MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Physis
!"#$
Pro%&em So&'in( Session ) Co&&isions So&*tions
+eferene Frames
There are many problems involving conservation of momentum in which the
analysis is easier depending on your choice of reference frame. In the notes that follow
we describe how velocities of objects are related in different reference frames and in
particular describe the center of mass reference frame.
Let
+
r
be the vector from the origin of a reference frame

S to the origin of a
second reference frame

. Denote the position vector of particle i with respect to the
origin of reference frame

S by
i
r
r
and similarly, denote the position vector of particle i
with respect to the origin of reference frame

by
i

r
(Figure !.
Fi(*re $ "osition vector of
th
i particle in two reference frames.
The position vectors are related by
i i
= +
r
r r
.
The relative velocity between the two reference frames is given by
d
dt
=

r
r
.
#hen the relative velocity between the two reference frames is constant then the relative
acceleration between the two reference frames is $ero,
d
dt
= =

0
r
r r
,
#hen %&. is satisfied, the reference frames

S and

are called relatively inertial
reference frames.
'uppose the
th
i particle in Figure is moving( then observers in different
reference frames will measure different velocities. Denote the velocity of
th
i particle in
frame

S by

r
'
i
=

/ , and the velocity of the same particle in frame

by

r

/ . 'ince the derivative of the position is velocity, the velocities of the particles
in two different reference frames are related according to
i i
= +
r
r r
.
This relation is called the law of addition of velocities and is the primary tool that we will
use when we describe velocities in different reference frames.
E,amp&e- 'uppose a cart has velocity

r
. =

with respect to the ground. Let

S denote a
reference frame fi)ed to the ground and let

denote the reference frame moving with
velocity

r
. =

with respect to the ground. In

the cart is at rest. 'uppose aball is
thrown from the cart with velocity

r
=

relative to the cart. Then the velocity of the

ball relative to the ground reference frame

S is

r
* =

+

=

= ( )

.
Center of Mass +eferene Frame
*onsider a system of

N particles. Let

r
+
cm
be the vector from the origin of a
reference frame

S to the center of mass of the system of particles. Let

r
r
j
denote the
position of the

j
th particle. +ecall the definition of the position of the center of mass


r
+
cm
=

=1
=

=1
=

=
1

=1
=

where

m
T
=

=1
=
is the mass of the system. The velocity of the center of mass is given
by

r
.
cm
=
1

=1
=

where

r
'
j
is the velocity of the

j
th particle with respect to reference frame

S . *hoose
the center of mass to be the origin of reference frame

S
cm
, called the center of mass
reference frame. Denote the position vector of particle

i with respect to origin of
reference frame

S by

r
r
i
and similarly, denote the position vector of particle

i with
respect to origin of reference frame

S
cm
by

r
r
cm,i
(Figure ,!.
Fi(*re / "osition vector of

i
th
particle in the center of mass reference frame.
The position vector of particle

i in the center of mass frame is then given by

r
r
cm,i
=

.
The velocity of particle

i in the center of mass reference frame is then given by

r
'
cm,i
=

.
IC01#!D23$ Gro*p Pro%&em- +ai&roa4 G*n
A railroad gun of mass

m

fires a shell of mass

m
,
at an angle of with respect to
the horizontal as measured in a reference frame moving with the final velocity of the
gun

r
'
f
after the shell has been fired. After the firing is complete, the final speed of
the projectile relative to the gun (muzzle velocity) is

r

2
(with speed

u =


2
!. The
gun recoils with speed

v
f
=

1
and the instant the projectile leaves the gun, it
makes an angle

with respect to the ground.

Solution:
So&*tion-
a) What is the velocity,

r
'
,
, of the projectile with respect to the ground?
The projectile is shot at an angle with respect to the horizontal as measured relative to
the gun. Therefore the velocity of the projectile relative to the gun is given by

2
=

+

.
After the firing is complete, the gun is moving relative to the ground with velocity

r
'
f
=

. The velocity,

r
'
,
, of the projectile with respect to the ground is given by

r
'
,
=


2
+

1
=

+

= (

.
b) Find

v
f
and

in terms of

m

,

m
,
,

u , and .
The final momentum of the projectile according to the observer on the ground is

r
p
,
=
2

2
=
2
((

+

)
.
There are no external forces in the

x -direction, so the

x -component of the momentum of
the system is constant. Therefore we have

. =
,1
+
,2
=
1

+
2
(

)
.
We can solve Equation for the final speed of the gun as measured by the observer on the
ground,

v
f
=

2

1
+
2
.
Therefore we can find the final velocity of the ball relative to the ground by substituting
%&. into %&. yielding

r
'
,
=

1

1
+
2

.
Note that the

y
-component of the momentum is not constant because as the gun fires the
projectile the normal force that the ground exerts on the gun exceeds the gravitational
force, and so the net external force in the
y
-direction is non-zero.
The angle

that the projectile ma/es with ground as seen by the observer on the ground
is given by

tan =
1
(
,2
/
,2
) =
1
(
1
+
2
)

?
?
?
?
?
?
.
From %&uation ,

> 0
( the observer on the ground sees the projectile moving closer to
the vertical. 0otice that this result is independent of the mu$$le speed
u
.
IC01#!D23/ Gro*p Pro%&em He&i*m3Lithi*m Co&&ision-
This pro%&em is on pset 5 an4 is a 4iffi*&t pro%&em so 6e 6i&& (et yo* starte4 to4ay"
1 thin target of lithium is bombarded by helium nuclei of energy
.
E
. The lithium nuclei
are initially at rest in the target but are essentially unbound. #hen a helium nucleus
enters a lithium nucleus, a nuclear reaction can occur in which the compound nucleus
splits apart into a boron nucleus and a neutron. The collision is inelastic, and the final
/inetic energy is less than
.
E
by
,.2 3e4
. (
5 -6
3e47. e47.5 . 8 !. The relative
masses of the particles are9 helium, mass : ( lithium, mass ; ( boron mass .( neutron,
mass . The reaction can be symboli$ed
; : .
Li < =e > n ,.2 3e4 + .
Let?s consider only the outgoing particles, boron and neutrons that are moving along the
same line as the initial helium nucleus, (call this the
x
-direction!.
a! Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in a reference frame in
which the target lithium nucleus is initially at rest.
b! #hat is the center of mass velocity of the system of lithium and helium@ Does
this velocity change due to the collision@
1nswer9

r
.
cm
=
(

=
4

4 + 7
=
4
11

There are no e)ternal forces so the velocity of the center of mass remains constant.
e! Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in a reference frame
moving with the velocity of center of mass. #hat are the velocities of the helium
nucleus and the lithium in the center of mass reference frame@ #hat is the
momentum of the system in the center of mass reference frame@
1nswer9 The velocity of the helium in the center of mass reference frame is given by

r
'
cm, He
=

4
11

=
7
11

.
The velocity of the lithium in the center of mass reference frame is given by

r
'
cm, Li
=

=
4
11

.
The momentum of the system in the center of mass reference frame is $ero.

r
p
cm, He
+

,
= 4
7
11

7
4
11

=

0 .
>elow threshold energy necessary to create the boron and neutron the helium and lithium
just bounce off. The momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in a reference
frame moving with the velocity of center of mass for that case are shown below.
c! The minimum initial /inetic energy necessary for the reaction to ta/e place is called
the threshold energy,
.,threshold
E
. Draw a momentum diagram for the initial and final
states in the center of mass reference frame when the initial /inetic energy of the
incident particles is at the threshold energy (/eep in mind the lithium target is also
moving in the center of mass reference frame!. =int9 #hat are the velocities of the
outgoing particles at threshold@
1nswer. 1t the threshold the energy is just enough to create the boron and the neutron
so they are at rest in the center of mass reference frame.
d! #rite down e&uations for conservation of energy and momentum in the center of
mass frame when the initial /inetic energy of the incident particles is at the
threshold energy. #hat is the threshold energy in the center of mass reference
frame@
1nswer9 3omentum is $ero.

r
# =

,
+

,
=

,
+

,
=

0
.
The boron and neutron are at rest at threshold energy. The incident /inetic energy is
just e&ual to the energy necessary to create the boron and neutron which is
,.2 3e4
.

,
(:m!v
cm, He
,
+
1
2
(7)
,
2
=
0,
= 2.8 .
e! Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in the center of mass
reference frame when the initial /inetic energy of the incident particles lies in the
range
.,threshold . .,threshold
..,; 3e4 E E E < < +
. =ow many possible final states are
there@ (=int9 #hich way is the neutron moving@!
1nswer9 The momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in the center of mass
reference frame when the boron and neutron have non-$ero /inetic energy above
threshold are shown below. There are two possible final states corresponding to the two
possible directions of the neutron and boron.
f! Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in which the target is
initially at rest for the case of part e!. =ow many possible final states are there@
(=int9 #hich way is the neutron moving@!
1nswer9 There are two final states9 state (a! corresponding to a slow neutron moving in
the positive
x
-direction( and state (b! corresponding to a slow neutron moving in the
positive
x
-direction.
g! #hat is the initial /inetic energy of the helium in this reference frame at
threshold@ =ow many possible final states are there@ (=int9 #hich way is the
neutron moving@!
1nswer9 #e have already determined that

v
cm, He
= (7 / 11)

and

v
cm, Li
= (4 / 11)

.
Therefore the initial /inetic energy in the center of mass reference frame at threshold is

K
cm,i
=
1
2
(4)
,
2
+
1
2
(7)
,
2
=
1
2
(4)
49
121

2
+
1
2
(7)
16
121

2
=
1
2
(4)

2
49
121
+
28
121

=
1
2
(4)

2
7
11
.
0ote that the incident /inetic energy in lab frame is

K
lab,i
=
1
2
(4)

2
.
Therefore

K
cm,i
=
1
2
(4)

2
7
11
=
7
11

.
= 2.8
#e set this e&ual to the threshold energy of
,.2 3e4
in order to determine the incident
/inetic energy at threshold in the lab reference frame

;

K
lab.i
= 2.8 .
Thus

K
lab.i
= 4.4 ; ()