Notes: States of Matter & Gas Laws

States:
There are three common states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Each state has some general traits which
all tyes of matter in this state follow.
Phases Characteristics:
!ensity Shae Thermal E"ansion #omressi$le
Solid %igh fi"ed &ery Little &ery Little
Liquid Medium ta'es shae of the container &ery Little &ery Little
Gas &E() Low ta'es shae of the container Lots &ery Easily
*hat determines a su$stance+s state of matter, There are three factors. The first to come to mind is
ro$a$ly temerature. -f you heat something e.entually it melts or $oils. The ne"t is not so o$.ious, the
ressure. /or e"amle, with a change in atmosheric ressure water $oils at a lower temerature in
!en.er than it does in San /rancisco. 0ro$a$ly the most imortant factor is what su$stance we are
tal'ing a$out. *ater $oils at a lot lower temerature than titanium.
Phase Diagram:
The hase diagram is a grahical tool used to determine what state of matter a su$stance will $e in a gi.en
temerature and ressure.
The hase diagram is a series of lines generated from actual e"erimental data. -n other words, someone
too' a su$stance and chec'ed its state at many different com$inations of temerature and ressure. They
chec'ed the state when the su$stance was at 1# and at 234 mm%g, then at 1# and 235 mm%g, then at
1# and 236 mm%g and so on. 7s you can see it would ta'e a while to chec' all the temerature8ressure
com$inations there are for any gi.en su$stance.
The lines on the hase diagram di.ide the three hases. -f you cross a line, a hysical rocess has
occurred.
Generally, heating a solid will cause it to melt to a liquid 9at the melting or free:ing oint;. #ontinued
heating 9to the $oiling oint; roduces a gas. /or most su$stances, at higher ressures, the free:ing
and $oiling oints are higher.
There are two secific areas of interest, the trile oint and the critical temerature. The trile oint
occurs at a secific temerature and ressure at which all three hases e"ist in equili$rium. *hen
o$ser.ing a su$stance at its trile oint it aears to $e $oiling free:ing and melting all at the same
time. <nce a$o.e the critical temerature, molecules are una$le to liquefy. Meaning no matter how
much ressure you aly, the molecules will remain a gas and will not reform a liquid until the
temerature is droed. The molecules are simly mo.ing too fast.
Phase Diagram for Water:
The same diagram for water shows the characteristic negati.e sloe on the solid=liquid equili$rium line,
which accounts for why water floats. The manner in which water forms its crystalline structure causes it
to e"and. %ence the liquid state is the most dense state. This causes ice to float.
Loo'ing at the grah uward from the temerature a"is one notices that increasing the ressure on a solid
will change it to a liquid, the oosite effect of what occurs on the first figure. *hen a hoc'ey layer
stes on to the ice, they aly a ressure to the ice and the ice melts. So, hoc'ey layers are not actually
s'ating on ice, $ut a thin layer of water they >ust melted $y standing on that ice.

Units of Gasses:
a$$re.iation name normal atmosheric ressure
torr Torricelli 234
mm%g millimeters of mercury 234
si ounds er square inch 5?.2
7tm atmosheres 5
@ar @ar 5.45
'0a 'iloascal 545.A61
in%g inches of mercury 6B.B
ft %
6
< feet of water AA
Nature of Gas Pressure:
The ressure of a gas is a measure of force alied o.er a gi.en area. /or e"amle, ounds er square
inch. The force $eing alied is due to the imact of gas articles on some o$>ect.
(ight this second, as you read these notes, $illions of gas articles C N6, <6, #<6, 7r, %6< C are slamming
into your eyes. )es, your eyes and all of the rest of your $ody. The air is acting in the same fashion that
water does when you su$merge yourself. )ou feel the water ressing you as you di.e deeer. )ou feel it
on your eardrums. Dust as you feel it when you come $ac' down a mountain, say Mt. %ood.
*hy do your ears hurt or feel uncomforta$le when tra.eling u and down mountains, There is air
ressing on your eardrums, so why are your
eardrums not constantly hurting, @ecause your
$ody equali:es the ressure. Normal atmosheric
ressure is 5?.2 si. This means that the air is
ressing on e.erything with a ressure of 5?.2 si.
)our eardrums are no e"cetion. )our $ody has
countered this $y alying a ressure of 5?.2 si in
the inside of your eardrums. This results in no net
ressure and your eardrum rests haily undistur$ed.
@ut when you dri.e u a mountain you get an
uncomforta$le feeling, may$e e.en ainful, why,
The ressure in your head is now greater than that
outside your head and your eardrum is ressing
outward. This stress to the drum is uncomforta$le,
for some it is e.en incaacitating. The EoingE of
your ears is your head equali:ing the ressure, which
as you tra.el u is some .alue less than 5?.2 si. 7s
you tra.el $ac' down the mountain your drums will
$e ressed in until your head can re=equali:e the ressure.
Evangelista Torricelli's Barometer:
The $arometer icture here was in.ented $y E.angelista Torricelli.
This was one of the first methods used to measure atmosheric
ressure, and it is still used today. Today, most instruments named
$arometers are not this large and contain no mercury, they wor' on
other rincials of hysics. @ut the name has $een alied to all
instruments used to measure atmosheric ressure.
The aaratus is set u $y ta'ing a tu$e filled with %g, lacing your
thum$ o.er the to, in.erting the tu$e and su$merging the oen end
in another container, a dish, also filled with %g. The %g in the tu$e
falls, lea.ing a .acuum at the to of the tu$e. @ut not all of the %g
drains out of the tu$e. *hat force is holding this dense liquid u
against gra.ity+s ull, 7ir ressure. Normal atmosheric ressure
will hold a column of %g 234 mm tall. This is one of our units listed
a$o.e for atmosheric ressureF it is equi.alent to the Torr,
o$.iously named after Torricelli.
Gas Las:
There are se.eral laws used to descri$e the $eha.ior of gasses. *hat follows are descritions of the most
imortant. There a$out G laws we will discuss. These laws we will $e discussing ressure, temerature,
.olume and moles or num$ers of gas articles.
*hen doing these ro$lems, 'ee in mind that there are only ? arameters to consider: 0, T, &, and n. /or
many of these ro$lems you will $e 'eeing two of the four arameters steady as you modify one of these
four and calculate that modification of the fourth arameter.
Bo!le's La:
This law defines the relationshi $etween ressure and .olume if temerature and amount of gas is held
constant. -f the .olume of a container is increased, the ressure decreases. -f the .olume of a container is
decreased, the ressure increases. The law is descri$ed $y the following equation:
05&5 H 06&6
E"amle: 7 samle of gas is in a 6.44 L contain at a ressure of 2?4.4 mm%g. *hat is the new ressure
of the samle if the container+s .olume is reduced to 5.61 L,
7nswer: This ro$lem is sol.ed $y inserting .alues into the gi.en equation:
92?4.4 mm%g; 96.44 L; H9I; 95.61 L;
Sol.ing for I will gi.e you a new ressure of 55G? mm%g.
Charles's La:
This law defines the relationshi $etween .olume and temerature if ressure and amount of articles are
held constant. -f the temerature of a gas is increased, the .olume of the gas will increase. -f the
temerature of a gas is decreased, the .olume of the gas will decrease. This is a direct relationshi. <ne
goes down, so does the other.
0icture the gas articles flying around inside a $alloon. -f you were to ut the $alloon in the free:er, the
gas articles would slow down, therefore they would not hit the $alloon walls as hard and the $alloon
would shrin' in si:e.
6
6
5
5
T
V
T
V
=
or &5T6 H &6T5
E"amle: 7 gas is collected and found to fill 6.G1 L at 61.4J#. *hat will $e its .olume at standard
temerature,
7nswer: #on.ert 61.4J# to Kel.in and you get 6BG K. Standard temerature is 62A K. *e lug into our
equation li'e this:
K
V
K
L
62A 6BG
G1 . 6
6
=
Sol.ing for the new .olume gi.es a .alue of 6.35 liters. The .olume has decreased as the temerature has
decrease.
Ga!"Lussac's La:
This law characteri:es the relationshi $etween ressure and temerature when .olume and amount are
held constant. -f the temerature of a container is increased, the ressure increases. -f the temerature of
a container is decreased, the ressure decreases. This is another e"amle of a direct relationshi. <ne
goes u, so does the other.
Thin' a$out this law in this manner, if the gas articles are mo.ing faster, as haens when the
temerature of a gas is increased, the force of the imact will increase. Therefore, increasing the
temerature will increase the ressure e"erted $y a gas.
E"amle: 54.4 L of a gas is found to e"ert B2.4 '0a at 61.4J#. *hat would $e the required temerature
9in #elsius; to change the ressure to standard ressure,
7nswer: #hange 61.4J# to 6BG.4 K and remem$er that standard ressure in '0a is 545.A61. -nsert .alues
into the equation and get:
The answer is A55.A K, $ut the question as's for #elsius, so you su$tract 62A to get the final answer of
AG.AJ#, $ut then you 'new that. (ight,
#voga$ro's La:
This law gi.es the relationshi $etween .olume and num$er of gas articles when ressure and
temerature are held constant. (emem$er the num$er is measured in moles. -f the amount of gas in a
container is increased, the .olume increases. -f the amount of gas in a container is decreased, the .olume
decreases. 7nother direct relationshi.
The .olume of a container holding a gas will increase with increasing num$ers of gas articles $ecause
there are more articles imacting the wall of the container.
E"amle: 7 1.44 L samle of a gas is 'nown to contain 4.B31 mol. -f the amount of gas in this container
is increased to 5.G4 mol, what new .olume will result 9at an unchanged temerature and ressure;,
7nswer:
&5n6 H &6n5
91.44 L; 95.G4 mol; H 9"; 94.B31 mol;
Com%ine$ Gas La:
To deri.e the #om$ined Gas Law, follow these stes:
Ste 5: *rite @oyleLs Law
05&5 H 06&6
Ste 6: Multily $y #harles+s Law
&5T6 H &6T5
05&5
6
8 T5 H 06&6
6
8 T6
Ste A: Multily $y Gay=LussacLs Law
05T6 H 06T5
05
6
&5
6
8 T5
6
H 06
6
&6
6
8 T6
6
Ste ?: Ta'e the square root to get the com$ined gas law:
05&5 8 T5 H 06&6 8 T6
7s a side note:
-f we include 7.ogadro+s Law the following equation is generated:
05&5 8 n5T5 H 06&6 8 n6T6
E"amle:
7 6.44 L samle of a gas is collected at 61.4J# and 2?1.4 mm%g. *hat is the .olume at ST0,
)ou ha.e to recogni:e that fi.e .alues are gi.en in the ro$lem and the si"th is the only un'nown. 7lso,
remem$er to change the #elsius temeratures to Kel.in.
*hen ro$lems li'e this are sol.ed it is .ery helful to write out all the .aria$les in the equation as shown
$elow:
Ne"t fill in the data gi.en in the ro$lem. %ere is the right=hand side filled in with the ST0 .alues:
)ou can $e retty sure that the term EST0E will aear in these tyes of ro$lems. - recommend you
memori:e these standard conditions.
%ere are all the gi.en .alues:
-nsert the .alues in their roer laces in the com$ined gas law equation:
05&5 8 T5 H 06&6 8 T6
and sol.e for ".
P& ' n(T: The )$eal Gas La:
The deri.ation of this law is a lot of math. So, - will >ust gi.e you the equation and e"amles of how to
use it.
0& H n(T
The Numerical &alue for (:
(Ls .alue can $e determined many ways. This is >ust one way:
*e will assume we ha.e 5.444 mol of a gas at ST0. The .olume of this amount of gas under the
conditions of ST0 is 'nown to a high degree of recision. *e will use the .alue of 66.?5? L.
@y the way, 66.?5? L at ST0 has a name. -t is called molar .olume. -t is the .olume of 7N) ideal gas at
standard temerature and ressure. 7s far as you are concerned, all the gasses we discuss will $eha.e as
ideal gasses. So, if you ha.e a samle of gas containing 3.466 " 54
6A
gas article, this samle of gas will
ha.e a .olume of 66.?5? L, or a$out 1 gallons. Thin' a$out an o$>ect that is 1 gallons. - icture an office
water cooler $ottle, or a one of those L7(GE $uc'ets of aint.
LetLs lug our num$ers into the equation:
95.444 atm; 966.?5? L; H 95.444 mol; 9(; 962A.51 K;
Notice how atmosheres were used as well as the e"act .alue for standard temerature.
Sol.ing for ( gi.es 4.4G643 L atm 8 mol K, when rounded to four significant figures. This is usually
enough. (emem$er the .alue. )ouLll need it for ro$lem sol.ing.
Notice the weird unit on (. Say out loud Eliter atmosheres er mole Kel.in.E
This is not the only .alue of ( that can e"ist. -t deends on which units you select. Those of you that ta'e
more chemistry or hysics will most li'ely meet u with G.A5?1 Doules er mole Kel.in, $ut thatLs for
another course. *e will only use the 4.4G643 .alue in gas=related ro$lems.
E"amle: 7 samle of gas with a mass of 6.5461 grams is found to occuy a .olume of 6.G14 L at 66.4J#
at a ressure of 2?4.4 mm%g. %ow many moles of the gas are resent,
Notice that the units for ressure MMST $e in atm., so the 2?4.4 mm %g must $e con.erted first.
2?4.4 mm %g N 234.4 mm %g8atm H 4.B2A2 atm
%owe.er, the unrounded=off .alue should $e used in the calculation >ust $elow.
Now, lug into the equation:
94.B2A2 atm; 96.G14 L; H 9n; 94.4G643 L atm 8 mol K; 96B1.4 K;
and sol.e for n H 4.551 mol
E"amle: Msing the ro$lem a$o.e, what is the molar mass of the gas,
This is a .ery common use of this law and the odds are .ery good you will see this tye of question on a
test.
The 'ey is to remem$er the units on molar mass: grams er mole.
*e 'now from the ro$lem statement that 6.5461 grams of the gas is in.ol.ed and we also 'now how
many moles that is.
*e 'now that from doing the calculation a$o.e and getting 4.55?3 mol.
So all we ha.e to do is di.ide the grams of gas $y how many moles it is:
6.5461 g N 4.55?3 mol H 5G.A? g8mol
*ith a molar mass of 5G.A? g er mol can you ma'e an educated guess as to what gas this might $e,
LetLs go o.er those stes for using the -deal Gas Law to calculate the molar mass of the gas:
5. )ou ha.e to 'now the grams of gas in.ol.ed. Msually the ro$lem will >ust gi.e you the .alue, $ut
not always. )ou might ha.e to calculate it.
6. )ou are going to ha.e to calculate the moles of gas. Mse 0& H n(T and sol.e for n. Ma'e sure to use
L, atm and K.
A. !i.ide grams $y moles and thereLs your answer.
Dalton's La of Partial Pressures:
/or any ure gas 9letLs use helium; 0& H n(T holds true. Therefore, 0 is directly roortional to n if &
and T remain constant. 7s n goes u, so would 0. <r the re.erse.
Suose you were to dou$le the moles of helium gas resent. *hat would haen,
7nswer: the gas ressure dou$les.
%owe.er, suose the new quantity of gas added was a !-//E(ENT gas. Suose that, instead of helium,
you added neon.
*hat would haen to the ressure,
7nswer: the ressure dou$les, same as $efore.
!altonLs Law immediately follows from this e"amle since each gas is causing 14O of the ressure.
Summing their two ressures gi.es the total ressure.
*ritten as an equation, it loo's li'e this:
0%e P 0Ne H 0total
!altonLs Law of 0artial 0ressures: Each gas in a mi"ture creates ressure as if the other gases were not
resent. The total ressure is the sum of the ressures created $y the gases in the mi"ture. 0total H 05 P 06 P
0A P .... P 0n
*here n is the total num$er of gases in the mi"ture.
The only necessity is that the two gases do not interact in some chemical fashion, such as reacting with
each other.
The ressure each gas e"erts in mi"ture is called its artial ressure.
E"amle:
7 container holds three gases: o"ygen, car$on dio"ide, and helium. The artial ressures of the three
gases are 6.44 atm, A.44 atm, and ?.44 atm, resecti.ely. *hat is the total ressure inside the container,
0T H 0<6 P 0#<6 P 0%e
0T H 6 atm P A atm P ? atm H B atm
Graham's La:
#onsider samles of two different gases at the same Kel.in temerature.
Since temerature is roortional to the 'inetic energy of the gas molecules, the 'inetic energy 9KE; of
the two gas samles is also the same.
-n equation form, we can write: KE5 H KE6
Since KE H 9586; m.
6
, 9m H mass and . H .elocity; we can write the following equation:
m5.5
6
H m6.6
6
Note that the .alue of one=half cancels out.
The equation a$o.e can $e rearranged alge$raically into the following:
The square root of 9m5 8 m6; H .6 8 .5
)ou may wish to assure yourself of the correctness of this rearrangement.
7nother way you may see this written is:
5
6
6
5
MM
MM
(ate
(ate
=
(ate5 of gas 5
(ate6 of gas 6
MM5 molar mass of gas 5
MM6 molar mass of gas 6
This last equation is the modern way of stating GrahamLs law.
This is a good way to determine the ratio of the s*ee$s of the gasses.
This will tell you which gas will ma'e it through a small hole quic'er, i.e. the small holes you find in a
$alloon. /or e"amle, which gas will lea.e the $alloon quic'er,
)ntermolecular +orces:
-ntermolecular forces are the forces of attractions that e"ist $etween molecules in a comound. These
cause the comound to e"ist in a certain state of matter, solid, liquid or gas, and affect the melting and
$oiling oints of comounds as well as the solu$ilities of one su$stance in another.
The melting oint of a comound is the temerature at which a comound turns from a solid to a liquid or
a liquid to a solid.
The $oiling oint of a comound is the temerature at which a comound turns from a liquid to a gas or a
gas to a liquid. This temerature is a true measure of the forces of attractions $etween molecules as
molecules searate from one another when they turn from a liquid to a gas.
The stronger the attractions $etween articles, the more difficult it will $e to searate the articles. *hen
su$stances melt, the articles are still close to one another $ut the forces of attraction that held the
articles rigidly together in the solid state ha.e $een sufficiently o.ercome to allow the articles to mo.e.
*hen su$stances $oil, the articles are comletely searated from one another and the attractions $etween
molecules are comletely o.ercome and the articles float away as a gas. The energy required to cause
su$stances to melt and to $oil, and thus disrut the forces of attraction, comes from the en.ironment
surrounding the material. -f you lace a iece of ice in your hand, the ice will melt more quic'ly than if it
is laced on a cold counter to. The energy required to melt the ice comes from your hand, your hand
gets colder and the ice gets warmer.
Loo' at the ta$le of melting oints and $oiling oints for the halogens, shown $elow.
Melting 0oints and @oiling 0oints of Similar Su$stances with -ncreasing /ormula *eights
SM@ST7N#E /* 9g8mole; m 9
o
#; $ 9
o
#;
/6 AG =664 =5GG
#l6 25 =544.BG =A?.3
@r6 534 =2.6 1G.2G
-6 61? 55A.1 5G?.A1
7s the si:e of the halogens increases, the melting and $oiling oints increase. The energy required to
mo.e and searate the molecules from one another increases as the si:e of the molecules increases. More
massi.e molecules ha.e more inertia, which must first $e o.ercome $efore the molecules can $e
searated.
-f it ta'es more energy to searate the molecules, the attractions $etween molecules must $e greater. The
tyes of intermolecular forces resonsi$le for the increase in melting oints and $oiling oints of these
non=olar co.alent comounds are called disersion forces also named London forces.
Now loo' at the ta$le $elow:
Melting 0oints and @oiling 0oints of Su$stances with Similar /ormula *eights
SM@ST7N#E /* 9g8mole; m 9
o
#; $ 9
o
#;
/6 AG =664 =5GG
N< A4 =53? =516
#%A<% A6 =B? 31
#a ?4 GBA 5?G?
Na/ ?6 BBA 53B1
7ll the su$stances in this ta$le ha.e similar formula masses, thus they ha.e similar disersion forces. -f
the only attractions $etween su$stances ha.e to do with si:e, then they should ha.e similar melting oints
and $oiling oints. They do not. Let+s loo' more closely at the nature of the su$stance to see if we can
relate the structure of the material with its roerties.
+luorine an$ Nitrogen ,ono-i$e:
/luorine and nitrogen mono"ide are similar in si:e and therefore ha.e similar disersion forces. /luorine
is a non=olar co.alent molecule while nitrogen mono"ide is a olar co.alent moleculeF it has an o.erall
diole. Since nitrogen mono"ide has the higher melting oint and $oiling oint, it must ha.e the stronger
intermolecular forces. Gi.en the same si:e, olar co.alent molecules must ha.e stronger forces of
attraction than non=olar co.alent molecules. These forces of attractions are called $i*ole"$i*ole forces.
Nitrogen ,ono-i$e an$ ,ethanol:
Nitrogen mono"ide and methanol are similar in si:e and thus ha.e similar disersion forces. Nitrogen
mono"ide and methanol are olar co.alent molecules and thus ha.e diole=diole forces. Since methanol
has the higher melting oint and $oiling oint, it must ha.e the stronger intermolecular forces. The
difference in these molecules is the resence of a certain e"tremely olar $ond resent in methanol that is
not resent in nitrogen mono"ide. This is the hydrogen $ond or %=$ond, formed $etween the o"ygen and
hydrogen.
<"ygen is more electronegati.e than hydrogen and ulls the electrons to the o"ygen, away from the
hydrogen. The o"ygen is now holding a artial negati.e charge. The hydrogen is left with .ery little
electron density, and since hydrogen has no core electrons, a large artial ositi.e charge de.elos.
The lac' of electrons around the hydrogen lea.es the nucleus relati.ely $are. 7s the nucleus is ositi.ely
charged it is attracted to the lone airs of electrons on the o"ygen.
This interaction of a non=$onding air with a hydrogen attached to an electronegati.e element such as
o"ygen is called a hydrogen $ond. <ther elements that may hydrogen $ond include nitrogen and the
halogens.
Calcium an$ So$ium +luori$e:
7 large >um in melting oints and $oiling oints is o$ser.ed when we turn from co.alent comounds to
metals and ionic comounds. @oth metals and ionic comounds in.ol.e the interaction of articles with
full charges.
Metals: Metal ions interact with the sea of electrons that surround them. This attraction must $e
.ery strong as the melting oint and $oiling oint of calcium is much higher than the co.alent
comounds which share a similar formula mass.
-onic #omounds: Su$stances which $ear full charges, anions and cations, are attracted .ery
strongly as e.idenced $y the melting oint and $oiling oint of sodium fluoride. /ull charges are
much more difficult to searate then artial charges.
The tyes of interactions resonsi$le for the e"tremely high melting and $oiling oints of metals and ionic
comound are called electrostatic forces and are the strongest of all the intermolecular forces.
-ntermolecular /orces <.er.iew:
-onic #omounds and Metals:
Electrostatic forces = these forces occur $etween charged secies and are resonsi$le for the e"tremely
high melting and $oiling oints of ionic comounds and metals.
#o.alent #omounds:
!isersion forces = all molecules ha.e the caa$ility to form London forces. These are solely deendent
on the surface area and the olari:a$ility of the surface of the molecule. These are the only tyes of forces
that non=olar co.alent molecules can form. They result from the mo.ement of the electrons in the
molecule which generates temorary ositi.e and negati.e regions in the molecule.

!iole=diole forces = only olar co.alent molecules ha.e the a$ility to form diole=diole attractions
$etween molecules. 0olar co.alent molecules act as little magnetsF they ha.e ositi.e ends and negati.e
ends which attract each other.
%ydrogen $onding = these occur $etween olar co.alent molecules that ossess a hydrogen $onded to an
e"tremely electronegati.e element, secifically = N, < and the halogens.
&a*or Pressure.Eva*oration:
&aor ressure is the ressure of the .aor o.er a liquid 9and some solids, &ic'+s &aor (u$; at
equili$rium.
Now, what does that definition mean, -Lm going to go through some e"lanation stes that, hoefully,
gi.e you a correct idea of .aor ressure.
5. -magine an air tan', li'e the one $elow, of se.eral liters in si:e. -t has rigid walls and is totally emty
of all su$stances.
6. Now, - in>ect some liquid into the tan', $ut - do not fill the tan' with liquid. *hat will haen to the
liquid,
A. ThatLs right. Some, may$e all, of the liquid will e.aorate into gas, filling the emty sace. Now if all
the liquid e.aorates, we >ust ha.e a tan' of gas. ThatLs not what we want. So letLs suose that only
some of the liquid e.aorated and that there are $oth the liquid state and the gas state resent in the
tan'.
The gas that is a$o.e the liquid is called its .aor and it creates a ressure called .aor ressure.
*hat - mean is, suose you attached a ressure gauge to the tan', would a gas ressure $e recorded,
The answer is )ESQ
%owe.er, here is a 'ey oint. The .aor must $e in contact with the liquid at all times. (emo.e the liquid
and you >ust ha.e a $o" of gasF you do not ha.e .aor or .aor ressure.
LetLs emhasi:e this ointQQQQ /or .aor ressure to e"ist, the .aor 9gas hase; MMST $e in hysical
contact with the liquid 9or solid; it came from. )ou #7NLT ha.e .aor ressure without two hases $eing
resent and in contactQQQQQQ
%ow is .aor ressure created, 7nother way to ut it = how do molecules of the liquid $ecome molecules
of gas,
Each molecule in the liquid has energy, $ut not the same amount. The energy is distri$uted according to
the Ma"well=@olt:mann distri$ution. E.en if you donLt 'now what that is, the oint is that some
molecules ha.e a fairly large amount of energy comared to the a.erage. Those are the ones we are
interested in.
*e are ES0E#-7LL) interested if one of these high energy molecules haens to $e sitting right at the
surface of the water. Now, all the molecules are in motion $ecause of their energy, $ut none ha.e
sufficient energy to $rea' the mutual attracti.e force molecules ha.e for each other. Suose that our
surface molecule was mo.ing u away from the surface 7N! had enough energy to $rea' away from the
attracti.e forces of the molecules around it.
*here would that molecule go, -t would continue to mo.e away from the liquid surface 7N! -T
@E#<MES 7 M<LE#MLE </ G7S. This is great $ecause we are now ma'ing some .aor ressure. -t
haens to another molecule and another and another.
@ut waitQ The .aor ressure stos going u and winds u staying at some fi"ed .alue. *hatLs going on,
%ereLs the answer, - hoe you can handle itQ
7s more and more molecules LE7&E the surface, what do some start to do, ThatLs right, some (ETM(N
to the surface and resume their former life as a liquid molecule. Soon the num$er of molecules in the
.aor hase is constant $ecause the rate of returning equals the rate of lea.ing and so the ressure stays
constant.
This image is my attemt to summari:e this rocess. -Lll ut it here without comment:
/actors that will affect .aor ressure:
5. Temerature of the su$stance
6. The secific su$stance you are studying
5. -f you the temerature you R the 'inetic energy of the gas articles R seed at which these
articles are mo.ing, then the article has a $etter chance of $rea'ing free of the liquid.
6. !ifferent su$stances ha.e different intensities of self=attraction. The name for these attraction forces
are intermolecular forces.
/eating Diagram:
This diagram deicts the cur.e of temerature .erses time of a gi.en su$stance. Starting with a solid that
is melted into a liquid that is $oiled to a .aor. 7s heat is added this is the shae of the cur.e generated.
/lat lines are due to intermolecular forces $eing $ro'en, solid ice turning to liquid water, liquid water
$eing turned into steam. <nce $oiling $egins the temerature remains fi"ed at the $oiling oint until all
of the liquid is con.erted to gas. Thus, at the $oiling oint liquid and gas coe"ist in equili$rium.
Similarly, solid and liquid coe"ist in equili$rium at the melting or $oiling oint.
The angled lines are where the temerature is rising in a gi.en hase. So, flat lines indicate a hase
change is occurring and angled lines indicate no hase change.
The first angled line is the rising of temerature of a solid. <nce the melting temerature has $een
reached, the line $ecomes flat and a hase change $egins. The energy needed for this to occur is called
the %eat of /usion and is defined as that amount of heat needed to melt a secific mass of a secific
su$stance. -f this cur.e were a cooling cur.e the line would $e called the %eat of Solidification, defined
as that amount of heat gi.en off a secific mass of a secific su$stance when it free:es. )es, free:ing is
e"othermic. -t usually gets warmer right when it $egins to snow.
The second angled line is the rising of temerature of a liquid. <nce the $oiling or .aori:ation has $een
reached, the line again $ecomes flat, indicating a hase change is occurring. The energy needed for this to
occur, the %eat of &aori:ation, is that amount of heat needed to .aori:e a secific mass of a secific
su$stance. -f this cur.e were a cooling cur.e the line would $e called the %eat of #ondensation, defined
as that amount of heat gi.en off a secific mass of a secific su$stance when it condenses. )es,
condensing is e"othermic. -t usually gets warmer right when it $egins to rain.
# Detaile$ /eating Curve for Water:
The following equation is used to calculate the amount of heat needed during a hase change of secific
su$stance. The hase change can $e melting or free:ing or it can $e .aori:ation or condensation. The
amount of heat needed for melting is the same as that gi.en off in free:ing. Li'ewise, the amount of heat
needed for .aori:ation is the same as that gi.en off in condensation.
The equation will ta'e the form of one of the following:
S H m T %.a heat H mass heat of .aori:ation
S H m T %cond heat H mass heat of condensation
S H m T %fus heat H mass heat of fusion
S H m T %sol heat H mass heat of solidification
*ould it ta'e more heat to melt 54 grams of solid water, ice or .aori:e 54 grams of liquid water, Loo'
at the lengths of the flat lines on the a$o.e lot.
-t ta'es more heat to $oil something than it does to melt it. Thin' a$out water on the sto.eto and an ice
cu$e on the counter. 0lus, loo' at the %eat of &aori:ation & %eat of /usionF the %eat of /usion is G4
cal8gram and the %eat of &aori:ation is 1?4 cal8g.
E"amle:
%ow much heat would it ta'e to melt 61 grams of solid water,
S H 61 grams G4 cal8gram H 6444 cal
E"amle:
%ow much heat would it ta'e to .aori:e 61 grams of liquid water,
S H 61 grams 1?4 cal8gram H 5A144 cal
Longer 0ro$lem: Start from ice go to steam.