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333

Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/


Epoxy Composite Beams Using Curvature
Mode Shapes
Cole S. Hamey,
1
Wahyu Lestari,
1
Pizhong Qiao
1,
* and Gangbing Song
2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH
44325-3905, USA
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX
77204-4006, USA
Many composite materials and structures are susceptible to defects, which can significantly reduce the
strength of structures and may grow to failure. To avoid the catastrophic failure of structures,
development of a reliable method of structural health monitoring is one of the most important keys in
maintaining the integrity and safety of structures. Dynamic response-based damage detection offers
a simple procedure as an alternative to the conventional nondestructive evaluation techniques.
However, this technique depends on the quality of measured data for its identification accuracy. In this
article, experimental aspects of dynamic response-based damage detection technique on carbon/
epoxy composites are addressed. Smart piezoelectric materials are used as sensors or actuators to
acquire the curvature modes of structures. These materials are surface-bonded to the beams. An
impulse hammer is used as an actuating source as well. Four types of damage detection algorithms
are evaluated for several possible damage configurations with two different excitation sources. The
quality of damage identification with the four different detection algorithms is discussed. These
experimental damage identification techniques using curvature modes and piezoelectric materials can
be effectively used in damage detection and health monitoring of composite structures.
Keywords dynamic response damage detection composite materials piezoelectric
sensors and actuators composite beams
1 Introduction
Advanced composite materials have been
extensively used in structural applications, due to
their advantageous characteristics, such as high
stiffness and strength-to-weight ratios, improved
fatigue resistance, and superior damage tolerance
capability compared to metallic structures. Carbon/
epoxy composites have higher stiffness and
strength properties than other composites, such
as the commonly used E-glass/epoxy composites.
These advantageous properties have led to the
use of carbon/epoxy composites in structures that
undergo higher stresses, such as aircraft and
aerospace structures. However, the carbon/epoxy
composite laminates, like other composite mate-
rials and structures, are susceptible to defects,
which can originate from imperfections in
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: Qiao@uakron.edu.
Copyright 2004 Sage Publications,
Vol 3(4): 0333353
[1475-9217 (200412) 3:4;333353; 10.1177/1475921704047502]
Copyright 2004 Sage Publications,
Vol 3(4): 0333353
[1475-9217 (200412) 3:4;333353; 10.1177/1475921704047502]
manufacturing process or develop during their
service life. Defects like fibre breakage, matrix
cracking, debonding between fibres and matrix,
and delaminations or interlayer cracks, are typical
damages in composite structures. These defects
can significantly reduce the strength of structures
and may eventually grow to failure. When the
failure occurs, it is often catastrophic, leading to
loss of human life and/or monetary losses. Such
failures often cause devastating effects on the
psychological state of the public as well.
The development of a reliable method of
structural health monitoring is one of the most
important keys in maintaining the integrity of
structures. Some of the nondestructive evaluation
equipment that utilise technologies such as X-ray
imaging or eddy current can identify damages;
but often these technologies are difficult to
implement on the site. In this study, dynamic
response-based damage detection techniques using
smart materials are explored for carbon/epoxy
composites. The dynamic response of structures
can offer unique information on defects that may
be contained within these structures. Changes in
the physical properties of the structure due to
damage will alter the dynamic responses such as
natural frequencies, damping and mode shapes.
These parameter changes can be extracted to
predict damage information, such as the presence,
location and severity of damage in a structure.
The dynamic response-based damage detec-
tion method is an interesting method due to its
simplicity of implementation. One method, in
which the dynamic response is utilised, is to use
the curvature mode shapes to detect damage. The
curvature mode shape change due to damage has
a local effect in nature; hence, it can be used
to locate damage properly, provided that the
changes of curvature are closely related to the
changes of physical properties in the structures.
The curvature mode shape methods have a poten-
tial to identify damage types that are hardly
visible or lay beneath the surface, such as delami-
nation. The challenge is to develop the ability to
identify the changes of response parameters (e.g.,
deformations and dynamic characteristics) and
interpret them in relation to the changes in phys-
ical properties of the structures. Moreover, the
ability to differentiate the types of damage in a
structure is also very important, since two differ-
ent types of damage may result in the same
changes in the parameters tested. For example,
a beam with large delamination and a beam
with two small delaminations may cause the same
frequency changes. Moreover, damage detection
in composite structures is more difficult com-
pared to the metallic structures due to the aniso-
tropy of the material, the conductivity of the
carbon fibre, and the fact that much of the
damage often occurs beneath the surface and is
hence hardly detectable or visible.
Some of the research studies related to
dynamic response-based techniques are sum-
marised here. Using a torsional spring to model
the change in stiffness at a crack location, an
analytical solution and damage identification to a
cantilever beam was developed by Rizos et al. [1].
The displacement mode shapes were determined
experimentally and analytically, and their com-
parison showed promising results. In a review of
frequency-based methods, Salawu [2] discussed
the effects of damage on the natural frequencies
of a structure. However, the frequency-based
methods might not confidently be able to deter-
mine the state of the structure if the change in
the natural frequencies was less than 5%. In
conclusion, the natural frequencies alone might
not be sufficient for a unique identification and
location of structural damage.
More effective methods of damage detection
using the curvature mode shapes have been
considered and proposed. Pandey et al. [3] were
among the first to develop the idea of damage
detection using the curvature mode shapes.
Although, the absolute difference between the dis-
placement mode shapes of damaged and undam-
aged beams was not discernable between the
damage location and other parts of the beam, the
curvature modes showed a significant change at
the damage location. Luo and Hanagud [4] devel-
oped a relationship between the dynamic proper-
ties of damaged and undamaged structures in the
form of an integral equation to identify damage.
The detection algorithm used the eigenvalues as
well as the eigenfunction information of the system
to identify the locations and corresponding sever-
ities simultaneously, with the input to the flaw
detection only based on the experimental data.
334 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
Wahab and Roeck [5] conducted an experi-
mental damage detection study using the curva-
ture mode shapes of a real structure. Based on the
displacement data gathered during the razing of
bridge Z24 in Switzerland, the curvature mode
shapes were derived by a central difference approxi-
mation. The mode shape absolute difference aver-
aging noted as the curvature damage factor
(CDF) was used as a detection criterion. Wahab
[6] further examined a model updating in combi-
nation with the curvature mode shapes for
damage detection. In this method, an iterative
process was initiated which allowed the param-
eters of the simulated beam to converge to meet
the parameters of the actual beam. The conver-
gence of the model did not improve with the
inclusion of curvature data. The sensitivity of
results when the curvatures were included did not
change substantially. Lestari and Hanagud [7]
derived a mathematical relationship between
an intact beam and a damaged beam, to identify
the damage location and severity simultaneously.
Providing experimental data for both the healthy
and damaged beams were well acquired, the
damage could be identified by using a single
mode, based on the curvature mode shapes infor-
mation.
Wang and Wang [8] explored the feasibility
of using the piezoelectric materials for modal
testing on a cantilever beam. Different combina-
tions of sensors and actuators were simulated.
From a comparison of the modal damping
ratios and natural frequencies, it was demon-
strated that the PVDF sensors and the PZT
actuators were able to generate results that
were similar to those of an accelerometer and
an impulse excitation.
Building on the reliability of curvature
mode-based methods and considering the ease of
application of frequency-based methods, Sampaio
et al. [9] developed the frequency response func-
tion (FRF) curvature method. The benefit of this
method was that there was no need to perform
a complex modal analysis of the structure. The
central difference approximation was applied to
the FRF to obtain the second derivative FRF
curvature. Using data from the Interstate 40
bridge in New Mexico, the experimental results
of the FRF curvature method were demonstrated,
and the damage was located. In a comprehen-
sive experimental and numerical study on the
Interstate 40 bridge, different methods of damage
detection (i.e. damage index, curvature mode
shape, change in flexibility, change in uniform
load surface curvature, and change in stiffness)
were compared [10,11]. Comparisons of different
damage detection algorithms indicated that the
use of damage index yielded the best results,
whereas the flexibility method and the stiffness
method provided poor results.
The main goal of this study is to develop
damage detection techniques based on the
dynamic response and the utilisation of smart
materials. Most of the experimental curvature
data in literature were obtained by approximating
the second derivatives from displacement data.
Experimental determination of curvature mode
shapes by directly measuring the curvature modes
most likely yields better results than those
obtained from the displacement mode shapes.
With the availability of cost-effective and easy to
install piezoelectric materials, the curvature mode
shapes could more easily be obtained experimen-
tally. This paper will address some problems on
experimental aspects of structural health monitor-
ing based on dynamic response. In particular, the
changes of measured curvature in the form of
mode shapes or the frequency response functions
(FRF) are used to identify damage in composite
structures. Four damage detection algorithms
based on the curvature shapes and curvature FRF
are reviewed.
To aid in the detection of damage, smart
materials are often used. Piezoelectric materials
are the most commonly used smart materials in
structural health monitoring, due to their ability
to act both as an actuator and as a sensor and
their flexibility to be sized for specific applica-
tions. In this study, the piezoelectric materials in
the form of ceramic (leadzirconatetitanate,
PZT) and polymer film (polyvinylidenefluoride,
PVDF) are used as the actuator and the sensor,
respectively. Unlike the PZT ceramics, the PVDF
films are flexible which allows for more easy
bonding to curved and non-smooth surfaces.
With the use of double-sided tape, the PVDF
films can be attached to a structure and used
repeatedly.
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 335
2 Damage Detection
In this study, several existing detection
algorithms are employed to detect damage of
carbon/epoxy laminated composite beams.
Contrary to most results in the literature, the
directly measured curvature data are applied
to the method, and comparisons among differ-
ent algorithms are made and discussed. The
methods being considered include the absolute
difference of curvature mode shape method, the
curvature damage factor method, the damage
index method, and the FRF curvature method.
A brief review of these detection algorithms is
presented in the following.
For comparison purposes between the
undamaged and damaged beam modes in curva-
ture mode-based damage detection methods, it
is best to first develop weights by comparing
the undamaged structure to the theoretical one
w
ij


ij, theoretical

ij
1
where w
ij
is the weight,
ij, theoretical
is the theo-
retical curvature, and
ij
is the experimentally
measured curvature for ith mode shape at
location j. These weights are applied to both the
damaged and undamaged structures to allow for
greater ease in comparison

0
ij
w
ij

ij
2

0
ij, damaged
w
ij

ij, damaged
3
where
0
ij
and
0
ij, damaged
are, respectively, the
weighted undamaged and damaged curvatures
used for comparison. By applying the weight to
the undamaged specimen, it forces the measured
curvatures into the theoretical ones (Equation
(2)). The weighted shapes are also then normal-
ised such that

0 T
1 4
It is important to note that the weighting
function may cause large discrepancies at loca-
tions where the undamaged beam approaches
zero at modal nodes at different locations as
compared to the damaged structure. At this
particular location, a mode shape magnitude
divided by a small number of the weighting
function will produce large magnitude of the
weighted shape.
The Absolute Differences Method (ADM)
is the simplest method to employ. This method
takes the absolute difference in the magnitudes
of the curvature mode shape as:

0
ij

0
ij


0
ij, damaged

5
where
0
ij
is the absolute difference in the
undamaged and damaged modes. This method
examines each mode individually and is classified
as a single mode method. Results from this
method can vary depending on the boundary
conditions, damage locations, mode of interest,
and sensitivity. This variation led to the develop-
ment of other multiple mode methods such as
the curvature damage factor and damage index
methods.
The Curvature Damage Factor (CDF)
method involves a similar procedure as the
absolute difference method, where
0
ij
is deter-
mined from the absolute differences. However,
the curvature damage factor was developed to
consider all of the modes at once [5],
CDF
i

1
N
X
N
j1

0
ij
6
where CDF
i
is the curvature damage factor at
location i and N is the number of modes that will
be examined. This method is considered more
accurate than the absolute difference method
because it eliminates the problems caused by the
damage location in conjunction with certain
modes. Other problems still persist, in particular
the problem of sensitivity.
On the other hand, the Damage Index
Method (DIM) allows for greater sensitivity. This
method is also more complex as compared to
the other methods. In this study, the formulation
of the damage index is similar to that used by
336 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
Farrar and Jaurequi [10,11]

ij

0
ij,damaged
n o
2

P
i
max
1

0
ij,damaged
n o
2

P
i
max
1

0
ij
n o
2

0
ij
n o
2

P
i
max
1

0
ij
n o
2

P
i
max
1

0
ij,damaged
n o
2
7
where
ij
is the damage index at location i for
mode j. Considering multiple modes, the sum-
mation of
ij
at one location for every mode is
defined as follows:

i

X
j

ij
8
where
i
is the damage index at location i from
the summation of the single mode damage
indices. This method is considered accurate and
valid for damage detection; however as with the
two previous methods, the modal analysis needs
to be conducted in order to employ these damage
detection algorithms.
Alternatively, the FRF Curvature Method
(FCM) offers a procedure without performing
modal analysis. Usually, the FRF is measured
from the displacement response. Then, the FRF
curvature for each location is calculated using a
central difference formulation.

00
!
ij

1
h
2
!
i1, j
2 !
ij
!
i1, j
9
where !
ij
is the FRF measured at location i
from an input force at location j. However, since
the FRF measured by the PZT ceramics or
PVDF films is already a function of curvature,
the numerical derivative in Equation (9) is not
necessary. Therefore, over a given frequency
range, the damage location will be indicated by
the following expression:

00
!
ij

X
!

00
!
ij

00
!
ij, damaged

10
where
00
!
ij
is the absolute difference in the
FRF curvatures. This method is fairly new and
only a few studies have reviewed the validity
of applying this method to experimental data.
Therefore, the accuracy of this method will be
determined by comparing the results with the
ones obtained by the other three methods.
3 Specimen Considerations
and Experimentation
In this study, six carbon/epoxy composite
beam specimens were tested. Each sample was
made of carbon fibre and epoxy resins and had a
[0/90]
4T
lay-up for a total of eight layers. The
thickness of each layer was 0.22 mm (0.0086 in.)
for a total thickness of 1.75 mm (0.0688 in.). Each
sample had a width of 25.4 mm (1.00 in.) and a
length of 241.3 mm (9.50 in.) (Figure 1). When
clamped in the cantilever configuration, the beam
samples had a free span length of 228.6 mm
(9.00 in.). An 8 mm12 mm piece of PZT ceramic
was attached to each composite sample as an
actuator. The PVDF films were used as sensors
and the beam sample was divided into 16 points
to best accommodate the films (Figure 2). Each
point was aligned with the centre of the PVDF
during the testing.
The experiment began with two undamaged
beams. Both of these samples were first tested,
and their undamaged mode shapes were obtained.
The undamaged mode shape used for comparison
Figure 1 An undamaged carbon/epoxy composite beam specimen.
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 337
was derived from an average of the two samples.
Later, one of the undamaged beams was artifi-
cially damaged by cutting a notch with a hand-
saw. The notch had around 1.6 mm (0.0625 in.)
width and cut about 60% of the beam thickness
through the width of the beam. The other four
beams were already damaged, three samples
contained delamination at various locations and
the fourth had an impact damage. The delami-
nations were created during the fabrication of the
samples by inserting a piece of Teflon tape
between the second and the third layers of the
material at the desired locations. The impact dam-
age was created by dropping an 8.0 kg (17.6 lb)
mass from a height of 304.8 mm (12.0 in.) onto an
undamaged carbon composite beam sample, thus
allowing for the testing and comparing of five
different damage conditions: one saw-cut notch,
three delamination types (A, B and C), and one
impact damage. The beam with a delamination
type A (Delam A) has a 25.4 mm (1.00 in.)
delamination beginning approximately 31.75 mm
(1.25 in.) from the fixed support or began at
sensor location 2 and ended at sensor location 4.
Information of all five damaged-beam configura-
tions are summarised in Table 1, and the corres-
ponding geometry are presented in Figure 3. For
beam samples with delamination, a small bump
through width between sensor locations 10 and
11 was discovered. This imperfection was devel-
oped during the manufacturing process of the
composite plates with delamination before it was
cut into several beams.
The experimental set-up of dynamic testing is
presented in Figure 4. Two different sources of
excitation were employed, i.e., impulse excitation
and continuous excitation by using a PZT
actuator. For a testing with continuous excita-
tion, a sweep sine with a magnitude of 140 V was
run through the actuators to excite the beams. A
Hewlett Packard 33120 A waveform generator
was used to induce the sweep sine. The sweeps
took place over a frequency range from 1 to
2000 Hz over a time of 120 s. The linear and logari-
thmic sweeps were used to excite each beam,
since an average of these two sweeps generates
the best mode shape results. The responses at
each point were recorded by a dSPACE data
acquisition system as time domain responses.
Two sets of sweep tests were conducted on the
damaged beams: one set had the sensors located
on the same side of the beam as the damage was
located, and in the other test the sensors were
located on the opposite side of the damage.
Table 1 Type and damage location of composite beam samples.
No. Damage type
Damage location,
from the fixed end
(mm)
Damage area
(mm)
Damage location
according to sensor
location
1 Delaminated A 31.7557.15 25.4 24
2 Delaminated B 31.7582.55 50.8 26
3 Delaminated C 69.8595.25 25.4 57
4 Impact 57.1582.55 25.4 46
5 Saw cut 80.5582.15 1.6 6
Figure 2 Schematic of the sensor layout for the carbon/epoxy composite samples.
338 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
For impulse excitation, a PCB impulse
hammer was used as the actuator. The impulse
location remained stationary and was located at
the free-end of the beams. A minimum of ten sets
of data was collected for each sensor location.
For all samples twenty data sets were acquired
at each point, except for the saw-cut sample and
the first undamaged sample that each had ten
data sets at a point. The FRF at each point were
averaged over all the measured data sets to help
eliminate noise interference recorded by the
sensors. These data sets were recorded at a range
from 1 to 2000 Hz; however, one data set only
took one second to be conducted. The procedure
for data reduction of this method is the same as
that for the sweep sine methods once the FRF
has been determined. For both the tests, the
piezoelectric film sensors were roved along the 16
1. Del A
2. Del B
3. Del C
4. Impact
5. Saw-cut
Figure 3 Geometry of composite beam sample configurations.
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 339
measurement locations to allow direct generation
of the curvature mode shapes.
The procedure for the data reduction and
shape generation can be described briefly as
follows. Using MATLAB code, the time domain
responses are transferred into frequency response
functions (FRF) and extracted as vectors. These
vectors are then converted into I-DEAS functions
with the aid of IMAT interface program. Using
I-DEAS test module, the modal analysis of the
experimental results is performed and the curva-
ture mode shapes are generated. Once the mode
shapes are generated, the shapes are exported
back into MATLAB, where they are examined
thoroughly and weighted to the theoretical shapes.
4 Damage Detection Using PZT as
Actuator
There are two possibilities of attaching the
sensors into the specimens, i.e., on the same side
and on the opposite side of the damage, which
can be detailed as follows. A sensor is considered
on the same side as the damage if, in the case of
delamination, the sensors are bonded to a surface
which is closer to the plane of the delamination.
In the case of impact damage the sensors are
located on the concave side of the compression
caused by the impact. A sensor is opposite to the
damage when, in the case of delamination, the
sensors are located on the surface which is
farthest from the delamination plane. In the case
of impact damage, the sensor is located on the
convex side of the tension caused by the impact.
This idea is clearly illustrated in Figure 5. The
PZT ceramic patch bonded to the beams near the
cantilever end was used as an actuator to excite
the structure using a sweep sine.
Based on the results of both cases, there was
an insignificant change in the ability to detect the
damage, with delamination B being an exception.
In the case of the same side sensor/damage
configuration, it was difficult to detect large
Figure 4 Experimental set-up.
Figure 5 Illustration of same-sided and opposite-sided sensors.
340 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
delamination such as delamination B. This was
probably due to the fact that the delaminated
portion of beam has an apparent independent
vibration. When a sensor was located on the
delamination region as illustrated in Figure 6,
the same side sensor recorded the curvature of
the delaminated area as well, as if it were a short
fixedfixed beam over the delamination span.
The experimental results discussed in this
article are those with the sensor and the damage
on the same side, with exception of the delamina-
tion B case, of which the results from the opposite
side configuration are discussed. Complete experi-
mental results of the study can be found in
Hamey [12].
4.1 Frequency Measurements
The results of frequency measurements from
experiments with sweep sine excitation are pre-
sented in this section. The first three of the natural
frequencies of the damaged beams are compared
with the undamaged beam results. In these com-
parisons, an average of undamaged natural
frequencies is used. Both the undamaged beams
had slightly different natural frequencies for each
mode, of which the maximum difference is around
2.4% at the lowest natural frequency (the first
mode). These values are summarised in Table 2.
An examination of the natural frequencies
reveals a significant change for beams with
delaminations (Table 3) and saw-cut damage
(Table 4). For the beam with impact damage, the
frequencies are relatively unchanged by the pre-
sence of damage. In particular, the first natural
frequency demonstrates substantial changes,
between 11 and 20%. At the second and third
frequencies the percentage of change is smaller,
but it is still noticeable, with an average of
about 3%.
Compared to the undamaged beams, the first
natural frequency of delamination B, where the
sensor was located at the opposite side of the
delamination (oppDelam B), has the highest
change of 20.6%. This might be due to the lack
of the sensors near the fixed end, where the first
mode readings were typically analysed. Overall,
the values of the frequency changes of Delam C
are comparable to those of Delam A, since the
delamination length in both the cases are the
same, although their locations are different. In
the impact damage case, the natural frequencies
are actually increased slightly instead of being
decreased or relatively unchanged (Table 4). The
first natural frequency demonstrated less than
3% of increase. For the saw-cut damage case,
the natural frequencies changed quite dramati-
cally. The first is reduced by about 15%, the
second changed by 6.4% and the third by almost
4%; these changes are substantial when compared
to the changes by the other damage conditions.
4.2 Mode Shapes
The undamaged beam curvature mode shapes
were generated by averaging the mode shapes
from two undamaged beam samples to provide
the best representative shape as a base for later
comparison. The average mode shapes are shown
in Figure 7(a), which are better than either of
the other two individually. Even before being
Figure 6 Illustration of the sensors when placed on a large delamination
Table 2 A comparison of the natural frequencies for the
undamaged beams.
Mode Undam. 1 Undam. 2 Ave. Undam. % Change
1st 33.2 32.4 32.8 2.42
2nd 182.2 179.3 180.8 1.57
3rd 502.5 498.4 500.5 0.81
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 341
weighted, the average shapes more closely resem-
ble the theoretical shapes.
Based on a visual inspection of the curvature
mode shapes (Figure 7(b) and (c)), the damage
location of delamination A and B cannot be
discerned. The mode shapes are not as smooth as
the ones obtained from the undamaged beams,
even after weighting them, the damage location
is still not recognisable. For Delam C, the
damage location could be somewhat discerned
(Figure 7(d)). In all three modes there was some
distinct pattern of shapes around the locations of
sensors 5, 6 and 7. This became more evident
after the shapes were weighted. In particular, at
point 5 where the delamination began, the change
could be easily recognised. Similar indication is
also noticed at the curvature mode shapes of
impact-damaged beam (Figure 7(e)). The impact
damage location could be predicted around loca-
tion 5. For the saw-cut damaged beam, the
damage location could be somewhat discerned
from mode 1, around location 6 (Figure 7(f )). It
is clearly evident that in the first mode there was
some mode difference at location 6. Yet, in the
second and third modes, there is no distinction
around location 6, from which a prediction of the
damage location could be made.
4.3 Damage Identification Analysis
In this section, damage identification results are
presented. The four damage detection algorithms
introduced in Section 2 are used to locate the
damage in the composite beams.
4.3.1 Delaminated Beam A Applying the ADM
to the data of Delam A indicated that around the
damage location (sensor 3) there is a peak in the
first mode (Figure 8(a)). However, there are also
peaks at locations 6 and 7 and at imperfection
location (sensor 10). Thus any single mode
cannot detect the location of damage in this
instance. The CDF also failed to properly locate
the damage for Delam A (Figure 8(a)). Neither
the DIM nor the FCM fared any better on this
damage condition (see Figure 8(b)). Although
both the methods did show peaks at the location
of sensor 4, other peaks were also recognisable.
Hence, all the methods failed to exclusively
locate the damaged area for beam Delam A.
Some of the methods did have peaks around the
damage location; however peaks at other non-
damaged location were also present. The inability
to locate the delamination may be due to the fact
that the damage location lies near modal nodes
in two of the three modes examined. Acquiring
additional modes by refinement of sensors and
thus the ability to more properly judge higher
modes may aid in alleviating this problem.
4.3.2 Delaminated Beam B For the delaminated
beam B, the application of ADM resulted in
some peaks within the damaged area (sensors
26) for all three modes (Figure 9(a)) and around
the imperfection (locations 10 and 11). The peak
that was located near sensor 14 in the third mode
caused concern, since there was no explanation
for this peak. The CDF estimated that locations
6 and 10 (Figure 9(a)) as possible damage and
Table 3 Comparisons of the natural frequencies of delaminated beams: Delam A, oppDelam B and
Delam C.
Mode Undam. Delam A %Change oppDelam B %Change Delam C %Change
1st 32.8 29.12 11.34 39.61 20.60 29.23 11.01
2nd 180.8 175.45 2.96 171.54 5.13 179.06 0.97
3rd 500.5 481.89 3.72 492.84 1.53 489.01 2.30
Table 4 Comparisons of the natural frequencies of impact and saw-cut damaged beams.
Mode Undam. Impact %Change Saw-cut % Change
1st 32.8 33.82 2.97 27.99 14.77
2nd 180.8 181.78 0.53 169.23 6.40
3rd 500.5 505.06 0.91 481.99 3.70
342 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location Sensor location
Figure 7 The first three curvature mode shapes, from sweep sine excitation experiment, of (a) the average undamaged
beam; (b) Delam A beam; (c) oppDelam B beam; (d) Delam C beam; (e) impact-damaged beam and (f) saw-cut
damaged beam.
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 343
imperfection locations, respectively. The CDF
captured a peak at location 14 as well. Both the
DIM and FCM (Figure 9(b)) were able to locate
the damage and the imperfection. The DIM had
two peaks around the damage boundaries: one
at location 4 and the other at near location 6,
although false indication at location 14 was also
captured. The FCM also had two peaks, one
large gradual peak spanning between locations 4
and 6 where the delamination was located and
the other peak was around location 10. In
conclusion, the location of delamination B that
spanned locations 2 to 6 was identified by all
three multiple mode methods. The delamination
was recognised around locations 4, 5, 6 and 7.
The imperfection discussed earlier was also
detected at locations 9 and 10.
4.3.3 Delaminated Beam C The ADM on each
mode of Delam C identified the damage location

(a)

(b)
Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
Sensor location
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
F
R
F

c
u
r
v
a
t
u
r
e
Damage index
FRF curvature
Figure 9 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for oppDelam B beam from (a) absolute
difference and CDF methods, and (b) damage index and FRF curvature methods.

(a)

(b)
Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
Sensor location
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
F
R
F

c
u
r
v
a
t
u
r
e
Damage index
FRF curvature
Figure 8 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for Delam A, from (a) absolute difference and
CDF methods, and (b) damage index and FRF curvature methods.
344 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
in the area between locations 4 and 8, which are
close to the actual location (57) (Figure 10(a)).
The first mode depicts the delamination area by
showing two peaks at the locations of sensors 4
and 8. The CDF also displays a large peak along
the damaged area (Figure 10(a)). Similar peaks
were also displayed at the imperfection location
of sensor 10. The DIM was able to accurately
determine the location of the whole delamination
by displaying a peak through locations 6, 7 and 8
(Figure 10(b)). A small peak was also located at
point 10 as expected. The FCM was partially
able to detect the damage (location 7). However,
several peaks were also located in other areas
as well.
All the methods discussed were capable of
locating the delamination C, with the exception of
the FCM. The location of this damage condition
made it possible to generate the first three mode
shapes without having a modal node within the
vicinity of the delamination. It is demonstrated
that the DIM could more accurately detect the
damage location compared to the other methods.
4.3.4 Impact Damaged Beam In the case of
impact beam, all three modes from the ADM
showed peaks around location 6 (Figure 11(a)).
Only the third mode had multiple peaks, with the
second peak being located at sensor 11. Hence, it
can be said confidently that the impact damage
location was around location 6. The CDF and
FCM also displayed a significant peak around
the damaged area (Figure 11(a)) with a small
peak at the imperfection location. The DIM
estimated accurately the location of the whole
damage by displaying a peak through locations
6 and 7 (Figure 11(b)). The location of impact
damage was identified properly by all the
methods. The ADM and CDF methods gave
a better estimation of the damage location
(within 12.7 mm or 0.5 in. of the actual location);
whereas the DIM and the FCM were both off by
25.4 mm (1.0 in.).
4.3.5 Saw-Cut Damaged Beam For the saw-cut
beam, only the ADM was able to display the
damage location by demonstrating peaks around
location 6, especially in the first and second
modes (Figure 12(a)), although, for mode 3,
peaks at other locations were also significantly
large. In all of the other methods, the identifica-
tions near the damage location were overshad-
owed by peaks at other locations. The CDF
displayed a large plateau over the damage
location. However, it failed to accurately locate
the damage since the most prominent peak was
found at location 9. The DIM and FCM were
unable to determine the damage location. Peaks
at locations 9, 10 and 14 (Figure 12(b)) were
more significant.

(a)

(b)
Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
Sensor location
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
F
R
F

c
u
r
v
a
t
u
r
e
Damage index
FRF curvature
Figure 10 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for Delam C, from (a) absolute difference
and CDF methods, and (b) damage index and FRF curvature methods.
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 345
5 Damage Detection Using Impulse
Hammer Excitation
Experiments using the impulse hammer had
the same damage configuration specimens
described earlier. The tests were conducted with
the sensors mounted on the same side of the
beam where the damage was located. The FRF
for impulse hammer excitation often contains a
large amount of noise at locations where the
natural frequencies do not exist. Due to the high
amounts of noise in these regions, the FRF
curvature method cannot effectively be applied to
the FRF data obtained from impulse hammer
excitations. For this reason, no FRF curvature
method data is presented in this section.
5.1 Frequency Measurements
The results of natural frequencies from
experiments with the impulse hammer excitation
are comparable to the test results using the sweep
sine excitation, although all the first three natural
frequencies excited by impulse hammer are a little
higher. Summary of the results of the two

(a)

(b)
Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
Sensor location
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
F
R
F

c
u
r
v
a
t
u
r
e
Damage index
FRF curvature
Figure 11 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for impact-damaged beam from (a) absolute
difference and CDF methods, and (b) damage index and FRF curvature methods.

(a)

(b)
Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
Sensor location
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
F
R
F

c
u
r
v
a
t
u
r
e
Damage index
FRF curvature
Figure 12 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for saw-cut damaged beam from(a) absolute
difference and CDF methods, and (b) damage index and FRF curvature methods.
346 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
undamaged beams and their averages are pre-
sented in Table 5.
In general, the changes in natural frequencies
due to damage measured by impulse hammer
experiment are much smaller than those with
sweep sine excitation (Tables 6 and 7). The
percentage of change is between 1.4 and 8.8%,
ignoring changes below 1%. Some changes in the
second mode are not significant (0.78% and
lower) due to the fact that the location of
damage is near to or at the location of modal
nodes, in this case delamination A, B and impact
damage. Similarly, for the third mode of saw-cut
damaged beam, the location of damage is near
the node of mode 3.
The impact damage relatively unchanged
the natural frequencies (Table 7). Results of
hamDelam C indicated a different trend than
those presented in hamDelam A or Delam C.
The frequency changes due to saw cut also
exhibited a different trend from the test using
sweep sine excitation. The inconsistency in the
frequency changes might be due to the measure-
ment of natural frequency, which could slightly
drift depending on the measuring equipment,
weather conditions, background noise, ambient
vibrations, and the inability to accurately repeat
the initial boundary conditions.
5.2 Mode Shapes
The curvature mode shapes generated for
each undamaged beam were also averaged to
generate the best shape. The average mode
shapes from undamaged beams 1 and 2 are
displayed in Figure 13(a)). The curvature mode
shapes generated by measurement with impulse
hammer excitation were less smooth compared to
the curvatures generated by sweep sine excitation.
The lack of smoothness in the mode shapes
increases the difficulty in determining a location
solely based on their appearance.
Based on visual inspection, a flattening at
locations 24 in the first mode and small peak at
location 3 may indicate the location of delamina-
tion A (Figure 13(b)). However, this observation
is not conclusive. Especially after weighting
them, the damage location is not recognisable.
For delamination B, the indication of damage
location is more pronounced (Figure 13(c)). There
Table 5 Comparison of the natural frequencies for the undamaged beams excited by impulse hammer.
Mode hamUndam. 1 hamUndam. 2
Ave.
hamUndam. %Change
1st 29.17 30.18 29.67 3.38
2nd 178.38 177.27 177.82 0.63
3rd 469.47 487.46 478.47 3.76
Table 6 Comparisons of the natural frequencies of delaminated beams from impulse hammer experiments:
hamDelam A, hamDelam B and hamDelam C beams.
Mode hamUndam. hamDelam A %Change hamDelam B %Change hamDelam C %Change
1st 29.67 30.43 2.53 32.29 8.81 32.08 8.10
2nd 177.82 177.73 0.05 176.43 0.78 184.81 3.93
3rd 478.47 493.11 3.06 517.35 8.13 501.33 4.78
Table 7 Comparisons of the natural frequencies of delaminated beams from impulse hammer experiments: hamImpact
and hamSaw-Cut damaged beams.
Mode hamUndam hamImpact %Change hamSaw-Cut %Change
1st 29.67 29.26 1.41 29.60 0.25
2nd 177.82 177.04 0.06 170.62 4.05
3rd 478.47 495.59 3.58 478.90 0.09
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 347
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location Sensor location
Sensor location Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Sensor location
Figure 13 The first three curvature mode shapes, from impulse hammer excitation experiment, of (a) the average
undamaged beam; (b) hamDelam A beam; (c) hamDelam B beam; (d) hamDelam C beam; (e) hamImpact damaged
beam and (f) hamSaw-Cut damaged beam.
348 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
are clear peaks in the first and second modes
at locations 3 or 4. This became less evident
after the shapes were weighted; but it was still
recognisable. Additionally, the second mode
clearly indicates the existence of imperfection at
location 10.
The minor indications of delamination C were
exhibited by all the three mode shapes (Figure
13(d)), between locations 5 and 7. This became
more evident after the shapes were weighted. In
particular at point 5, the change could easily be
recognised. Small inconsistencies in all three
modes around locations 5 and 6 (Figure 13(e))
indicate the location of impact damage. Saw-cut
damage effect on the first mode shape (Figure
13(f )) was quite obvious, where there were some
variations at locations 5, 6 and 7, which surround
the damage location. However, in the second and
third modes, there is no distinction around the
point from which a prediction of the damage
location could be made.
5.3 Damage Identification Analysis
5.3.1 Delaminated Beam A Similar to the
results from sweep sine excitation, all the
methods could not properly locate the damaged
area (Figure 14). A large peak at location 6 in
all the three modes gave a false indication of
damage location since the actual location is
between sensors 24. Yet, the location of the
imperfection was identified quite properly by
all the methods except the absolute difference of
the first mode. These results reinforce the earlier
remarks that the location of the damage, which
lies near the modal nodes in two of the three
modes examined, made damage identification to
be not feasible. Refinement of sensor configura-
tion may solve this problem.
5.3.2 Delaminated Beam B The first and third
modes of ADM showed partial damage boundary
locations (Figure 15(a)), at locations 4 and 7,
respectively. The location of the damage fell at
or near the modal node of the second mode
and made it difficult for one to detect the
damage using this mode. The CDF also displayed
a double peak situated at the beginning and
end of the delamination (Figure 15(b)). The DIM
for hamDelam B had peaks at locations 2 and 7,
which corresponded with the limits of the delami-
nation. A peak near location 10 was not very
recognisable. Although, the three methods pre-
sented in this article were able to locate some part
of the delamination B, such large delamination
may be difficult to detect completely, considering
the probability that some part of damage is
located at the vicinity of modal nodes.
5.3.3 Delaminated Beam C Using the first
mode of the ADM, the damage was estimated

(a)

(b)
Sensor location Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
i
Figure 14 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for hamDelam A beam, from (a) absolute
difference methods, and (b) damage index and CDF methods.
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 349
at locations 3 and 6, whereas from both the
second and third modes at locations 5, 7 and 8
(Figure 16(a)). When combined together in the
CDF method (Figure 16(b)), there was a large
peak spanning through these four locations. This
provided a good indication of the damage, since
the actual damage location is between locations 5
and 7. In addition, the imperfection at location
10 was also identified.
The DIM identified the location of the whole
delamination by displaying peaks through loca-
tions 6, 7 and 8. This result was off by one
location, since the actual damage is located
between locations 5 and 7. A peak indicating that
the imperfection was located at location 10 was
obtained as expected. These results corresponded
closely with the results from the sweep sine
excitation tests for beam Delam C.
5.3.4 Impact Damaged Beam The ADM
showed that all the three modes produced peaks
around location 6 (Figure 17(a)). Only the third
mode had multiple peaks with the second
peak located at location 11. Because the peak
at location 6 appeared in all the three modes,
it was determined reliably that the damage is

(a)

(b)
Sensor location Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
i
Figure 15 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for hamDelam B beam, from (a) absolute
difference methods, and (b) damage index and CDF methods.

(a) (b)
Sensor location Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
i
Figure 16 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for hamDelam C, from (a) absolute
difference methods, and (b) damage index and CDF methods.
350 Structural HealthMonitoring 3(4)
located near location 6. The CDF also dis-
played a large peak along the damaged area
(Figure 17(b)), while the other peaks were quite
small. The DIM was also able to determine the
damage location by displaying a peak through
location 6. In this damage configuration, the
damage location was identified accurately by
all the three methods with a similar trend of
indication.
5.3.5 Saw-Cut Damaged Beam The ADM indi-
cated that the first and third modes showed
peaks around damage location (i.e., location 6)
(Figure 18(a)), although peaks at other locations
were quite significant as well. The second mode
had undulation with the highest peak at location
11. The CDF displayed a peak over the damage
location (Figure 18(b)). However, it generated
peaks at locations 9 and 11. The DIM identified
the damage location more accurately by display-
ing a substantially more dominant peak at loca-
tion 6. All the methods were able to moderately
localise the damage around location 6 for beam
hamSaw-Cut.
6 Conclusions
In general, the damage detection methods with
an impulse hammer excitation generated better
identification results compared to the continuous
excitation using PZT. Delamination C, the impact
damage, and the saw-cut damage were identified
properly by the curvature mode-based damage
detection technique presented in this study.
However, for delamination A and delamination B,
the results are limited and inconclusive. Damage
configuration and location affect the ability of the
method.
From this study of using both the sweep sine
and impulse hammer excitations, the following
concluding remarks can be drawn:
1. Condition delamination A does not contain
a damage configuration that is conducive
to identification of the damage appropriately.
This limits the method to properly identify
damages that are in close proximity to
the clamped end and/or modal node points.
2. The Damage Index Method (DIM) detects and
isolates the damages better than any of the other
methods studied. The FRF Curvature Method
(FCM) does not seem to work as well as the
other methods. However, the FCM may work
better with a system that generates smooth FRF
curves.
3. A large delamination, as in the condition of
delamination B, might be identified by multiple
peaks at the edges of the delamination by all the
methods under study. However, this could cause

(a)

(b)
Sensor location Sensor location
A
B
S

d
i
f
f
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
C
D
F
i
Figure 17 Detection results based on curvature shapes experimental data for hamImpact damaged beam, from
(a) absolute difference methods, and (b) damage index and CDF methods.
C. S. Hamey et al. Experimental Damage Identification of Carbon/Epoxy Composite 351
misleading interpretations, such that the peaks
are viewed as a multiple instance of some highly
localised damage.
4. For the large delamination configuration (e.g.,
in delamination B), identification procedure will
generate better results when the sensors were
located opposite to the delamination side. This
will reduce the effect of vibration of the
delaminated part. In the cases of relatively
localised damage, such as the impact damage
or saw-cut damage, the location of the sensor
with respect to the damage side has little effect
on the identification results.
5. The frequency changes varied widely from one
test to another and from sample to sam-
ple, especially at low natural frequencies.
Thus, frequencies are inadequate to be used
as a parameter in the damage magnitude
prediction.
6. Finally, all the methods presented exhibited that
the curvature modes measured by the piezo-
electric sensors can be used as promising
alternatives in damage detection techniques.
The excitation sources used in this study,
impulse hammer and continuous sweep sine
excitations, work equally well, and the results
were often nearly identical. Therefore, each
excitation type with its own benefits, is a good
candidate for being an excitation source in the
implementation of a detection method.
Acknowledgements
The carbon/epoxy composite test samples used in this study
were provided by Honeywell, Inc. This study was partially
supported by the College of Engineering at the University
of Akron and Ohio Aerospace Institute Collaborative
Core Research Program (OAI-CCRP#2002-04).
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(a)

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Sensor location Sensor location
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S

d
i
f
f
C
D
F
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
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