t"o flanges.
6inally, "afer style butterfly valves are the cheapest and most popular type of
butterfly valves because of their simplicity and ease of use. 0utterfly valves
are used in many food transporting and chemical plants "here controllable
product flo" is re$uired. +ther specific industries include #-8, tertiary
petroleum recovery and industries that use high-pressure "ater. =hen
properly used, butterfly valves offer many benefits. 6irst of all, they are lo"er
priced than many other types of valves, and generally have a longer life cycle.
0utterfly valves are easy to maintain, are light"eight and compact and are
able to handle a "ide range of temperatures. !hese valves are also very
reliable because of their tight shut-off, reducing the amount of lea9age. +ne of
the problems "ith butterfly valves, ho"ever, is that their design ma9es it
difficult to efficiently and thoroughly clean all residual contaminants. -lso,
these valves are not good for use "ith highly abrasive or corrosive materials,
because the disc can be easily eroded. +verall, butterfly valves are one of the
fastest gro"ing types of valves in the industry.
(ig 10!+: &)tter*ly valve
$%at are C%ec, alves'
8hec9 valves, also referred to as >non-return> or >one-"ay directional> valves,
are very simple valves that allo" fluid, air or gas to flo" in only one direction.
=hen the fluid moves in the pre-determined direction, the valve opens. !he
moveable portion of the valve prevents any bac9flo". - s"inging disc, ball,
plunger or poppet moves out of the "ay of the original flo". *ince these
devices are slightly larger than the through hole, the pressure of bac9flo" "ill
cause them to tightly seal, preventing reversal of flo". /ravity or a spring
assists in the closing of the valve.
8hec9 valves are indispensable in every area of life. 3omestically, they are
found in devices such as faucets, toilets and dish"ashers. =ithout them,
fresh "ater "ould be impossible and common plastics "ould be unheard of.
Industries use them to control flo"s of all typesAfrom the thinnest gas to
radioactive materials, from molten metal to highly corrosive materials. 8hec9
valves can range in si@e from less than an inch in diameter to (0 feet across.
!he simplest chec9 valves can be purchased at the local hard"are store, but
they may also be precision-designed for highly sophisticated systems.
-s aforementioned, chec9 valves use different means of preventing bac9flo".
*"ing disc valves are typically used "ith li$uids, such as slurries, that can
easily damage the valve seat. !hey may be installed either vertically or
hori@ontally, but a lever and counter-balance is recommended "hen vertically
installing s"ing disc valves. 0all chec9 valves use a ball "ith a small hole in
(ig 10!- C%ec, alve
the middle, "hich can be either free-floating or spring-loaded. !hese valves
have a "ide variety of applications. !hey are more resistant to plugging than
other valves, and thus can be used to handle even fluids that deposit gummy
residue. - chec9 valve may also utili@e a plunger, "hich is spring-loaded and
usually used to prevent bac9flo" of pressuri@ed gases, or bac9pressure. -
pop pet in a chec9 valve is spring-loaded and typically installed in systems
that re$uire prevention of bac9pressure.
0ecause chec9 valves have so many applications, they are made of a "ide
variety of materials. *ome companies exclusively manufacture plastic chec9
valves. +ther companies produce chec9 valves made of brass, electro less
nic9el plated brass and stainless steel. !he components of valves may be
made of different materials, such as cast iron or bron@e, depending on the
application. *peciali@ed valves may also be constructed of !eflon. Elastomer
products may also be used to construct valves.
$%at are .ate alves'
- /ate #alve, or *luice #alve, as it is sometimes 9no"n, is a valve that opens
by lifting a round or rectangular gate%"edge out of the path of the fluid. !he
distinct feature of a gate valve is the sealing surfaces bet"een the gate and
seats are planar. !he gate faces can form a "edge shape or they can be
parallel. /ate valves are sometimes used for regulating flo", but many are not
suited for that purpose, having been designed to be fully opened or closed.
=hen fully open, the typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flo" path,
resulting in very lo" friction-loss./ate valves are characteri@ed as having
either a rising or a no rising stem. 4ising stems provide a visual indication of
valve position. .o rising stems are used "here vertical space is limited or
underground.
(ig 10!/: .ate valves
0onnets provide lea9 proof closure for the valve body. /ate valves may have
a scre"-in, union, or bolted bonnet. *cre"-in bonnet is the simplest, offering a
durable, pressure-tight seal. 2nion bonnet is suitable for applications re$uiring
fre$uent inspection and cleaning. It also gives the body added strength.
0olted bonnet is used for larger valves and higher-pressure applications.
-nother type of bonnet construction in a gate valve is pressure seal bonnet.
!his construction is adopted for valves for high-pressure service, typically in
excess of 1B 51a ;''B0 psi<. !he uni$ue feature about the pressure seal
bonnet is that the body - bonnet Coints seals improves as the internal pressure
in the valve increases, compared to other constructions "here the increase in
internal pressure tends to create lea9s in the body-bonnet Coint.
/ate valves normally have flanged ends, "hich are drilled according to
pipeline compatible flange dimensional standards. 8ast Iron, 8ast 8arbon
*teel, /un 5etal, *tainless *teel, -lloy *teels D 6orged *teels are different
materials in "hich /ate #alves are made available.
$%at are .lo0e alves'
/lobe valves are named for their spherical body shape. !he t"o halves of the
valve body are separated by an internal baffle, "hich has an opening forming
a seat onto "hich a movable disc can be scre"ed in to close ;or shut< the
valve. In globe valves, the disc is connected to a stem, "hich is operated by
scre" action. =hen a globe valve is manually operated, a hand "heel turns
the stem. -lthough globe valves in the past had the spherical bodies, "hich
gave them their name, many modern globe valves do not have much of a
spherical shape, but the term globe valve is still often used for valves that
have such an internal mechanism. In plumbing, valves "ith such a
mechanism are also often called stop valves since they don?t have the global
appearance, but the term stop valve may refer to valves, "hich are used to
stop flo" even "hen they have other mechanisms or designs./lobe valves
are used for applications re$uiring throttling and fre$uent operation. 6or
example, globe valves or valves "ith a similar mechanism may be used as
sampling valves, "hich are normally shut except "hen li$uid samples are
being ta9en. *ince the baffle restricts flo", they?re not recommended "here
full, unobstructed flo" is re$uired.
/lobe valves are typically t"o-port valves. 1orts are openings in the body for
fluid flo"ing in or out. !he t"o ports may be oriented straight? across from
each other on the body, or oriented at an angle such as a E0F angle. /lobe
valves "ith ports at such an angle are called angle globe valves. - bonnet
provides lea9 proof closure for the valve body. !he threaded section of stem
goes through a hole "ith matching threads in the bonnet. /lobe valves may
have a scre"-in, union, or bolted bonnet. *cre"-in bonnet is the simplest
bonnet, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal. 2nion bonnet is suitable for
applications re$uiring fre$uent inspection or cleaning. It also gives the body
added strength. - bonnet attached "ith bolts is used for larger or higher-
pressure applications. Economical globe valves or stop valves "ith a similar
mechanism used in plumbing often have a rubber "asher at the bottom of the
disc for the seating surface, so that rubber can be compressed against the
seat to form a lea9-tight seal "hen shut.5any globe valves have a class rating
that corresponds to the pressure specifications of -.*I 1G.(). 0ibcoc9s and
sillcoc9s are variations of globe or stop valves used in plumbing. .eedle
valves are variations of globe valves "here instead of a separate attached
disc piece, the internal end of the stem is conically tapered to act as the disc
to fit into a matching seat for fine flo" adCustment. +ther different types of
valve usually are called globe style valves because of the shape of the body
or the "ay of closure of the dis9. -s an example typical s"ing chec9 valves
could be called globe type.
(ig 10!1: .lo0e valves
!he above classification is based on functions. !he valves could also be
classified based on the type of constructionH valves manufactures offer
endless varieties of constructions. 0ased on operation valves can be broadly
classified as operated valves and self operated valves. 5ainly the chec9
valves are self-operated and all the other types come under operated valve.
!he valves can further be classified based on end connections. End
connections mean the arrangement of the attachment of the valves to the
e$uipment or to the piping. !he types of end connections are&
*cre"ed ends
*oc9et "eld ends
6langed ends
0utt "eld ends
soc9eted ends
=afer type ends
!he valves can also be classified based on materials of construction. !here
can be any number of combinations possible "ith the materials of
constructions. It is for the piping engineer to select the same in consultation
"ith the process engineer to suit the process fluid. !he environment in "hich
the valves are installed is also to be considered for selection of materials of
construction. o"ever the most commonly available materials are&
8ast iron
3uctile iron
0ron@e
/un metal
8arbon steel
*tainless steel
-lloy steel
*pecial alloys
10!1 CONTROL ALE SELECT"ON
8ontrol valves handle all 9inds of fluids at temperatures from the cryogenic
range to "ell over 10006 ;B(88<. *election of a control valve body assembly
re$uires particular consideration to provide the best available combination of
valve body style, material, and trim construction design for the intended
service. 8apacity re$uirements and system operating pressure ranges also
must be considered in selecting a control valve to ensure satisfactory
operation "ithout undue initial expense. 4eputable control valve
manufacturers and their representatives are dedicated to helping select the
control valve most appropriate for the existing service conditions. 0ecause
there are fre$uently several possible correct choices for an application, it is
important that all the follo"ing information be provided&
!ype of fluid to be controlled
!emperature of fluid
#iscosity of fluid
*pecific gravity of fluid
6lo" capacity re$uired ;maximum and minimum<
Inlet pressure at valve ;maximum and minimum<
+utlet pressure ;maximum and minimum<
1ressure drop during normal flo"ing conditions
1ressure drop at shutoff
5aximum permissible noise level, if pertinent, and the measurement
reference point
3egrees of superheat or existence of flashing, if 9no"n
Inlet and outlet pipeline si@e and schedule
*pecial tagging information re$uired
0ody 5aterial ;-*!5 -'1G grade =88, -*!5 -'1I grade =8E,
-*!5 -(B1 8685, etc.<
End connections and valve rating ;scre"ed, 8lass G00 46 flanged,
8lass 1B00 4!J flanges, etc.<
-ction desired on air failure ;valve to open, close, or retain last
controlled position<
Instrument air supply available
Instrument signal ;( to 1B psig, ) to '0 m-, art, etc.<
In addition the follo"ing information "ill re$uire the agreement of the user and
the manufacturer depending on the purchasing and engineering practices
being follo"ed.
#alve type number
#alve si@e
#alve body construction ;angle, double-port, butterfly, etc.<
#alve plug guiding ;cage-style, port-guided, etc.<
#alve plug action ;push-do"n-to-close or push-do"n-to open<
1ort si@e ;full or restricted<
#alve trim materials re$uired
6lo" action ;flo" tends to open valve or flo" tends to close valve<
-ctuator si@e re$uired
0onnet style ;plain, extension, bello"s seal, etc.<
1ac9ing material ;1!6E #-ring, laminated graphite, environmental
sealing systems, etc.<
-ccessories re$uired ;positioner, hand "heel, etc.<
10!1!1 ALE SELECT"ON PROCESS
1.0 3E!E45I.E *E4#I8E 8+.3I!I+.*
;1
1
, K1, L, !
1
, 6luid 1roperties, -llo"able .oise, etc<.
*elect appropriate -.*I 1ressure 8lass re$uired for
valve body and trim.
'.0 8-,82,-!E 14E,I5I.-47 8
v
4EL2I4E3
8hec9 noise and cavitation levels
(.0 *E,E8! !4I5 !71E
If no noise or cavitations indication, choose standard trim.
If aerodynamic noise is high, choose =hisper !rim
If li$uid noise is high and%or cavitation is indicated, choose
8avitrolM III trim.
).0*E,E8! #-,#E 0+37 -.3 !4I5 *INE
*elect valve body and trim si@e "ith re$uired 8v.
.ote travelH trim group, and shutoff options.
B.0 *E,E8! !4I5 5-!E4I-,*
*elect trim materials for your applicationH ma9e sure trim
selected is available in the trim group for the valve si@e
selected.
G.0 +1!I+.*
8onsider options on shutoff, stem pac9ing, etc.
10!1!+ Control alve (lo2 C%aracteristics
!he flo" characteristic of a control valve is the relationship bet"een the flo"
rate through the valve and the valve travel as the travel is varied from 0 to
100%. Inherent flo" characteristic refers to the characteristic observed "ith a
constant pressure drop across the valve. Installed flo" characteristic means
the one obtained in service "here the pressure drop varies "ith flo" and
other changes in the system.
8haracteri@ing control valves provides for relatively uniform control loop
stability over the expected range of system operating conditions. !o establish
the flo" characteristic needed to match a given system re$uires a dynamic
analysis of the control loop. -nalyses of the more common processes have
been performed, ho"ever, so some useful guidelines for the selection of the
proper flo" characteristic can be established. !hose guidelines "ill be
discussed after a brief loo9 at the flo" characteristics in use today.
(lo2 C%aracteristics
6igure 10.G illustrates typical flo" characteristic curves. !he $uic9-opening
flo" characteristic provides for maximum change in flo" rate at lo" valve
travels "ith a nearly linear relationship. -dditional increases in valve travel
give sharply reduced changes in flo" rate, and "hen the valve plug nears the
"ide open position, the change in flo" rate approaches @ero. In a control
valve, the $uic9 opening valve plug is used primarily for on-off serviceH but it is
also suitable for many applications "here a linear valve plug "ould normally
be specified. !he linear flo" characteristic curve sho"s that the flo" rate is
directly proportional to the valve travel. !his proportional relationship
produces a characteristic "ith a constant slope so that "ith constant pressure
drop, the valve gain "ill be the same at all flo"s. ;#alve gain is the ratio of an
incremental change in valve plug position. /ain is a function of valve si@e and
configuration, system operating conditions and valve plug characteristic.< !he
linear valve plug is commonly specified for li$uid level control and for certain
flo" control applications re$uiring constant gain. In the e$ual-percentage flo"
characteristic, e$ual increments of valve travel produce e$ual percentage
changes in the existing flo". !he change in flo" rate is al"ays proportional to
the flo" rate Cust before the change in valve plug, dis9, or ball position is
made. =hen the valve plug, dis9, or ball is near its seat, the flo" is smallH "ith
a large flo", the change in flo" rate "ill be large. #alves "ith an e$ual
percentage flo" characteristic are generally used on pressure control
applications and on other applications "here a large percentage of the
pressure drop is normally absorbed by the system itself, "ith only a relatively
small percentage available at the control valve. #alves "ith an e$ual
percentage characteristic should also be considered "here highly varying
pressure drop conditions can be expected.
(ig 10!3: (lo2 C%aracteristics
10!1!- Selection o* (lo2 C%aracteristic
*ome guidelines "ill help in the selection of the proper flo" characteristic.
4emember, ho"ever, that there "ill be occasional exceptions to most of these
guidelines, and that a positive recommendation is possible only by means of a
complete dynamic analysis. =here a linear characteristic is recommended, a
$uic9 opening valve plug could be used, and "hile the controller "ill have to
operate on a "ider proportional band setting, the same degree of control
accuracy may be expected. !he tables belo" give useful guidelines for
selecting valve characteristics
Ta0le 10!1 (lo2 Control Process
Ta0le 10!+ Li4)id Level Systems
10!+ alve Si5ing
+ver si@ing of valves sometimes occurs "hen trying to optimi@e process
performance through a reduction of process variability. !his results from using
line-si@e valves, especially "ith high-capacity rotary valves, as "ell as the
conservative addition of multiple safety factors at different stages in the
process design
+ver si@ing the valve hurts process variability in t"o "ays. 6irst, the
oversi@ed valve puts too much gain in the valve, leaving less flexibility in
adCusting the controller. 0est performance results "hen most loop gain comes
from the controller.
.otice in the gain curve of figure '-B, the process gain gets $uite high in the
region belo" about 'B% valve travel. If the valve is oversi@ed, ma9ing it more
li9ely to operate in or near this region, this high gain can li9ely mean that the
controller gain "ill need to be reduced to avoid instability problems "ith the
loop. !his, of course, "ill mean a penalty of increased process variability.
!he second "ay oversi@ed valves hurt process variability is that an oversi@ed
valve is li9ely to operate more fre$uently at lo"er valve openings "here seal
friction can be greater, particularly in rotary valves. 0ecause an oversi@ed
valve produces a disproportionately large flo" change for a given increment of
valve travel, this phenomenon can greatly exaggerate the process variability
associated "ith dead band due to friction.
4egardless of its actual inherent valve characteristic, a severely oversi@ed
valve tends to act more li9e a $uic9-+pening valve, "hich results in high
installed process gain in the lo"er lift regions ;figure '-B<. In addition, "hen
the valve is oversi@ed, the valve tends to reach system capacity at relatively
lo" travel, ma9ing the flo" curve flatten out at higher valve travels ;figure '-B<.
6or valve travels above about B0 degrees, this valve has become totally
ineffective for control purposes because the process gain is approaching @ero
and the valve must undergo "ide changes in travel "ith very little resulting
changes in flo". 8onse$uently, there is little hope of achieving acceptable
process variability in this region.
(ig 10!6 "nstalled *lo2 c%aracteristics and gain
!he valve sho"n in figure '-B is totally misapplied in this application because it
has such a narro" control range ;approximately 'B degrees to )B degrees<.
!his situation came about because a line-si@ed butterfly valve "as chosen,
primarily due to its lo" cost, and no consideration "as given to the lost profit
that results from sacrificing process variability through poor dynamic
performance of the control valve.
2nfortunately, this situation is often repeated. 1rocess control studies sho"
that, for some industries, the maCority of valves currently in process control
loops are oversi@ed for the application. =hile it might seem counterintuitive, it
often ma9es economic sense to select a control valve for present conditions
and then replace the valve "hen conditions change.
=hen selecting a valve, it is important to consider the valve style, inherent
characteristic, and valve si@e that "ill provide the broadest possible control
range for the application.
*tandardi@ation activities for control valve si@ing can be traced bac9 to the
early 1EG0Os "hen a trade association, the 6luids 8ontrol Institute, published
si@ing e$uations for use "ith both compressible and incompressible fluids.
!he range of service conditions that could be accommodated accurately by
these e$uations "as $uite narro", and the standard did not achieve a high
degree of acceptance. In 1EGI, the I*- established a committee to develop
and publish standard e$uations. !he efforts of this committee culminated in a
valve si@ing procedure that has achieved the status of -merican .ational
*tandard. ,ater, a committee of the International Electro technical 8ommission
;IE8< used the I*- "or9s as a basis to formulate international standards for
si@ing control valves. ;*ome information in this introductory material has been
extracted from -.*I%I*- *IB.01 standard "ith the permission of the publisher,
the I*-.< Except for some slight differences in nomenclature and procedures,
the I*- and IE8 standards have been harmoni@ed. -.*I%I*- *tandard
*IB.01 is harmoni@ed "ith IE8 *tandards B()-'-1 and B()-'-'. ;IE8
1ublications B()-', *ections +ne and !"o for incompressible and
compressible fluids, respectively.<
In the follo"ing sections, the nomenclature and procedures are explained, and
sample problems are solved to illustrate their use.
10!+!1 Si5ing alves *or Li4)ids
6ollo"ing is a step-by-step procedure for the si@ing of control valves for li$uid
flo" using the IE8 procedure. Each of these steps is important and must be
considered during any valve si@ing procedure. *teps ( and ) concern the
determination of certain si@ing factors that may or may not be re$uired in the
si@ing e$uation depending on the service conditions of the si@ing problem. If
one, t"o, or all three of these si@ing factors are to be included in the e$uation
for a particular si@ing problem, refer to the appropriate factor determination
sections< located in the text after the sixth step.
1. *pecify the variables re$uired to si@e the valve as follo"s&
3esired design& refer to the appropriate valve flo" coefficient
table in this chapter.
1rocess fluid ;"ater, oil, etc.<, and
-ppropriate service conditions
$ or ", 1
1
, 1' or 1, !
1
, /
f
, 1
v
, 1
c
, and
!he ability to recogni@e "hich terms are appropriate for a specific si@ing
procedure can only be ac$uired through experience "ith different valve si@ing
problems. If any of the above terms appears to be ne" or unfamiliar, refer to
the -bbreviations and !erminology table for a complete definition.
'. 3etermine the e$uation constantH .. . is a numerical constant contained in
each of the flo" e$uations to provide a means for using different systems of
units. #alues for these various constants and their applicable units are given in
the E$uation 8onstants table.
2se .
1
, if si@ing the valve for a flo" rate in volumetric units ;gpm or m
(
%h<.
2se .
G
if si@ing the valve for a flo" rate in mass units ;lb%h or 9g%h<.
(. 3etermine 6
p
, the piping geometry factor.
6
p
is a correction factor that accounts for pressure losses due to piping fittings
such as reducers, elbo"s, or tees that might be attached directly to the inlet
and outlet connections of the control valve to be si@ed. If such fittings are
attached to the valve, the 6
p
factor must be considered in the si@ing procedure.
If, ho"ever, no fittings are attached to the valve, 6
p
has a value of 1.0 and
simply drops out of the si@ing e$uation.
Ta0le 10!- A00reviations and Terminologies
6or rotary valves "ith reducers ;s"aged installations<, 6
p
factors are included
in the appropriate flo" coefficient table. 6or other valve designs and fitting
styles, determine the 6
p
factors by using the procedure for 3etermining 6
p
, the
1iping /eometry 6actor.
Ta0le 10!/ E4)ation Constants
). 3etermine $
max
;the maximum flo" rate at given upstream conditions< or
P1
max
;the allo"able si@ing pressure drop<.
!he maximum or limiting flo" rate ;$
max
<, commonly called cho9ed flo", is
manifested by no additional increase in flo" rate "ith increasing pressure
differential "ith fixed upstream conditions. In li$uids, cho9ing occurs as a
result of vapori@ation of the li$uid "hen the static pressure "ithin the valve
drops belo" the vapor pressure of the li$uid.
!he IE8 standard re$uires the calculation of an allo"able si@ing pressure drop
;P1
max
<, to account for the possibility of cho9ed flo" conditions "ithin the valve.
!he calculated P1
max
value is compared "ith the actual pressure drop specified
in the service conditions, and the lesser of these t"o values is used in the
si@ing e$uation. If it is desired to use P1
max
to account for the possibility of
cho9ed flo" conditions, it can be calculated using the procedure for
determining $
max
, the 5aximum 6lo" 4ate, or P1
max
, the -llo"able *i@ing
1ressure 3rop. If it can be recogni@ed that cho9ed flo" conditions "ill not
develop "ithin the valve, -1
max
need not be calculated.
B. *olve for re$uired 8
v
, using the appropriate e$uation&
6or volumetric flo" rate unitsA

6or mass flo" rate unitsA
In addition to 8
v
, t"o other flo" coefficients, :
v
and
-
v
, are used, particularly outside of .orth -merica. !he follo"ing relationships
exist&
:
v
Q ;0.8GB<;8
v
<
-
v
Q ;'.)0 R 10
-B
<;8
v
<
G. *elect the valve si@e using the appropriate flo" coefficient table and the
calculated 8
v
value.
10!+ + Determining (
p
7 t%e Pi8ing .eometry (actor
3etermine an 6
p
factor if any fittings such as reducers, elbo"s, or tees "ill be
directly attached to the inlet and outlet connections of the control valve that is
to be si@ed. =hen possible, it is recommended that 6
p
factors be determined
experimentally by using the specified valve in actual tests. !he 6
p
factors for
rotary valves used "ith reducers have all been determined in this manner, and
their values are listed in the flo" coefficient tables.
6or 6
p
values not listed in the flo" coefficient tables, calculate the 6
p
factor
using the follo"ing e$uation.
.
'
Q .umerical constant found in the E$uation 8onstants table
d Q -ssumed nominal valve si@e.
8
v
Q #alve si@ing coefficient at 100-percent travel for the assumed valve si@e
In the above e$uation, the : term is the algebraic sum of the velocity head
loss coefficients of all of the fittings that are attached to the control valve.
K = :
1
S :
'
S :
01
- :
0'
=here,
:
1
Q 4esistance coefficient of upstream fittings
:
'
Q 4esistance coefficient of do"nstream fittings
:0
1
Q Inlet 0ernoulli coefficient
:0
'
Q +utlet 0ernoulli coefficient
!he 0ernoulli coefficients, :0
1
and :0
'
, are used only "hen the diameter of the
piping approaching the valve is different from the diameter of the piping leaving
the valve, "hereby&
(10.1)
(10.2)
(10.3)
(10.4)
=here,
d Q .ominal valve si@e
3 Q Internal diameter of piping
If the inlet and outlet piping are of e$ual si@e, then the 0ernoulli coefficients are
also e$ual, :0
1
Q :0
'
, and therefore they are dropped from the e$uation.
!he most commonly used fitting in control valve installations is the short-length
concentric reducer. !he e$uations for this fitting are as follo"s&
9 6or an inlet reducerA
6or an outlet reducerA
6or a valve installed bet"een identical reducersA
Determining 4ma: ;t%e <a:im)m (lo2 Rate= or Pma: ;t%e Allo2a0le
Si5ing Press)re Dro8=
3etermine either $max or 1max if possible for cho9ed flo" to develop "ithin
the control valve that is to be si@ed. !he values can be determined by using
the follo"ing procedures.
Determining 4ma: ;t%e <a:im)m (lo2 Rate=
#alues for 6
6
, the li$uid critical pressure ratio factor, can be obtained from the
follo"ing e$uation&
#alues of 6
,
, the recovery factor for valves installed "ithout fittings attached,
can be found in the flo" coefficient tables. If the given valve is to be installed
"ith fittings such as reducer attached to it, 6
,
in the e$uation must be
replaced by the $uotient 6
,1
%6
p
, "here&
(10.5)
(10.6)
(10.7)
(10.8)
(10.9)
-nd
:
1
Q :
1
S :
01
=here,
:
1
Q 4esistance coefficient of upstream fittings
:
01
Q Inlet 0ernoulli coefficient
Determining Pmax ;t%e Allo2a0le Si5ing Press)re Dro8=
1max ;the allo"able si@ing pressure drop< can be determined from the
follo"ing relationships&
6or valves installed "ithout fittings-
6or valves installed "ith fittings attached-
=here,
1
1
Q 2pstream absolute static pressure
1
'
Q 3o"nstream absolute static pressure
1
v
Q -bsolute vapor pressure at inlet temperature
#alues of 6
6
, the li$uid critical pressure ratio factor, can be obtained from
6igure B-' or from the follo"ing e$uation&
#alues of 6
,
, the recovery factor for
valves installed "ithout fittings attached, can be found in the flo" coefficient
tables. -n explanation of ho" to calculate values of 6
,1
, the recovery factor for
valves installed "ith fittings attached, is presented in the procedure for
determining $max ;the 5aximum 6lo" 4ate<.
(10.10)
(10.11)
(10.12)
(10.13)
(ig 10!> Li4)id critical 8ress)re ratio c)rve
+nce the 1
max
value has been obtained from the appropriate e$uation, it
should be compared "ith the actual service pressure differential ;1 Q 1
1
-
1
'
<. If 1
max
is less than 1, this is an indication that cho9ed flo" conditions
"ill exist under the service conditions specified. If cho9ed flo" conditions do
exist ;1
max
T 1
1
- 1
'
<, then step B of the procedure for *i@ing #alves for
,i$uids must be modified by replacing the actual service pressure differential
;1
1
- 1
'
< in the appropriate valve si@ing e$uation "ith the calculated 1
max
value
10!+!- Li4)id Si5ing Sam8le Pro0lem
-ssume an installation that, at initial plant start-up, "ill not be operating at
maximum design capability. !he lines are si@ed for the ultimate system
capacity, but there is a desire to install a control valve no", "hich is si@ed only
for currently anticipated re$uirements. !he line si@e is 8 inches, and a 8lass
(00 globe valve "ith an e$ual percentage cage has been specified. *tandard
concentric reducers "ill be used to install the valve into the line.
3etermine the appropriate valve si@e.
1. *pecify the necessary variables re$uired to si@e the valve&
3esired valve designA8lass (00 globe valve "ith e$ual
percentage cage and an assumed valve si@e of ( inches.
1rocess fluidAli$uid propane
*ervice conditionsA
$ Q 800 gpm
1
1
Q (00 psig Q (1).I psia
1
'
Q 'IB psig Q '8E.I psia
1 Q 'B psi
!
1
Q I06
/
f
Q 0.B0
1
v
Q 1').( psia
1
c
Q G1G.( psia
'. 3etermine an .
1
value of 1.0 from the E$uation 8onstants table.
(. 3etermine 6
p
0ecause it is proposed to install a (-inch valve in an 8-inch line, it "ill be
necessary to determine the piping geometry factor, 6
p
, "hich corrects for
,osses caused by fittings attached to the valve.
=here,
.
'
Q 8E0, from the E$uation 8onstants table
d Q ( in., from step 1
8
v
Q 1'1, from the flo" coefficient table for a 8lass (00, ( in. /lobe valve "ith
e$ual percentage cage
!o compute : for a valve installed bet"een identical concentric reducers&
=here,
3 Q 8 in., the internal diameter of the piping so,
). 3etermine 1
max
;the -llo"able *i@ing 1ressure 3rop.<
(10.14)
0ased on the small-re$uired pressure drop, the flo" "ill not be cho9ed ;1
max
U 1<.
B. *olve for 8
v
, using the appropriate e$uation.
G. *elect the valve si@e using the flo" coefficient table and the calculated 8
v
value. !he re$uired 8
v
of 1'B.I exceeds the capacity of the assumed valve,
"hich has a 8
v
of 1'1. -lthough for this example it may be obvious that the
next larger si@e ;) inches< "ould be the correct valve si@e, this may not
al"ays be true, and a repeat of the above procedure should be carried out.
-ssuming a )-inch valve, 8
v
Q '0(. !his value "as determined from the flo"
coefficient table for a 8lass (00, )-inch globe valve "ith an e$ual percentage
cage.
4ecalculate the re$uired 8
v
using an assumed 8
v
value of '0( in the 6p
calculation.
"here,
Q1'1.I
!his solution indicates only that the )-inch valve is large enough to satisfy the
service conditions given. !here may be cases, ho"ever, "here a more
accurate prediction of the 8
v
is re$uired. In such cases, the re$uired 8
v
should
be redetermined using a ne" 6
p
value based on the 8
v
value obtained above.
In this example, 8
v
is 1'1.I, "hich leads to the follo"ing result&
!he re$uired 8
v
then becomes&
0ecause this ne"ly determined 8
v
is very close to the 8
v
used initially for this
recalculation ;11G.' versus 1'1.I<, the valve si@ing procedure is complete,
and the conclusion is that a )-inch valve opened to about IB-percent of total
travel should be ade$uate for the re$uired specifications.
10!- Si5ing alves *or Com8ressi0le (l)ids
6ollo"ing is a six-step procedure for the si@ing of control valves for
compressible flo" using the I*- standardi@ed procedure. Each of these steps
is important and must be considered during any valve si@ing procedure. *teps
( and ) concern the determination of certain si@ing factors that may or may
not be re$uired in the si@ing e$uation depending on the service conditions of
the si@ing problem. If it is necessary for one or both of these si@ing factors to
be included in the si@ing e$uation for a particular si@ing problem, refer to the
appropriate factor determination section;s<, "hich is referenced and located in
the follo"ing text.
1. *pecify the necessary variables re$uired to si@e the valve as follo"s&
3esired valve design ;e.g. balanced globe "ith linear cage<H refer to
the appropriate valve flo" coefficient table
1rocess fluid ;air, natural gas, steam, etc.< and
-ppropriate service conditionsA
$, or ", 1
1
, 1
'
or 1, !
1
, /
g
, 5, 9, N, and
1
!he ability to recogni@e "hich terms are appropriate for a specific si@ing
procedure can only be ac$uired through experience "ith different valve si@ing
problems. If any of the above terms appear to be ne" or unfamiliar, refer to
the -bbreviations and !erminology table for a complete definition.
'. 3etermine the e$uation constantH .. . is a numerical constant contained in
each of the flo" e$uations to provide a means for using different systems of
units. #alues for these various constants and their applicable units are given
in the E$uation 8onstants table.
2se either .
I
or .
E
if si@ing the valve for a flo" rate in volumetric units ;scfh or
m
(
%h<. =hich of the t"o constants to use depends upon the specified service
conditions. .
I
can be used only if the specific gravity, /g, of the follo"ing gas
has been specified along "ith the other re$uired service conditions. .
E
can be
used only if the molecular "eight, 5, of the gas has been specified.
2se either .
G
or .
8
if si@ing the valve for a flo" rate in mass units ;lb%h or
9g%h<. =hich of the t"o constants to use depends upon the specified service
conditions. .
G
can be used only if the specific "eight,
1
, of the flo"ing gas
has been specified along "ith the other re$uired service conditions. .
8
can be
used only if the molecular "eight, 5, of the gas has been specified.
(. 3etermine 6
p
, the piping geometry factor. 6
p
is a correction factor that
accounts for any pressure losses due to piping fittings such as reducers,
elbo"s, or tees that might be attached directly to the inlet and outlet
connections of the control valves to be si@ed. If such fittings are attached to
the valve, the 6
p
factor must be considered in the si@ing procedure. If,
ho"ever, no fittings are attached to the valve, 6
p
has a value of 1.0 and simply
drops out of the si@ing e$uation.
-lso, for rotary valves "ith reducers, 6
p
factors are included in the appropriate
flo" coefficient table. 6or other valve designs and fitting styles, determine the
6p factors by using the procedure for 3etermining 6
p
the 1iping /eometry
6actor, "hich is located in the section for *i@ing #alves for ,i$uids.
). 3etermine 7, the expansion factor, as follo"s&
=here,
6
9
Q 9%1.), the ratio of specific heats factor
9 Q 4atio of specific heats
x Q 1%1
1
, the pressure drop ratio
x
!
Q !he pressure drop ratio factor for valves installed "ithout attached
fittings. 5ore definitively, x
!
is the pressure drop ratio re$uired to produce
critical, or maximum, flo" through the valve "hen 6
9
Q 1.0
If the control valve to be installed has fittings such as reducers or elbo"s
attached to it, then their effect is accounted for in the expansion factor
e$uation by replacing the x
!
term "ith a ne" factor x
!1
. - procedure for
determining the x
!1
factor is described in the section for 3etermining x
!1
, the
1ressure 3rop 4atio 6actor.
Note
Conditions o* critical 8ress)re dro8 are reali5ed 2%en t%e val)e o* :
0ecomes e4)al to or e:ceeds t%e a88ro8riate val)e o* t%e 8rod)ct o*
eit%er (
,
:
T
or (
,
:
TP
at 2%ic% 8oint:
-lthough in actual service, pressure drop ratios can, and often "ill, exceed the
indicated critical values, this is the point "here critical flo" conditions develop.
!hus, for a constant 1
1
, decreasing 1
'
;i.e., increasing 1< "ill not result in an
increase in the flo" rate through the valve. #alues of x, therefore, greater than
the product of either 6
9
x
!
or 6
9
x
!1
must never be substituted in the expression
for 7. !his means that 7 can never be less than 0.GGI. !his same limit on
values of x also applies to the flo" e$uations that are introduced in the next
section.
B. *olve for the re$uired 8
v
using the appropriate e$uation&
6or volumetric flo" rate unitsA
(10.15)
If the specific gravity, /
g
, of the gas has been specified&
If the molecular "eight, 5, of the gas has been specified&
6or mass flo" rate unitsA
If the specific "eight,
1
, of the gas has been specified&
If the molecular "eight, 5, of the gas has been specified&
In addition to 8
v
, t"o other flo" coefficients, :
v
and -
v
, are used, particularly
outside of .orth -merica. !he follo"ing relationships exist&
:
v
Q ;0.8GB<;8
v
<
-v Q'.)0 R 10 -
B
;8
v
<
calculated 8v value.
Note
Once t%e valve si5ing 8roced)re is com8leted7 consideration can 0e
made *or aerodynamic noise 8rediction! To determine t%e gas *lo2 si5ing
coe**icient ;Cg= *or )se in t%e aerodynamic noise 8rediction tec%?
ni4)e7 )se t%e *ollo2ing e4)ation:
Determining :
TP
7 t%e Press)re Dro8 Ratio (actor
If the control valve is to be installed "ith attached fittings such as reducers or
elbo"s, then their effect is accounted for in the expansion factor e$uation by
replacing the x
!
term "ith a ne" factor, x
!1
.
(10.16)
(10.17)
(10.18)
(10.19)
(10.20)
=here,
.
B
Q .umerical constant found in the E$uation 8onstants table
d Q -ssumed nominal valve si@e
8
v
Q #alve si@ing coefficient from flo" coefficient table at 100 percent travel for
the assumed valve si@e
6
p
Q 1iping geometry factor
x
!
Q 1ressure drop ratio for valves installed "ithout fittings attached. x! values
are included in the flo" coefficient tables
In the above e$uation, :
i
, is the inlet head loss coefficient, "hich is defined
as&
:
i
Q :
1
S:0
1
=here,
:
1
Q 4esistance coefficient of upstream fittings ;see the procedure for
3etermining 6
p
, the 1iping /eometry 6actor, "hich is contained in the section
for *i@ing #alves for ,i$uids<.
:
01
Q Inlet 0ernoulli coefficient ;see the procedure for 3etermining 6
p
, the
piping /eometry factor, "hich is contained in the section for *i@ing #alves for
,i$uids.<
Com8ressi0le (l)id Si5ing
Sam8le Pro0lem No! 1
3etermine the si@e and percent opening for a 6isher 3esign #'B0 ball valve
operating "ith the follo"ing service conditions. -ssume that the valve and line
si@e are e$ual.
3esired valve designA3esign #'B0 valve
1rocess fluidA.atural gas
*ervice conditionsA
1
1
Q '00 psig Q '1).I psia
1
'
Q B0 psig Q G).I psia
1 Q 1B0 psi
x Q 1%1
1
Q 1B0%'1).I Q 0.I0
!
1
Q G0
6 Q B'04
5 Q 1I.(8
/
g
Q 0.G0
9 Q 1.(1
$ Q G.0 x 10G scfh
'. 3etermine the appropriate e$uation constant, ., from the E$uation
8onstants table.
(10.21)
0ecause both /
g
and 5 have been given in the service conditions, it is
possible to use an e$uation containing either .I or .E. In either case, the end
result "ill be the same. -ssume that the e$uation containing /
g
has been
arbitrarily selected for this problem. !herefore .I Q 1(G0.
(. 3etermine 6p, the piping geometry factor. *ince valve and line si@e are
assumed e$ual, 6p Q 1.0.
). 3etermine 7, the expansion factor.
It is assumed that an 8-inch 3esign #'B0 valve "ill be ade$uate for the
specified service conditions. 6rom the flo" coefficient table, x! for an 8-inch
3esign #'B0 valve at 100-percent travel is 0.1(I.
x Q 0.I0 ;!his "as calculated in step 1.<
*ince conditions of critical pressure drop are reali@ed "hen the calculated
value of x becomes e$ual to or exceeds the appropriate value of 6
9
x
!
, these
values should be compared.
6
9
x
!
Q;0.E)< ;0.1(I<
Q 0.1'E
0ecause the pressure drop ratio, x Q 0.I0 exceeds the calculated critical
value, 6
9
x
!
Q 0.1'E, cho9ed flo" conditions are indicated. !herefore, 7 Q
0.GGI, and x Q 6
:
R
!
Q 0.1'E.
B. *olve for re$uired 8v using the appropriate e$uation.
!he compressibility factor, N, can be
assumed to be 1.0 for the gas pressure and temperature given and 6
p
Q 1
because valve si@e and line si@e are e$ual.
*o,
calculated 8
v
value.
!he above result indicates that the valve is ade$uately si@ed ;rated 8
v
Q
'1E0<. !o determine the percent valve opening, note that the re$uired 8
v
occurs at approximately 8( degrees for the 8-inch 3esign #'B0 valve. .ote
also that, at 8( degrees opening, the x
!
value is 0.'B', "hich is substantially
different from the rated value of 0.1(I used initially in the problem. !he next
step is to re"or9 the problem using the x
!
value for 8( degrees travel.
!he 6
9
x
!
product must no" be recalculated.
x Q 6
9
x
!
Q ;0.E)< ;0.'B'<
Q 0.'(I
!he re$uired 8
v
no" becomes&
!he reason that the re$uired 8
v
has dropped so dramatically is attributable
solely to the difference in the x
!
values at rated and 8( degrees travel. - 8
v
of
1118 occurs bet"een IB and 80 degrees travel.
!he appropriate flo" coefficient table indicates that x
!
is higher at IB degrees
travel than at 80 degrees travel. !herefore, if the problem "ere to be
re"or9ed using a higher x
!
value, this should result in a further decline in the
calculated re$uired 8
v
.
4e"or9ing the problem using the x
!
value corresponding to I8 degrees travel
;i.e., x
!
Q 0.('8< leaves&
x Q 6
9
x
!
Q ;0.E)< ;0.('8<
Q 0.(08
and,

!he above 8
v
of E80 is $uite close to the IB degree travel 8
v
. !he problem
could be re"or9ed further to obtain a more precise predicted openingH
ho"ever, for the service conditions given, an 8-inch 3esign #'B0 valve
installed in an 8-inch line "ill be approximately IB degrees open.
Com8ressi0le (l)id Si5ing
Sam8le Pro0lem No! +
-ssume steam is to be supplied to a process designed to operate at 'B0 psig.
!he supply source is a header maintained at B00 psig and B00M6. - G-inch
line from the steam main to the process is being planned. -lso, ma9e the
assumption that if the re$uired valve si@e is less than G inches, it "ill be
installed using concentric reducers. 3etermine the appropriate 3esign E3
valve "ith a linear cage.
a. 3esired valve designA8lass (00 3esign E3 valve "ith a linear
cage. -ssume valve si@e is ) inches.
b. 1rocess fluidAsuperheated steam
c. *ervice conditionsA
" Q 1'B,000 lb%h
1
1
Q B00 psig Q B1).I psia
1
'
Q 'B0 psig Q 'G).I psia
1 Q 'B0 psi
x Q 1%11 Q 'B0%B1).I Q 0.)E
!
1
Q B006
1
Q 1.0)() lb%ft( ;from 1roperties of *aturated *team table<
9Q 1.'8 ;from 1roperties of *aturated *team table<
'. 3etermine the appropriate e$uation constant, ., from the E$uation
8onstants table.
0ecause the specified flo" rate is in mass units, ;lb%h<, and the specific "eight
of the steam is also specified, the only si@ing e$uation that can be used is that
"hich contains the .G constant. !herefore, .
G
Q G(.(
(. 3etermine 6
p
=here,
.
'
Q 8E0, determined from the E$uation 8onstants table
d Q ) in.
8
v
Q '(G, "hich is the value listed in the manufacturerOs 6lo" 8oefficient table
for a )-inch 3esign E3 valve at 100-percent total travel.
and
6inally&
). 3etermine 7, the expansion factor,
"here,
x Q 0.)E ;-s calculated in step 1.<
0ecause the )-inch valve is to be installed in a G-inch line, the x! term must
be replaced by x
!1
.
=here,
.
B
Q 1000, from the E$uation 8onstants table
d Q ) in.
6
p
Q 0.EB, determined in step (
x
!
Q 0.G88, a value determined from the appropriate listing in the
manufacturerOs 6lo" 8oefficient table
8
v
Q '(G, from step (
and
:
i
Q :
1
S:
01
=here
3 Q G in.
*o&
6inally&
B. *olve for re$uired 8
v
using the appropriate e$uation.
G. *elect the valve si@e using the appropriate manufacturerOs 6lo" 8oefficient
table and the calculated 8
v
value.
4efer to the manufacturerOs 6lo" 8oefficient tables for 3esign E3 valves "ith
linear cage. 0ecause the assumed )-inch valve has a 8
v
of '(G at 100-
percent travel and the next smaller si@e ;( inches< has a 8
v
of only 1)8, it can
be surmised that the assumed si@e is correct. In the event that the calculated
re$uired 8
v
had been small enough to be handled by the next smaller si@e or
if it had been larger than the rated 8
v
for the assumed si@e, it "ould have
been necessary to re"or9 the problem again using values for the ne"
assumed si@e.

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