HeatTreatmentTechnology

Dr.SantoshS.Hosmani
DEPT. METALLURGY & MATERIALS SCIENCE,
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE
HeatTreatmentof
Stainless Steels StainlessSteels
Simple austenitic steels usually contain between 18 and 30wt% Cr 8 to
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
Simple austenitic steels usually contain between 18 and 30wt% Cr, 8 to
20wt% Ni and between 0.03 and 0.1wt% C.
The solubility limit of carbon is about 0.05wt% at 800 C, rising to 0.5wt% at
1100 C. Therefore, solution treatment between 1050 C and 1150 C will
take all of the carbon into solution and rapid cooling from this temperature
range will give a supersaturated austenite solid solution at room
temperature.
However, slow cooling or reheating within the range 550800 C will lead to
the rejection of carbon from solution, usually as the chromiumrich carbide, the rejection of carbon from solution, usually as the chromium rich carbide,
Cr
23
C
6
, even when the carbon content of the steel is very low (<0.05 wt%).
Carbon tends to diffuse toward grain boundaries in austentic stainless steels
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
during material preparation, welding or improper heating in the temperature
range of 425 C to 815 C. This leads to precipitation of (Fe,Cr)
23
C
6
adjacent to
the grain boundaries. The chromium concentration in the grain boundary region
i d d hil h h i i i h i i f h i i is reduced while the chromium concentration in the interior of the grain remains
unchanged. This process is referred to as sensitization.
The chromium depleted grain boundary region is less resistant to corrosion than
the interior of the grain. If the chromium concentration falls below a critical
value, preferential corrosion takes place at the grain boundaries while the
interior of the grains remains passive under certain electrochemical conditions.
This process is known as intergranular corrosion (IGC).
The precipitation of the chromium carbides is process in which diffusion of
carbon plays a critical role; therefore, the ageing conditions, i.e. the p y g g
temperature and time of exposure to heat, play a critical role in determining the
amount of chromium in the grain boundaries after sensitization. The fraction of
chromium in the region adjacent to the grain boundary decreases with the
increase in sensitization time in the temperature range where carbide formation
occurs. A minimum critical Cr content is required in the grain boundaries for the
material to remain resistant to IGC.
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
FIGURE: Complete intergranular cracking of the sensitized type 304
stainless steel in 400 hours of exposure to high purity water at
2800C. The figure shows (a) intergranular facets of the fracture
f d (b) d i t l b h ti surface and (b) secondary intergranular branches emanating
from the main intergranular crack.
Ref.: BARC HIGHLIGHTS. Engineering - Material Research
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
More grain boundary
martensite is present.
The 1112% Cr-type ferritic stainless steels are susceptibile to sensitization
during continuous cooling after welding at low heat input These steels transform
The ferrite-ferrite grain boundaries are sensitized, whereas the
ferrite-martensite phase boundaries are largely unattacked
during continuous cooling after welding at low heat input. These steels transform
partially to austenite in the high-temperature heat-affected zone (HTHAZ) during
cooling, with the austenite transforming to martensite at lower temperatures. The
ferrite-martensite boundaries were generally observed to be unsensitized. The
results suggest that if enough austenite forms in the HTHAZ during cooling, it acts
as a carbon sink to dissolve excess carbon. This prevents supersaturation of the
ferrite phase and subsequent carbide precipitation that could lead to sensitization
of the ferrite grain boundaries Excessive welding speeds appear to promote of the ferrite grain boundaries. Excessive welding speeds appear to promote
sensitization during low heat input welding.
Ref.:M.L.Greeff andM.duToit:WeldingJournal(Nov.2006)243.
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
FIGURE: Sensitized HAZ of 304
FIGURE: Sensitized 304 stainless steel
pipe after service in dilute nitric acid. Note
FIGURE: Sensitized HAZ of 304
stainless steel plate. Chromium
carbides are indicated by chains of
dark particles along austenite grain
b d i
pipe after service in dilute nitric acid. Note
that the weld metal and the HAZ closest
to the weld metal are unaffected, but the
region of the HAZ that reached peak
t t i th f 480 t
boundaries.
temperatures in the range of 480 to
870C is severely attacked.
Ref.:WeldingHandbook,8thEdition,Vol.4,p.273
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
Possible Resolution Treatment: after welding, the steel
can be reheated to 9501100 C to allow Cr
23
C
6
to can be reheated to 950 1100 C to allow Cr
23
C
6
to
redissolve, and further precipitation is then prevented by
rapid cooling to avoid the Cshaped curve.
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
As shown in the timetemperature sensitisation curves below, the precipitation
of carbides occurs over time at temperatures in the range of about 450850 C.
The time for precipitation to occur is highly dependant upon the amount of
carbon present in the steel, so low carbon content increases resistance to this
bl problem.
Reduction of the carbon Reduction of the carbon
content below 0.03wt% is
possible by modern steel-
making methods involving
l i F oxygen lancing. For
complete immunity from
intergranular corrosion in
18/8 steels, a carbon level ,
of 0.02wt% should not be
exceeded.
Recall yourself from the earlier lectures that:
Addition of metallic alloying elements (except Co) shifts TTT curves Addition of metallic alloying elements (except Co) shifts TTT curves
towards right. But, we made little comment about effect of carbon.
However, I believe that, for a constant concentrations of partitioning (or
carbide forming) metallic alloying elements, if we increase the carbon
content, TTT curves for carbide formation will shift towards left (in the
similar way as mentioned on earlier slide). See also the next slide (this is
same slide which we discussed in the past) in support of this argument.
In the case of alloy steels containing carbide-forming elements such as Cr, Mo,
W d V th i it ti di h t l l t d f W, and V, the precipitation diagrams have two clearly separated ranges of
pearlite and intermediate transformations. Each of the ranges is characterized
by its own C-shaped curves.
When the carbon content of structural steels is up to 0 4 0 5% the stage I When the carbon content of structural steels is up to 0.40.5%, the stage I
transformation is shifted to the right relative to the stage II transformation; if the
carbon content is higher, stage I is found to the left of stage II.
49
0.8%C steel
1.13%C steel
0.8%C steel
0.38%C alloy steel
But, for En 8 (0.4%C) steel, time indicated by dashed line
is smaller than 0.8%C steel why??
0.8%C steel
0.4%C steel (En 8)
The possible reasons could be as follows (this is as per my thought /
opinion):
It is known that the position of TTT diagram can be affected by prior
austenitic grain-size (i.e. grain-boundary-area per unit volume). In
case of 0.4% C steel, there is a formation of ferrite grains in the case of 0.4% C steel, there is a formation of ferrite grains in the
austenite grains prior to the carbide formation (here, carbide is
cementite, Fe
3
C). Due to the formation of ferrite, total grain-boundary-
area per unit volume increases. Therefore, available sites for the
formation of carbide (here, Fe
3
C) increase, i.e. kinetics of the carbide
formation accelerates.
However in 0 38%C alloy steel shift of TTT diagram towards right However, in 0.38%C alloy steel, shift of TTT diagram towards right
side (compared to eutectoid steel) is possibly due to the other metallic
alloying elements in the steel (and may be not due to the decrease in
carbon content) carbon content).
I strongly think that: for the alloy steel with increase in carbon content
(without disturbing other alloying elements concentrations), if there is
no other phase formation (like, above mentioned ferrite formation prior
to carbide formation), TTT curve should move towards left
Issue of Sensitisation in Stainless Steels
Use of strong carbideforming Use of strong carbideforming
elements, Nb, Ti niobium and
titanium form carbides which are
much more stable than Cr
23
C
6
, so much more stable than Cr
23
C
6
, so
they preferentially combine with the
available carbon and thus lessen the
opportunity for Cr
23
C
6
to nucleate.
3 6
TiC and NbC are much less soluble in
austenite than is chromium carbide,
so they will form at much higher so they will form at much higher
temperatures as relatively stable
particles. These should remain
relatively inert during commercial y g
heat treatments involving solution
temperatures no higher than 1050
C, and thus minimize the possible
nucleation of Cr
23
C
6
.
HT of Austenitic Stainless Steels
HT of Austenitic Stainless Steels
Before going into the different heat treatments for austenitic stainless
steels, it is important to remember two particularly important
properties of these steels: (i) low thermal conductivity and (ii) high
thermal expansion coefficient.
The thermal conductivity of the austenitic stainless steels is low; about
fifth f th l f i d thi d f th d ti it f one fifth of the value for pure iron and one third of the conductivity of an
AISI 1025 carbon steel.
The thermal expansion coefficient of the stainless steels is about 50% The thermal expansion coefficient of the stainless steels is about 50%
higher than for pure iron or of an AISI 1025 carbon steel.
While the low thermal conductivity limits the heating up and cooling While the low thermal conductivity limits the heating up and cooling
speeds, the high thermal expansion coefficient requires special care
concerning the spacing between pieces to be treated.
FIGURE: Main thermal
t t t d treatments and
transformations that
occur in austenitic
stainless steels stainless steels
between room
temperature and the
liquid state liquid state.
(Ref.: A.F. Padilha, R.L. Plaut,
and P.R. Rios: ISIJ
International (Japan) 43 135 International (Japan), 43, 135
143, 2003.)
SOLUTION ANNEALING
Solution annealing is the heat treatment most Solution annealing is the heat treatment most
frequently specified for austenitic stainless steels,
before their actual usage. The main objective of this
treatment, as the name implies, is to dissolve the
phases that ha e precipitated d ring the
FIGURE: Grain boundary M
23
C
6
precipitates in an austenitic
phases that have precipitated during the
thermomechanical processing of the material,
especially the chromium-rich carbides of the
M
23
C
6
-type, where M = Cr, Fe, Mo.
precipitates in an austenitic
stainless steel observed using
transmission electron microscopy.
23 6
yp
As the precipitation of M
23
C
6
occurs in the 450 to
900 C temperature range, the lower temperature
limit for solution annealing should be over 900 C. g
Carbides should be completely dissolved but they
dissolve slowly. Grain growth limits the maximum
solution-annealing temperature. In particular,
abnormal grain growth also known as secondary abnormal grain growth, also known as secondary
recrystallization, must be avoided.
FIGURE: Optical micrograph showing secondary
recrystallization start in a titanium-stabilized austenitic
stainless steel after solution annealing
SOLUTION ANNEALING
Typically, recommended solution-annealing temperatures are around
1010 to 1120 C.
Cooling from heat treatment temperatures should be sufficiently fast to Cooling from heat treatment temperatures should be sufficiently fast to
avoid chromium-carbide precipitation. On the other hand, too fast
cooling rates cause component distortions.
In the case of non-stabilized grades such as AISI 201, 202, 301, 302,
303, 304, 305, 308, 309, 316, and 317, if distortion considerations
permit, water quenching may be utilized. In the case of the AISI 309
and 310 types that contain maximum allowed carbon content and are
susceptible to carbide precipitation, water cooling is mandatory. In the
case of stabilized AISI 321, 347, and 348 types, water cooling is not
needed and air cooling is sufficient to avoid sensitization needed and air cooling is sufficient to avoid sensitization.
STABILIZE ANNEALING
Stabilize annealing is used for stabilized austenitic stainless steels in order Stabilize annealing is used for stabilized austenitic stainless steels in order
to assure maximum intergranular corrosion resistance.
After the solution-annealing treatment, only part of the carbon is bound in
th f f i h h bid MC b it id M(C N) the form of primary phases, such as carbides, MC, carbonitrides, M(C,N),
nitrides MN, or carbosulfides M
4
C
2
S
2
, where M = Ti, Nb, or V. The
remaining carbon stays in solid solution and may precipitate as secondary
carbides like M C at lower temperatures since the carbon solubility in carbides, like M
23
C
6
, at lower temperatures, since the carbon solubility in
austenite under 900 C is very low. Formation of such secondary carbides
can lead to intergranular corrosion.
Careful observation of the earlier shown TTT diagram reveals that the
precipitation start temperature of the thermodynamically more stable MC
carbides is displaced to higher temperatures if compared to the
precipitation start temperature of the less stable Cr rich carbides of the precipitation start temperature of the less stable Cr-rich carbides of the
M
23
C
6
type.
Therefore, exposing the steel, after solution annealing, to temperatures in
the 845 to 955 C temperature range for up to 5 h (depending on
component size), favors MC precipitation in detriment to M
23
C
6
.
STRESS-RELIEF ANNEALING
The most effective way to relieve stresses is to cool the component slowly The most effective way to relieve stresses is to cool the component slowly
from the solution annealing temperature. During slow cooling, some M
23
C
6
precipitation may occur with consequent sensitization. On the other hand,
fast cooling may reintroduce residual stresses and make the component g y p
susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). In general, a small amount
of intergranular corrosion is preferable to a failure in few weeks due to
SCC.
Moreover, the selection of a low carbon or of a stabilized steel would be a
more appropriate solution.
Another alternative would be to stress relieve at a lower temperature
range, between 425 and 550 C, where M
23
C
6
precipitation is very slow,
allowing the material to be exposed for some hours without sensitization g
occurrence.
MARTENSITE FORMATION Transformation during Cooling
Strain-Induced Transformation Strain-Induced Transformation
Austenite in stainless steels in general and the austenite in the 300
steels series in particular is not a stable phase: steels series in particular is not a stable phase:
In the solution-annealed condition, the M
s
temperature is normally
below room temperature.
For the majority of these steels, the M
d
temperature (the
temperature below which martensite will form under deformation) is
above room temperature above room temperature.
Two kinds of martensite can occur in stainless steels:
(bcc ferromagnetic) => a

= 0 2872 nm (note that in austenitic SS (bcc, ferromagnetic) > a

0.2872 nm (note that in austenitic SS,

carbon content is low and so, no tetragonal structure, like BCT martensite)
(hcp, nonferromagnetic) => a

= 0.2532 nm; c

= 0.4114 nm
0 3 8 Assuming a

= 0.3585 nm, we may estimate that the

transformation causes a volume decrease of 2.57%, while the
transformation causes a volume decrease of 0.81%.
Martensitic Transformation during Cooling:
Widely used empirical equations that relate the M temperature to the Widely used empirical equations that relate the M
s
temperature to the
chemical composition is:
This Equation suggests that many austenitic stainless steels, when q gg y ,
cooled to cryogenic temperatures, will form alpha prime () martensite.
The ability to form alpha prime () martensite becomes more significant
during cooling after sensitization. M
23
C
6
precipitation at grain
boundaries causes depletion of chromium, carbon, and other alloying
elements in the vicinity of the grain boundaries. This leads to a higher
M
s
temperature, making the material more susceptible to the formation
f l h i ( ) t it l t i b d i d i li of alpha prime () martensite close to grain boundaries during cooling.
For epsilon () martensite no equations like above Equation are
reported reported.
The most frequent case of martensite formation at room temperature in
stainless steels is that of strain induced martensite
Stain-Induced Martensitic Transformation:
stainless steels is that of strain-induced martensite.
Widely used empirical equations that relate the M
d
temperature with the
chemical composition is:
M (30/50)(C) is the temperature at which 50 vol% is formed after a M
d
(30/50)( C) is the temperature at which 50 vol% is formed after a
true tensile strain of 30%. For the majority of austenitic stainless steels,
the M
d
temperature is above room temperature. For epsilon ()
martensite such empirical equations are not available. martensite such empirical equations are not available.
Susceptibility of the austenite to form martensite and the amount of
martensite formed increases with decreasing deformation temperature.
When stainless steels containing deformation-induced martensite are
annealed, the martensite may revert to austenite. This reversion usually
occurs at temperatures about 100 C lower and for shorter times than
those required for the recrystallization of the deformed stainless steel.
The formability of the austenitic alloys is influenced greatly by
martensitic transformation during straining.
HT of Ferritic Stainless Steels
HT of Ferritic Stainless Steels
Ferritic stainless steel ingots have a coarse grain size, are relatively
brittle, and should not be submitted to thermal shocks.
Cast plates are ground, slowly heated, and hot rolled into strips.
The hot rolled coils are then annealed slit and pickled The hot-rolled coils are then annealed, slit, and pickled.
Cold rolling, used to obtain intermediate gages, is followed by
recrystallization-annealing recrystallization annealing.
SOLUTION ANNEALING
Ferritic stainless steels are normally used only after solution annealing.
The solution-annealing temperature varies substantially according to the
steel type.
The first-generation steels are treated at lower temperatures, for
example, AISI 430 steel is treated in the 705 to 790 C temperature
range and the AISI 446 in the 760 to 830 C range. range and the AISI 446 in the 760 to 830 C range.
The second-generation steels are treated at somewhat higher
temperatures, for example, AISI 409 is treated in the 870 to 925 C
range.
The third-generation steels, such as the AISI 444, are treated at even
higher temperatures in the 955 to 1010 C range higher temperatures, in the 955 to 1010 C range.
Steels with higher chromium contents, such as the super-ferritic, should
be water cooled in order to avoid the 475 C embrittlement due to the
formation of intermetallic alpha prime () phase.
HT of Duplex Stainless Steels HT of Duplex Stainless Steels
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HT of Duplex Stainless Steels
Ferriticaustenitic stainless steels with a duplex microstructure can be
classified into two subgroups:
1 All ith l b t t (0 01 t% C 0 08 t%) f tl 1. Alloys with low-carbon content (0.01 wt% C 0.08 wt%), frequently
mechanically worked and heat treatable
2. Alloys with high-carbon content (0.3 wt% C 0.5 wt%), used in the
as-cast condition or after solution annealing.
Duplex steels of higher carbon content show lower toughness and ductility
b t h ll t i t but have an excellent wear resistance.
Duplex steels of lower carbon content have better formability and
weldability compared to ferritic stainless steels weldability compared to ferritic stainless steels.
Duplex stainless steels are susceptible to three types of embrittlement :
HT of Duplex Stainless Steels
1. Embrittlement caused by the presence of a carbide network,
particularly in the austenite, in alloys with higher carbon content
2 E b ittl t d b i it ti f th i t t lli h 2. Embrittlement caused by precipitation of the intermetallic -phase,
475 C embrittlement of ferrite
3. Embrittlement caused by precipitation of the -phase, particularly
in the ferrite
FIGURE: Schematic TTT diagram showing precipitation of sigma (), alpha prime (),
and other phases in duplex stainless steels.
Solution annealing is done at about 1050 C Cooling from the solution-
SOLUTION ANNEALING
Solution annealing is done at about 1050 C. Cooling from the solution-
annealing temperature should be sufficiently fast, generally into water, in
order to avoid precipitation (see schematic TTT diagram on previous
slide), especially the 475 C embrittlement due to intermetallic alpha slide), especially the 475 C embrittlement due to intermetallic alpha
prime () phase.
After welding, the solution-annealing treatment is recommended, followed
by proper cooling by proper cooling.
FIGURE: Ferrite brittle cleavage
fracture (475 C embrittlement)
caused by alpha prime () in a caused by alpha prime ( ) in a
duplex stainless steel. Scanning
electron microscopy with secondary
electrons. A=austenite; F=ferrite.
HT of Martensitic Stainless Steels
Martensitic stainless steels are essentially FeCrC alloys, containing
chromium in the range of 11.5 to 18 wt% and carbon in range of the 0.1
t 1 2 t% A h i l l i i d b l l h t i to1.2 wt%. As chromium level is increased, carbon level has to increase
also in order to stabilize austenite.
F th t iti t l it i f For the martensitic steels, it is, of
course, essential to form austenite
from which martensite is obtained
on cooling For example for a on cooling. For example, for a
complete austenitization, steels
containing 13 wt% chromium need
to have carbon content in excess of to have carbon content in excess of
0.15 wt% carbon and to be heated
to at least 950C. Steels containing
more chromium, say 27wt%, need , y ,
to have carbon content higher than
0.3 wt% carbon and to be heated to
at least 1100C. Apart from carbon.
both nitrogen and nickel expand
the -loop,
Other alloying elements frequently observed in martensitic stainless steels
are nickel and molybdenum. Nickel entitles the usage of lower carbon
contents and as a consequence higher toughness and corrosion contents and, as a consequence, higher toughness and corrosion
resistance may be obtained. For soft but tougher martensitic steels
containing lower carbon levels, nickel content may reach 5 wt%.
M l bd l i i i t i dditi t Molybdenum also improves corrosion resistance, in addition to
improvement in toughness. It must be remembered that corrosion
resistance in martensitic stainless steels is significantly lower compared to
other SS other SS.
Martensitic stainless steels may be subdivided into three subgroups: (a)
low-carbon steels for turbines; (b) medium-carbon steels for cutlery;
and (c) high-carbon wear-resistant steels.
The microstructure of each group is also characteristic: (a) martensitic
needle-like microstructure; (b) very fine martensitic microstructure; needle like microstructure; (b) very fine martensitic microstructure;
and (c) ultrafine martensitic microstructure containing primary
carbides, respectively.
(a)
(b) ( )
(c)
Higher carbon steels, such as the AISI 440C, or nickel containing,
such as the AISI 431, may present large amounts (more than 30% in
volume) of retained austenite after quenching. Depending on tempering o u e) o eta ed auste te a te que c g epe d g o te pe g
temperature and chemical composition, especially the Cr/C ratio, several
carbides may precipitate, such as the M
2
X, M
3
C, M
7
C
3
, M
23
C
6
, and MC
types.
FIGURE: AISI 410 martensitic
stainless steel, quenched and
tempered to 20 HRC. Microstructure of
FIGURE: AISI 420 martensitic
stainless steel. Microstructure of
tempered martensite with intergranular p
tempered martensite with fine-carbide
precipitates. Optical microscopy.
Etched with Villela.
p g
and intragranular precipitates. SEM
image using secondary electrons.
Etched with Villela.
martensite laths
retained austenite
Ref.:
As-quenched
AISI 440C
As-tempered
The Equilibrium Phase Diagram of
440C Steel
Ref.: International Journal of Mechanical and Materials
Engineering (IJMME), Vol. 4 (2009), No. 2, 123-126
Prior to final hardening and
tempering heat treatments,
martensitic stainless steels
are annealed in order to be
machined and cold worked.
S 10 For example, an AISI 410 is
annealed in the 750 to 900 C
temperature range for 2 to 4h
and furnace or air cooled At and furnace or air cooled. At
high temperatures, their
stable structure is austenitic
and at room temperature it and at room temperature it
is a stable mixture of ferrite
and carbide.
FIGURE: Continuous cooling transformation
diagram for AISI 410 steel.
Prior to their final usage, martensitic stainless steels are submitted to the
same heat treatment sequence as that for carbon steels, namely they are
austenitized hardened by quenching and tempered in order to improve austenitized, hardened by quenching, and tempered in order to improve
ductility and toughness.
The formation of a more stable (ferrite + carbides) microstructure is very ( ) y
sluggish and the tendency toward martensite formation (high
hardenability) is very high.
Therefore the majority of martensitic stainless steels form martensite on Therefore, the majority of martensitic stainless steels form martensite on
air cooling, even for sections that are up to about 300mm in thickness.
Hardening media may be air or oil.
While oil cooling is preferred in order to avoid carbide precipitation, air
cooling may be needed to avoid distortions in more complex sections.
M t i i l ibl i thi l f t l M t it Martempering is also possible in this class of steels. Martensite
hardness depends essentially on carbon content varying from about
35 HRC for a 0.1 wt% carbon to 60 HRC for 0.5 wt% carbon, thereon
increasing little for carbon higher than 0 5wt% increasing little for carbon higher than 0.5wt%.
For low-carbon martensitic steels, such as the AISI 410, the M
s
and M
f
temperatures are relatively high, 350 and 250 C, respectively, and
decrease with increasing carbon content. dec ease t c eas g ca bo co te t
High-carbon steels may present retained austenite (more than about 30
vol.%) and a subzero treatment around -75 C, immediately after
hardening, is recommended. Double tempering is also very common. hardening, is recommended. Double tempering is also very common.
Tempering temperature is determined by the required mechanical
properties.
FIGURE: Tempering
temperature effect on
mechanical properties
of AISI 410 steel of AISI 410 steel.
What is double tempering ?
Alloying elements have the greatest influence on the martensite
transformation temperature. This affects the amount of retained austenite
in alloy steel. Apart from the elements, like Co, etc, the majority of
l t d th t it i t (M ) d i th t f elements decrease the martensite point (M
s
) and increase the amount of
retained austenite in quenched steel. Up to 60% of retained austenite is
left in high-carbon steels during quenching and 1015% in a large number
of structural alloy steels of structural alloy steels.
During tempering of carbon and low-alloy steels, retained austenite
transforms over the temperature interval of 230280 C or at lower
temperatures if the holding time is extended. Alloying elements, especially
Cr and Si, inhibit that transformation, shifting it to higher temperatures and
longer tempering time. The transformation kinetics of retained austenite
d i t i i i il t th f d l d t it during tempering is similar to those of undercooled austenite.
When alloy steels are tempered at 500600 C in many cases the
What is double tempering ?
When alloy steels are tempered at 500600 C, in many cases the
transformation of retained austenite is not complete. The retained
austenite that did not precipitate at these tempering temperatures or
transforms during cooling from those temperatures (secondary t a s o s du g coo g o t ose te pe atu es (seco da y
quenching / double tempering). The phenomenon is most pronounced
in high-speed and high-chromium steels.
Th d t it t f ti d i li ft The secondary martensite transformation during cooling after
tempering is caused by the depletion of austenite in carbon and alloy
elements in the course of tempering. As a result, the temperature of
retained austenite M during cooling is increased retained austenite M
s
during cooling is increased.
Secondary quenching (double tempering) is also observed in structural
steels. It takes place if the primary quenching is accompanied by a partial p p y q g p y p
intermediate transformation leading to an increase in the carbon content
of austenite. During tempering at 500550 C, retained austenite with a
high content of carbon yields carbides intensively, and the martensite
transformation temperature M
s
increases. As a result, the secondary
martensite transformation takes place during cooling after tempering.
In high alloy steels for example high speed steels even a very long
What is double tempering ?
In high-alloy steels, for example high-speed steels, even a very long
tempering at high temperatures does not completely eliminate the retained
austenite. To obtain a full transformation, it is necessary to perform double
tempering Double tempering favors additional precipitation of special tempering. Double tempering favors additional precipitation of special
carbides and decreases the degree of austenite alloying. This causes
another increase in the transformation temperature M
s
.
Sometimes multiple tempering is required to realize the most complete
transformation of retained austenite.
What is double tempering ?
Assignment:
Find in literature/research-paper the example of double / triple tempering p p p p p g
and prepare a few page draft containing the following information:
Which steel (along with chemical composition) was studied in literature,
Brief, but detailed, heat-treatment cycle (draw the schematic HT cycle)
Information about microstructural changes (and change in properties, if
given in your referred literature) here, you can use your own given in your referred literature) here, you can use your own
text/summary (on the basis of your understanding of literature) and
micrographs, pictures etc.
Once the draft is ready, email me the soft copy of your draft. Take
printout of the draft and include those pages in you lab-experiment # 4.
Submission dead-line: within one week