Submitted by: -

Ashwini kumar
11015002711
CSE - II

PROJECT REPORT


OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
AT
AIPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA

1



2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


It was a great privilege for me to get my training at Air Traffic
Control (ATC) under the Airports Authority of India (AAI).

This report describes the training that I underwent, in the month of
July 2013 at Air Traffic Control (ATC) under Airport Authority of
India (AAI).It was completed, keeping in mind the course curriculum
as per the university requirements.

I would like to express our sincere gratitude to the all the people who
have helped and supported us throughout. We are deeply indebted to
Mr. S.K Tomar for organizing our training program, efficiently and
providing us valuable resources and also for their cooperation and
willingness to share their expertise and knowledge and to devote their
precious time to discuss related topics. We would also like to thank
Mr. Anshul Ranjan, Mr. Anup (NAV AIDS unit), Mr. Abhishek, Mr.
SK Sharma (Automation Unit / Assistant manager), and Mrs. Renu
Singh (VHF unit / Manager) for giving us an opportunity to get a
training exposure at their units. In the last but not the least us grateful
appreciation is also extended to our fellow batch-mates for their
support in developing this project.

The help and co-operation extended by the staff of ATC is fully
acknowledged. We thoroughly enjoyed our entire training program
and would like to thank everyone at ATC for their guidance and
support.
3

CONTENTS

S. No TOPIC PAGE No.
1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1
2 INTRODUCTION 3
3 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 3
4 ICAO 4
5 ORGANISATIONS 5
6 ATM 6
7 ATS ORG.

7
8 NAV AIDS 9
9 Overview 9
10 Localizer 11
11 Localizer working 12
12 Glide path 13
13 Glide path working 14
14 DME 15
15 Marker 17
16 NDB 18
17 VOR 19
18 CVOR & DVOR

20
19 AUTOMATION SYSTEM 21
20 Functional subsystem 24
21 System description 25
22 Brief description 26
23 Packet switching 29
24 RADAR 31

25 VHF 37
26 Modulation 42
27 DVR 44
28 SECURITY EQUIPMENTS 45

4

INTRODUCTION

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers
who direct aircraft on the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC
systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and
expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other support for
pilots when able. In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense
role (as in the United States), or be run entirely by the military (as in Brazil).
In addition to its primary function, the ATC can provide additional services
such as providing information to pilots, weather and navigation information and
NOTAMs (Notices to Airmen).
In many countries, ATC services are provided throughout the majority of
airspace, and its services are available to all users (private, military, and
commercial).

AIRSPACE
Airspace means the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a particular country
on top of its territory and territorial waters or, more generally, any specific
three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere.
Controlled airspace exists where it is deemed necessary that air
traffic control has some form of positive executive control over
aircraft flying in that airspace.
Uncontrolled airspace is airspace in which air traffic control does not
exert any executive authority, although it may act in an advisory
manner.

Airspace may be further subdivided into a variety of areas and zones,
including zones where there are either restrictions on flying activities or
complete prohibition of flying activities.
By international law, the notion of a country's sovereign airspace corresponds with
the maritime definition of territorial waters as being 12 nautical miles (22.2 km)
5

out from a nation's coastline. Airspace not within any country's territorial limit is
considered international, analogous to the "high seas" in maritime law.
However, a country may, by international agreement, assume responsibility for
controlling parts of international airspace, such as those over the oceans. For
instance, the United States provides air traffic control services over a large part
of the Pacific Ocean, even though the airspace is international. However, there
is no international agreement on the vertical extent of sovereign airspace.
Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue
instructions that pilots are required to follow, or merely flight information (in
some countries known as advisories) to assist pilots operating in the airspace. In
all cases, however, the pilot in command has final responsibility for the safety
of the flight, and may deviate from ATC instructions in an emergency.
Air traffic controllers are people who operate the air traffic control system to
expedite and maintain a safe and orderly flow of air traffic and help prevent
mid-air collisions. They apply separation rules to keep each aircraft apart from
others in their area of responsibility and move all aircraft safely and efficiently
through their assigned sector of airspace. Because controllers have a
demonstrably large responsibility while on duty, the ATC profession is often
regarded as one of the most difficult jobs today, and can be notoriously
stressful.

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION
(ICAO)
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an agency of the United
Nations, codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation
and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure
safe and orderly growth. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier
International of Montreal, Canada.
The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air
navigation, its infrastructure, Flight inspection, prevention of unlawful
interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international
civil aviation. In addition, the ICAO defines the protocols for air accident
investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to
the Convention on International Civil Aviation, commonly known as the
Chicago Convention.
6

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL IN INDIA
In every country, ICAO annexure decides who is responsible for air traffic
services. In India, the DGCA i.e. the director general of civil aviation is
responsible for all the air traffic services. It used to operate directly in providing
these services until 1995. The Airports Authority of India has been providing
these services on the behalf of DGCA.
The Airports Authority of India (AAI) was formed on 1st April 1995 by
merging the International Airports Authority of India and the National Airports
Authority with a view to accelerate the integrated development, expansion and
modernization of the operational, terminal and cargo facilities at the airports in
the country conforming to international standards. Presently it is owned by the
Government of India.


ORGANISATION
FUNCTIONS
To control and manage the entire Indian airspace (excluding the special user
airspace) extending beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted
by ICAO.
Provisioning of Communication and Navigational aids viz. ILS, DVOR,
DME, Radar, etc.
To Design, Construct, Operate and Maintain International Airports, Domestic
Airports, and Civil Enclaves at Defence Airports.
Development and Management of International Cargo Terminals.
Provisioning of Passenger Facilitation and Information System.
Expansion and Strengthening of Operational areas viz. Runways, Apron,
Taxiways, etc.
Provisioning of Visual Aids.


7

AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
An information service and alerting service are the basic levels of air traffic
service, providing information pertinent to the safe and efficient conduct of
flights and alerting the relevant authorities should an aircraft be in distress.
These are available to all aircraft through an FIR.
FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION (FIR)
The airspace of the world has been divided into homogeneous regions called
FIRs. A Flight Information Region (FIR) is an aviation term used to describe
airspace with specific dimensions, in which a Flight Information Service and an
alerting service are provided. It is the largest regular division of airspace in use
in the world today.
Any portion of the atmosphere belongs to some specific FIR. Smaller countries'
airspace is encompassed by a single FIR; larger countries' airspace is
subdivided into a number of regional FIRs. Some FIRs may encompass the
territorial airspace of several countries. Oceanic airspace is divided into
Oceanic Information Regions and delegated to a controlling authority bordering
that region. The division among authorities is done by international agreement
through ICAO. There is no standard size for FIRs; it is a matter for
administrative convenience of the country concerned.
The FIR is responsible for providing air traffic services to all the flights that
are:
o Entering (overhead)
o Leaving (overhead)
o Taking off
o Landing
In India, there are five such FIRs namely:
o Delhi
o Mumbai
o Chennai
o Calcutta
o Guwahati

8

The region of airspace over which an FIR is responsible for providing air traffic
services is broadly classified as:
o Area
o Approach
o Tower

Media links to enable the effective management of air traffic services in the Delhi FIR.
ATS ORGANISATION
AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT can be broadly categorized as
CNS
ATC.
CNS: Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which are the three
basic facilities which aid civil aviation. Thus, CNS is the building block of
ATM.
COMMUNICATION is a process of transferring information from one
source to another. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting
or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or
signs". Communication can be perceived as a two-way process. But in civil
aviation it is one-way process. At any time either the controller can speak or
the pilot can speak. COMMUNICATION in civil aviation can be further
classified as :
o Ground to ground: This enables various stations in the AFTN
(aeronautical fixed telecommunications network) to communicate via
low or high speed links. Various messages containing important
information are exchanged. The communication is based on store and
forward principle.
o Ground to Air: This includes all the communication between the
controllers and the pilot. It may include voice communication or DATIS
or any other form of messages. Ground to Air communication generally
uses either VHF of HF frequencies. Communication takes place through
transmitters and receivers installed on the ground as well as on board the
aircraft. VHF and HF are used for voice communication. VHF
9

transmitters have short range while HF can be used for communicating
over long distances.
o Air to Air: This may include communication between the pilots of two
aircrafts in the air. Such type of communication also uses VHF and HF
frequencies.
NAVIGATION is the process of reading, and controlling the movement of
a craft or vehicle from one place to another. It is also the term of art used
for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation
tasks. Navigation in civil aviation was earlier accomplished by means of
various equipments such as NDB, ILS, DVOR, and DME.
o NDB is the oldest known navigational tool. It works on the basic
principle of the magnetic compass. Nowadays, advanced equipments
such as the VOR and DME are used as navigational aids.
o DVOR is the directional very high frequency Omni radio range which
measures the azimuth angle with respect to the north. It radiated lines
across 360 deg each of which are spaced 1 deg apart. There may be
several VORs installed in an FIR. When an aircraft comes overhead a
VOR it gives the pilot the direction it must move in order to reach the
next VOR on the air route to its destination.
o ILS is the instrument landing system which helps the aircraft to land
safely.
o DME gives the slant distance of the aircraft.
SURVEILLANCE is the monitoring of the behavior of a person or group of
people, often in a surreptitious manner. The word surveillance is commonly
used to describe observation from a distance by means of electronic
equipment. In civil aviation surveillance equipment is installed in each
airport to monitor the movement of all the aircrafts within its region of
operation. Primary and secondary radar are used to aid surveillance in civil
aviation.
ATC Air Traffic Control: As explained earlier is a service provided by air
traffic controllers on the ground to all the aircrafts in air and on the ground. The
air traffic controllers are able to maintain direct contact with the pilots and
guide them to move forward towards their destination. Hence, ATC uses all the
facilities provided by CNS.
10

NAVIGATION AIDS

OVERVIEW

Early pilots looked out of their open cockpits for roads, rail lines, and airports
to find their way in daytime flight. Pilots watched the horizon to make sure they
were flying with the aircraft's nose and wings in the proper position relative to
the ground, called altitude. As airmail pilots began flying at night and in all
kinds of weather in the early 1920s, new equipment helped pilots navigate and
maintain aircraft altitude when they could not see the ground. So at that time it
is not possible to take off/land in low visibility due to many reason (eg.fog, rain,
or blowing snow, and it consists of more than one component).

Navigation aids (Nav-aids) were developed in 1926, for use inside the aircraft
and also to guide the pilots from the ground. The NAVAIDS unit is responsible
for providing and maintaining all the navigational aids required for providing
air traffic services.

In NAV-AIDS there is 2 type of landing system based on visibility:-

Landing categories

The approach and landing are the most dangerous part of the flight. When the
pilot has sufficient visibility, he is allowed to perform the landing under Visual
Flight Rules (VFR). However, when visibility is reduced (e.g. due to bad
weather), the pilot has to use Instrument Flight Rules (IFR): he has to land,
using only his instruments. The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) has defined three categories of visibility.
These categories are based on the decision height (DH) and the runway visual
range (RVR). The DH is the height above the runway at which the landing must
be aborted, if the runway is not in sight. The RVR is the visibility at the runway
surface. The three categories are as follows.

Cat I DH > 200 ft and RVR >2600 ft.
Cat II DH > 100 ft and RVR >1200 ft.
Cat III DH < 100 ft and RVR <1200 ft.
Category III is further divided into regions a, b and c.
11




The most common form of NAV-AID used for the approach phase of aircraft
descent is the instrument landing system (ILS). ILS that provides precision
guidance for a safe approach and landing on the runway under conditions of
reduced visibility. The ILS is used as ground based precision landing aid that
provides precision guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a
runway, using a combination of radio signals.

The basic components of ILS are as follows:

Localizers
Glide Path
Marker Beacons
DME
Locator beacons.



















12

LOCALIZER (LLZ)

Basic description:-

This equipment provides horizontal guidance to the runway centerline
and thus allows for tracking the extended runway centerline.

The localizer is an array of antenna. The antenna structure consists of e
14 Log Periodic Dipole Antenna (LDPA) arranged in pairs and based
on log periodic principle.




Localizer uses carrier frequency between 108 to 112 MHz (VHF band)
with 50 kHz channel spacing. This carrier is modulated with audio
tones of 90 Hz, 150 Hz.

There is 1020 Hz tone is also used for facility identification.


The localizer signal is obtainable up to a distance of up to 25 NM for a
sector of + 10, and it is obtainable up to a distance of 17 NM for a sector
of + 35 relative to the course line and the LLZ antenna.
13


--------------------Range of localizer----------------------

Working:-

Localizer system knows whether the aircraft is left or right from the central line.
The central antenna of this array sends out a base signal. This base signal is the
sum of a 90Hz AM carrier wave and a 150Hz AM carrier wave. No phase
difference is present. (The signal thus consists of a carrier and side bands
(CSB).) Next to this, there are also the right antennas. They send out a sum of a
90Hz AM carrier wave and a 150Hz AM carrier wave as well. However, this
time a phase difference is introduced. The 90Hz signal has a phase lag of 90_,
while the 150Hz signal has a phase lag of 270_. (This signal has side bands
only (SBO).) For the left antennas, this is exactly opposite. The 90Hz signal has
a phase lag of 270_ and the 150Hz signal has a phase lag of 90_. (It is SBO as
well.)

The result of this will be a lobe pattern.

If were exactly on the vertical plane through the runway, then we will measure
the 90Hz AM signal with equal strength as the 150Hz signal. But now lets
suppose that were off to the left of the runway (while approaching). In this
14

case, the 90Hz signal from the antennas will be amplified, whereas the 150Hz
signal will be more or less faded. The 90Hz signal is thus dominant. Similarly,
on the right side, the 150Hz signal will be dominant. In this way, we will know
whether were off to the left or to the right of the runway.


GLIDE PATH

Basic description:-

The glide path provides the pilot with vertical guidance. Provides the
landing angle to aircraft. It works in a similar way as the ILS localizer.

The ILS glide slope antenna array consists of only two antennas :-

Antenna A is 9m above the ground. It sends out a CSB signal: the 90Hz and the
150Hz AM signals dont have a phase difference.

Antenna B is 4.5m above the ground. It sends out an SBO signal: the 90Hzpart
has a phase lag of 180 degree (The 150Hz signal does not have a phase lag).




15

The glide path radiates on a carrier frequency between 328 and 336 MHz
(UHF) and is 80% modulated with 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones.

Localizer and Glide Path combine to bring the aircraft to a point where
the aircraft is 50 feet high at the runway threshold (decision point). The
range requirement for a glide path is approximately 10 NM.

Like the signal of the localizer, so does the signal of the glide slope
consist of two intersected radiation patterns, modulated at 90 and 150Hz.

Working:-

The Glide path receiver on the aircraft measures the difference in the depth of
modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals. The depth of modulation
for each of the modulating frequencies is 20 percent when the receiver is on the
centerline. The difference between the two signals varies depending on the
angle of the approaching aircraft on runway.




This signal gives the pilot information on the horizontal needle of the CDI to
allow the aircraft to descend at the proper angle to the runway touchdown point.
The glide path frequencies are paired with the localizer, meaning the pilot has
to tune only one receiver control.

The radiation patterns of a typical glide slope system are similar to those of the
Localizer except that the rotation pattern is vertical instead of horizontal. The
equipment generates one additional signal called clearance signal, other than
those used in localizer equipment. The null in the sideband-only (SBO) signal
16

produces essentially a straight glide path angle for the aircraft. The patterns are
arranged so that 90 Hz modulation predominates above the glide path and the
150 Hz modulation predominates below. The system uses M-array antenna
system and it is housed in a building next to the runway. The GP antenna is
located 120 to 180 m from the runway centre line. The reference height for the
glide path has been fixed at 15 m above the runway threshold.

The glide path angle is normally referenced at 3, beyond this, signal is not
available. If the aircraft is on this 3 glide path, equal amounts of the 90 Hz and
150 Hz are received and the CDI will be centered. If the aircraft is above the
glide path, the 90 Hz modulation exceeds that of the 150 Hz and produces a
deflection on the CDI downwards. If the aircraft is below the established glide
path, the 150 Hz modulation predominates and produces a similar but opposite
deflection.



DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

Basic description:-
Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio
navigation technology that measures distance by timing the propagation
delay of VHF or UHF radio signals.

The DME provides the slant distance to the aircraft from the DME
antenna.

DME is categorized on the basis of power can be high power (1 KW) or
low power (100 Watts). The high power DME is generally used for en
route applications and the low power DME is used for terminal
applications. For en route applications the DME is collocated with VOR
and for terminal applications the DME is collocated with the Glide path.

The DME operates in the UHF band (962 MHz to 1213 MHz).

Working is based on radar. The low power DME has a range of 50 NM
and high power DME has range 150 NM.
17


DME consists of both receiver and transmitter at ground stations and at
aircraft as well.

Working:-

From the ground station DME transmitter send the message as pair of Gaussian
pulses with the time difference of 12micro second called Delay. DME keep
sending these pair of pulse till an Aircraft will receive it. Time difference
between these pulses is of 50 micro second called spacing.
This whole above explained process is called Search mode in which DME uses
150 PPS.
After the search mode is accomplished, communication link is formed between
aircraft and ground station, DME goes to track mode in which it uses 30 PPS.

Distance calculation:-

Time difference between sending pulse (main pulse) & receiving pulse is
calculated by DME. Speed of these pulses is already known to us, that it covers
1NM in 12.36 micro second. In DME transmitter & receiver occurs internal
delay of 50 micro second.

Slant height = speed* (total time delay of 50 micro second)














18


MARKER BEACONS

Marker beacons are used to alert the pilot that an action (e.g., altitude check) is
needed (using 3 marker). This information is presented to the pilot by audio and
visual cues (led signal generated). The marker beacons are located at specified
intervals along the ILS approach and are identified by discrete audio and visual
characteristics. All marker beacons operate on a frequency of 75 MHz. The
marker beacon coverage provides adequate signal laterally throughout the
localizer proportional guidance sector. Marker beacons produce radiated
patterns directed upward and, therefore, pose very few sighting problems. The
ILS models do not provide any information with regard to marker beacon
performance.

The ILS has three marker beacons:
1. INNER MARKER
2. OUTER MARKER
3. MIDDLE MARKER



INNER MARKER
The inner marker is used only for CAT II ILS operations. It is not always
present and it is located at 75 m from runway and its identity frequency is
3000Hz with output adjusted to ensure 150 + 50 m beam width. It is used for
CAT II services. It is present between the OM & MM

OUTER MARKER
Located on the extended centre line at a distance of 7200 m and is tone coded
with an audio signal of 400 Hz consisting of continued dashes at a rate of 2
dashes per second. It alerts the pilot of the glide path intercept. The marker
output is adjusted to ensure 600 + 200 m beam width, measured along the glide
path and the localizer axis.



19



MIDDLE MARKER
The middle marker acts as the second check point while using the glide scope.
While descending, the aircraft checks its height and compares it with the
specified height. Any deviation indicates that the glide slope is not providing
the designating angle. The MM is located 1050 m away from runway and is
tone coded with an audio signal of 1300 Hz consisting of alternate dashes and
dots continuously. The marker output is adjusted to ensure 300 + 100 m beam
width, measured along the glide path and the localizer axis.



NON DIRECTIONAL BEACONS (NDB)/LOCATORS

The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) operates in low or medium frequency band
(190 KHz to 1750 KHz) and is used as an aid for long distance navigation and
homing. Homing is the process of determining the location of the source of a
transmission. This is useful for airspace control. The NDB operates in
main/stand-by configuration to avoid any disruption in service.

A Non-directional beacon (NDB) is a radio transmitter at a known location. As
the name implies, the signal transmitted does not include inherent directional
20

information, in contrast to other navigational aids such as VHF Omni
directional range (VOR).


Advantage over VOR
NDB signals follow the curvature of the earth, so they can be received at
much greater distances at lower altitudes, a major advantage over VOR.

Disadvantage over VOR
NDB signal is affected more by atmospheric conditions, mountainous
terrain, coastal refraction and electrical storms, particularly at long range.



NDBs are most commonly used as markers for an instrument landing system
(ILS) approach and standard approaches. NDBs may designate the starting area
for an ILS approach or a path to follow for a standard terminal arrival
procedure. An NDB is often combined with the outer marker beacon and called
as Locator Outer Marker, or LOM.



VOR (Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range)


Description:-

It is a type of short range Radio navigation system for Aircraft, enabling
aircraft with a receiving unit to determine their position & stay on course.

Uses VHF carrier 108 MHz 117.95 MHz with50 KHz spacing.

Uses 30Hzsignal both main &secondary signal.

Range 200miles.

Morse code identifier (2-3 digit), IDENT.

21


Working:-

VOR at ground station radiate 2 signals master signal & secondary signal
(Highly directional signal).

Basic principle is Phase comparison. Secondary signal is propagated by Phase
Antenna& Rotate CLK-wise in space 30 times / second this signal is timed so
that is phase is compared to master signal. This calculated phase difference is
used to calculate the angular direction of aircraft with respect to magnetic north.
It works on line of sight of communication.

VOR is of 2 types:-
1. CVOR
2. DVOR







CONVENTIONAL VHF OMNI RANGE (CVOR):-


Consist two antenna one for main signal & other for secondary signal .there is 2
signal AM signal reference signal, FM signal is varied with respect to AM
signal.

30Hz FM signal is Amplitude modulated by 117 MHz carrier frequency, first
wave it modulated by sub-carrier of 10 KHz then by 117 MHz carrier
Major advantage is less number of antennas, so less maintenance cost.

Drawback:-

1. AM is much noise effective than FM.
2. Sighting criteria is much more restricted in AM than FM.

22



DOPPLER VHF OMNI RANGE (DVOR)


DVOR is the basic Electronic navigation that is in use today. That is an aircraft
flies from one DVOR to another with the Magnetic north as the reference. This
DVOR navigation method relies on ground based transmitters which emit
signals to DVOR receiver in the aircraft. The DVOR transmitter operates in the
VHF frequency band, from 112.0 to 117.95 MHz. For optimum operation the
aircraft must be on the minimum altitude of 1000 feet above ground in order to
pick up an Omni signals service range.

It provides path or radials in the 360 in azimuth and employs Doppler principle
for the same. The VHF carrier is modulated by two 30 Hz signals. The phase
difference between these signals carries the bearing information. The carrier is
also modulated by a 1020 Hz Morse code identification signal (for identifying a
particular station) and by voice (300 Hz- -3,000 Hz). The bearing information is
extracted from the two 30 Hz signals by measuring the phase difference
between them. The bearing of an aircraft with respect to the VOR station could
be between 0 and 360. The phase difference between two signals could also
be between 0 and 360. This means that the phase difference between the two
30Hz signals is a direct representation of the aircrafts bearing. The phase of
one 30 Hz signal is kept constant all around the station. This signal is called the
reference signal. The phase of the other 30 Hz signal is allowed to vary from 0
to 360 around the station. This signal is called the variable signal.

In the Doppler VOR system, the carrier is amplitude modulated by the reference
signal and frequency modulated by the variable signal. The reference 30Hz
signal is obtained by amplitude modulating the VHF carrier with a 30 Hz sine
wave signal. This signal is usually horizontally polarized for superior noise
performance. The signal is radiated Omni directionally so that its phase is
independent of the aircrafts position. The other signal has a phase that changes
1 degree for each degree change in bearing around the VOR station.

The sidebands are positioned on opposite ends of an imaginary arm. This arm is
rotating at 1800 rpm (30 revolutions per second). To the observer in the far
23

field, the frequency of the sidebands is changing at a 30 Hz rate (because of the
Doppler Effect). The sub-carrier is therefore frequency modulated at 30 Hz. The
sub-carrier then space modulates the VHF carrier. Because of the rotation of the
sidebands, the phase of the variable signal is different for different positions of
the aircraft.

For an aircraft at magnetic north, the phase difference between the 30Hz signals
is 0. This means that the two signals must be passing through their zero
crossing at the same time. The rotation of the sidebands is done electrically.





















24

AUTOMATION SYSTEM


Before the days of radar and computer based systems, Air Traffic Control was
dependent entirely on Procedures. The importance of calculations to determine
distance and time as well as techniques still communicated within pilots and
ATC today such as position and altitude reporting. Progress strips were passed
one from one controller to another (a practice which can still be found today)
However the 1950s saw early attempts with introducing automated systems
into air traffic control with the expansion of the air carrier system. One can say
the 1970s was generally the time period where computer systems were
introduced into air traffic control, however this introduction came at different
rates in different parts of the world.

Using the example of the United States, one of its first Computer Based ATC
system was the IBM 360 which was modified as the IBM 9020, this was
installed in all 20 EN Route centre throughout the country this facilities.
Automation system provides the air traffic controller with the information
required for the safe and efficient performance of their duties.

It uses information and data from various systems and equipments
and organizes this information to best accomplish this purpose.

Automation system is a group of different processing system which processes
the data of different units as RADAR, FLIGHT PLAN.
HHHHHHHHH

RADAR DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM

25

The Automation System is comprised of the following functional
subsystems:

a) Radar Data Processing System (RDPS)
It receives and processes radar data information from various radar sites.

b) Flight Data Processing System (FDPS)
It processes information associated with flight plan data based on
information received from internal or external sources and makes it
accessible by the various Air Traffic Control (ATC) working positions
including the Flight Data Display (FDD).

c) Data Recording Facility (DRF)
It provides capability to record and replay ATC data from all subsystems
on the local area network (LAN) including operator actions at each
controller working position.

d) Data Management System (DMS)
It provides capability to perform adaptation changes and downloads of
new software releases.

e) Time synchronization unit
A Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) based time reference system
provides precision timing information to the Automation.













26


AUTOMATION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

Automation system consist a Main system that consist all basic servers and a
standby system just a replica of main system (just for a backup).

27

MAIN SYSTEM CONSIST 2-RDPS, 2-FDPS, 2-RECORDER connected by
LAN-A, LAN-B respectively. This setup is to provide redundancy to system.
Brief description about this system:-

1) LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

This means we have 4 systems working parallel, 2 in main system & 2 in
standup system .LAN A & LAN B are connected by different switches but there
in another LAN-C. This LAN connects only to the Direct Radar Access (DRA)
subsystem and all Situation Data Displays (SDD). In the event that both LAN A
and LAN B fail this LAN C provides the minimum necessary information to
continue operations until either of LAN A or LAN B become available again.

2) GPS

A Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) based time reference system provides
precision timing information to the Automation System.TRS typically consists
of an antenna, receiver, and a time and frequency processor module at each
server, inputting the timing signal. The antenna picks up the GPS signal, which
is then passed on to the receiver via a coaxial cable.

The receiver puts out an IRIG-B signal, which is sent to the time and frequency
processor module in each of the Radar Data Processing Systems (RDPS). These
establish timing for the Automation System.

3) RADAR DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM (RDPS)

The main purpose of the RDPS is to process radar data. This includes returns
consisting of both Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) and Secondary
Surveillance Radar (SSR) track data from detected aircraft. The Radar Data
Processor (RDP) filters this data and provides it to the tracking function, which
uses the radar data to update the track data maintained on each aircraft. The
principal outputs of the RDPS are target track and flight plan data, which the
RDPS supplies to the Situation Data Displays (SDDs) via the LAN. The RDPS
also generates status information and reports for display at the Control and
Monitoring Display (CMD) and makes data available for recording at the Data
Recording Facility (DRF).

28

The RDPS provides redundancy with an active and standby Radar Data
Processor (RDP); each equipped with its own set of radar interfaces. In the
event of failure of the active RDP, the standby RDP will automatically assume
the active functions. The System Monitoring and Control (SMC) software
monitors the health of the RDPS and upon detection of a failure of the active
subsystem, causes a switchover to occur.

4) FLIGHT DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM (FDPS)

The main purpose of the FDPS is to create and update flight plans based on
information received from external sources. These external sources of data
include inputs from Flight Data Display (FDD) positions and Air Traffic
Services (ATS) messages received via the Aeronautical Fixed
Telecommunications Network (AFTN) interface.

In addition, the FDPS is capable of analyzing flight plan routes, performing
flight plan conversion, calculating flight trajectory and estimated times,
determining flight plan status, validating flight plans, displaying and/or printing
flight plan data, providing automatic and manual Secondary Surveillance
Radar (SSR) code allocation, processing Meteorological (MET) data, and
automatically updating flight plans based on Estimated Time Over (ETO)
provided from the Radar Data Processor (RDP).

The FDPS provides redundancy with an active and standby Flight Data
Processor (FDP). In normal operation, one FDP is active and the other is in
standby. In the event of failure of the active FDP, the standby FDP will
automatically assume the active functions. The System Monitoring and Control
(SMC) software monitors the health of the FDPS and upon detection of a failure
of the active subsystem, causes a switchover to occur.

5) DATA RECORDING FACILITY (DRF)

The DRF records and allows the replay of Air Traffic Control (ATC) data.
Data is recorded from all subsystems onto Digital Audio Tape (DAT) and hard
disk. Two types of playback supported by the DRF can be selected at the
Control and Monitoring Display (CMD), either a playback of previously
recorded data targeted for a particular playback Situation Data Display (SDD),
or a printed log of operator inputs, system messages, and certain list updates as
they occurred at the CMD or Flight Data Display (FDD) workstation
positions. SDD playback provides a visual replay of events recorded as they
29

occurred at the selected SDD. The SDD operator can control the presentation of
the playback data via freeze and unfreeze requests to the DRF.
For redundancy, there are an active and a standby DRF. In the event of failure
of the active DRF, the standby DRF will automatically assume the active
functions.



6) DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DMS)

The DMS serves as an off-line workstation (not necessary for ATC operation)
for generating and preparing site adaptation parameters that tailor systems
operations to a segment. The graphical user interface permits the creation and
modification of geographical data, input and updating of database records, and
inputting archived data files from the DRF. Output to a printer is also
supported.

Data includes airspace files (airport and airways), equipment files (radar and
altimeters), sectorization files, system files (display configurations), and
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) codes. Presentation and editing of
graphical data includes maps, filters, sectors, and radar mosaic tiles. Graphical
data is edited using a mouse and keyboard, accessing data in latitude and
longitude coordinates.

7) AUTOMATIC MESSAGE SWITCHING SYSTEM (AMSS)

AMSS receives messages, analyses routes, stores messages in duplicate
schedules and transmits messages. It gives health signals to SOLC and monitors
its own sub-systems for generating console messages. It also takes a snap shot
of the System Status from which the system can roll back in case of failure.

NOTAM : NOTAM is the acronym for Notices to Airmen containing
information or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard
the timely knowledge of which is essential to personal concerned with the flight
operation.
The conditions which necessitates origination of NOTAM are mentioned in the
"Guidance Manual for Aeronautical Information Services in the Asia/Pacific
Region" kept in the International NOTAM office-Delhi.
30

Five series are used to issue NOTAM. Each series is separately identified by a
letter. Each NOTAM in series of NOTAM is allocated a serial number, that
number is consecutive and based on the calendar year.


Packet switching:-


This topic is basic describe that, how data is provided to all of these servers
1 RDPS:-


UCONIC SERVER is to convert the data into packets so that used by internet
protols [IP], and then transferred to RADAR DATA PROCESSING SERVER
[A]

2 FDPS:-

31

AMSS unit provide the flight plans, but it first converted to RS 232 ->RS 422.
Because of short range of RS 232[15.24 m], data is passed to workstation from
it again converted back to RS 422 -> RS 232.Transition server is only to divide
the data.



3 CGP:-



Here router is connected back to back, so that if any router fails working will
remain continuous.


32

RADAR

Radar is an object detection system which uses radio waves to determine the
range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects. The word Radar is an
abbreviation for Radio detection and Ranging. It can be used to detect aircraft,
ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and
terrain. It cannot resolve details or color. The radar dish or antenna transmits
pulses of radio waves or microwaves which bounce off any object in their path.
The object returns a tiny part of the wave's energy to a dish or antenna which is
usually located at the same site as the transmitter. The highest frequencies gave
the most accurate results. Higher frequencies produce the best echoes, make it
possible to detect smaller targets and permit the use of smaller antennas. High
tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing and are capable
of extracting useful information from very high noise levels.

RADAR PRINCIPLE
The RADAR antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is
then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked
up the receiving antenna is called echo or return. The RADAR signal is
generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver.



BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE RADAR

The elemental radar system consists of a transmitter unit, an antenna for
emitting electromagnetic radiation and receiving the echo signal, an energy
detecting receiver and a processor.
33


As shown in the above figure, a portion of the transmitted signal is intercepted
by a reflecting Object (target) and is reradiated in all directions. The antenna
collects the returned energy in the backscatter direction and delivers it to the
receiver. The distance to the receiver is determined by measuring the time taken
for the electromagnetic signal to travel to the target and back.
IMPROVED RADAR
A modified block diagram is shown in the given figure which has another
important block called the duplexer.
The functions of a duplexer are:
1. To isolate the transmitter and receiver during transmission and reception.
2. To protect the receiver from high power transmitter and
3. To help use a single transmitter/receiver antenna.





34


RADAR SIGNAL PROCESSING
1. Distance measurement
Transit time
One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of
radio signal (electromagnetic radiation) and measure the time it takes for the
reflection to return. The distance is one-half the product of the round trip time
(because the signal has to travel to the target and then back to the receiver) and
the speed of the signal. Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, accurate
distance measurement requires high-performance electronics. In most cases, the
receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being transmitted.
Through the use of a duplexer, the radar switches between transmitting and
receiving at a predetermined rate. A similar effect imposes a maximum range as
well. In order to maximize range, longer times between pulses should be used,
referred to as a pulse repetition time, or its reciprocal, pulse repetition
frequency.


Frequency modulation
Another form of distance measuring radar is based on frequency modulation.
Frequency comparison between two signals is considerably more accurate, even
with older electronics, than timing the signal. By measuring the frequency of
the returned signal and comparing that with the original, the difference can be
easily measured. Since the signal frequency is changing, by the time the signal
returns to the aircraft the transmit frequency has changed. The amount of
frequency shift is used to measure distance. The measure of the amount of
frequency shift is directly proportional to the distance traveled. That distance
can be displayed on an instrument, and it may also be available via the
transponder. A further advantage is that the radar can operate effectively at
relatively low frequencies. This was important in the early development of this
type when high frequency signal generation was difficult or expensive.
35


2. Speed measurement
Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time. Thus the
existing system for measuring distance, combined with a memory capacity to
see where the target last was, is enough to measure speed. If the transmitter's
output is coherent (phase synchronized), there is another effect that can be used
to make almost instant speed measurements (no memory is required), known as
the Doppler Effect. The Doppler Effect is only able to determine the relative
speed of the target along the line of sight from the radar to the target. Any
component of target velocity perpendicular to the line of sight cannot be
determined by using the Doppler Effect alone, but it can be determined by
tracking the target's azimuth over time.

TYPES OF RADAR
PRIMARY RADAR: Primary radar is a type of radar that can detect and report
the position of anything that reflects its transmitted radio signals including,
depending on its design, aircraft, birds, weather and land features. For air traffic
control purposes this is both an advantage and a disadvantage. Its targets do not
have to co-operate, they only have to be within its coverage and be able to
reflect radio waves, but it only indicates the position of the targets, it does not
identify them. When primary radar was the only type of radar available, the
correlation of individual radar returns with specific aircraft typically was
achieved by the Controller observing a directed turn by the aircraft. Primary
radar is still used by ATC today as a backup/complementary system to
secondary radar, although its coverage and information is more limited.

36



PRIMARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR IN USE


SECONDARY RADAR: Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is a radar system
used in air traffic control(ATC), that not only detects and measures the position
of aircraft i.e. range and bearing, but also requests additional information from
the aircraft itself such as its identity and altitude. Unlike primary radar systems
that measure only the range and bearing of targets by detecting reflected radio
signals, SSR relies on targets equipped with a radar transponder that replies to
each interrogation signal by transmitting a response containing encoded data.
SSR relies on the same equipment as PSR with one exception that each target
must be equipped with a transponder. Pulses transmitted by SSR are much
weaker than PSR because they do not need to be detected as reflections
Limitations of Secondary Radar
Since all aircraft will reply to SSR when it is detected the replies can
sometimes merge together meaning traffic can be detected in the wrong
position or its signal can be superimposed on another resulting in the
traffic disappearing entirely. This process is called Garbling. Further to
these problems traffic within 2nm of each other can sometimes get their
responses intertwined this results in aircraft swapping data tags.
While traffic is being interrogated by one ground signal it cannot reply
to another request this means that responses to second RADAR
heads can be delayed by up to 0.1s resulting in further inaccuracies.
37

SSR requires traffic to have a transponder installed and functional. Using
SSR alone produces an incomplete picture as traffic may be permitted
to operate within airspace without a transponder.

L BAND RADAR
This frequency band (1 to 2GHz) is preferred for the option of long-range air-
surveillance radar out to 250N (approx. 400 km).They transmit pulses with high
power, broad bandwidth and an intra pulse modulation often .Due to the
curvature of the earth the achievable maximum range is limited for target flying
with low altitude. These objects disappear very fast behind the radar horizon. In
air traffic management (ATM) long-range surveillance radars like the Air Route
Surveillance Radar (ARSR) works in this frequency band. Coupled with mono
pulse secondary surveillance radar (MSSR) they use a relatively large, but
slower rotating antenna. The designator L Band is a good as mnemonic rhyme
as large antenna or long range.

S-BAND RADAR
S band radars operate on a wavelength of 8-15 cm and a frequency of 2-4 GHz.
Because of the wavelength and frequency, S band radars are not easily
attenuated. This makes them useful for near and far range weather observation.
Special Airport Surveillance Radar are used at airport to detect and display the
position of aircraft in the terminal area with a medium range up to 50-
60NM(APPROX. 100KM).An ASR detect aircraft position and weather
condition in the vicinity of civilian and military airfields. The designated S
Band is a good as mnemonic rhyme as smaller antenna or shorter range. The
National Weather Service (NWS) uses S band radars on a wavelength of just
over 10 cm. The drawback to this band of radar is that it requires a large
antenna dish and a large motor to power it. It is not uncommon for an S band
dish to exceed 25 feet in size.











38


VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)



BASIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM


Introduction: Transmitter, Receiver & Channel

Communication is the process of sending, receiving and processing of
information by electrical means. It started with wire telegraphy in 1840
followed by wire telephony and subsequently by radio/wireless communication.
The introduction of satellites and fiber optics has made communication more
widespread and effective with an increasing emphasis on computer based
digital data communication. In Radio communication, for transmission
information/message are first converted into electrical signals then modulated
with a carrier signal of high frequency, amplified up to a required level,
converted into electromagnetic waves and radiated in the space, with the help of
antenna. For reception these electromagnetic waves received by the antenna,
converted into electrical signals, amplified, detected and reproduced in the
original form of information/message with the help of speaker.

Transmitter

Unless the message arriving from the information source is electrical in nature,
it will be unsuitable for immediate transmission. Even then, a lot of work must
be done to make such a message suitable. This may be demonstrated in single-
sideband modulation, where it is necessary to convert the incoming sound
signals into electrical variations, to restrict the range of the audio frequencies
and then to compress their amplitude range. All this is done before any
modulation.

In wire telephony no processing may be required, but in long-distance
communications transmitter is required to process, and possibly encode, the
incoming information so as to make it suitable for transmission and subsequent
reception. Eventually, in a transmitter, the information modulates the carrier,
i.e., is superimposed on a high-frequency sine wave. The actual method of
modulation varies from one system to another. Modulation may be high level or
39

low level, (in VHF we use low level modulation) and the system itself may be
amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, pulse modulation or any variation
or combination of these, depending on the requirements.


FIG5: Block diagram of typical radio transmitter


Channel

The acoustic channel (i.e., shouting!) is not used for long-distance
communications and neither was the visual channel until the advent of the laser.
"Communications," in this context, will be restricted to radio, wire and fiber
optic channels. Also, it should be noted that the term channel is often used to
refer to the frequency range allocated to a particular service or transmission,
such as a television channel (the allowable carrier bandwidth with modulation).
It is inevitable that the signal will deteriorate during the process of transmission
and reception as a result of some distortion in the system, or because of the
introduction of noise, which is unwanted energy, usually of random character,
present in a transmission system, due to a variety of causes.

Since noise will be received together with the signal, it places a limitation on
the transmission system as a whole. When noise is severe, it may mask a given
signal so much that the signal becomes unintelligible and therefore useless.
Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communications system, but it
will have its greatest effect when the signal is weakest. This means that noise in
the channel or at the input to the receiver is the most noticeable.


CRYSTAL
OSC & AMP

MODULATOR
& DRIVER PA
RF OUTPUT
POWER AMP
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
AUDIO IN
40


Receiver

There are a great variety of receivers in communications systems, since the
exact form of a particular receiver is influenced by a great many requirements.
Among the more important requirements are the modulation system used, the
operating frequency and its range and the type of display required, which in
turn depends on the destination of the intelligence received. Most receivers do
conform broadly to the super heterodyne type, as does the simple receiver
whose block diagram is shown in Figure.


FIG 6: Block diagram of AM super heterodyne receiver

Receivers run the whole range of complexity from a very simple crystal
receiver, with headphones, to a far more complex radar receiver, with its
involved antenna arrangements and visual display system. Whatever the
receiver, its most important function is demodulation (and sometimes also
decoding). Both these processes are the reverse of the corresponding transmitter
modulation processes.

As stated initially, the purpose of a receiver and the form of its output influence
its construction as much as the type of modulation system used. The output of a
receiver may be fed to a loudspeaker, video display unit, teletypewriter, various
radar displays, television picture tube, pen recorder or computer: In each
instance different arrangements must be made, each affecting the receiver
design. Note that the transmitter and receiver must be in agreement with the
modulation and coding methods used (and also timing or synchronization in
some systems).
Intermediate
Frequency
Amplifier
Demodulator Audio Voltage
And Power
Amplifiers
RF Stage
Local
Oscillator
Mixer
Speaker
41




Frequency band and its uses in communications
Table 2: Radio Waves Classification













Band Name Frequency Band

Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) 3Hz - 30 Hz

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 kHz - 30 kHz

Low Frequency (LF) 30 kHz - 300 kHz
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz - 3 MHz

High Frequency (HF) 3 MHz - 30 MHz

Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 MHz - 300 MHz

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz -3 GHz

Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 GHz - 30 GHz

Extra High Frequency (EHF) 30 GHz - 300 GHz


Infrared Frequency 3 THz- 30 THz
42


Table 3: Frequencies band uses in communication

NAME OF THE
EQUIPMENT
FREQUENCY BAND USES

NDB

HF

Localizer

VOR

VHF
Glide path

DME

UHF LINK
RADAR
200 450 KHz

3 30 MHz

108-112MHz

108-117.975MHz

117.975-137MHz
328-336MHz

960-1215MHz

.3-2.7GHz
.3-12GHz
Locator, Homing & En-
route
Ground to Ground/Air
Com.
Instrument Landing
System
Terminal, Homing & En-
route
Ground to Air Comm.
Instrument Landing
System
Measurement of
Distance
Remote Control,
Monitoring
Surveillance



43



The electromagnetic spectrum




MODULATION


CW and Pulse modulation

According to the type of carrier it is possible to identify two basic types of
modulation:

Continuous wave (CW) modulation- the carrier is sinusoidal.
Pulse modulation- the carrier is a periodic train of pulses.

The CW modulation, being a continuous process, is obviously suitable for signals
which vary continuously with time. Pulse modulation is a discontinuous process, in
the sense that pulses are present at certain distinct intervals of time only making
this process more suitable to messages that are discrete in nature. Continuously
varying signals can be transmitted on pulsed carrier by the method of sampling.

Analog and Digital Modulation

In an alternative way modulation can be classified as Analog or Digital (or
coded) modulation. This way of classification becomes more relevant and
meaningful for the complex system using CW and Pulsed techniques where the
distinction on the basis of the type of carrier loses its sanctity. In analog
modulation the modulated parameter varies in direct proportion to the modulating
signal (instantaneous value). In digital modulation, a digital transformation takes
place whereby the message is converted from one symbolic language to another. If

44

the message is originally a continuous time function, it must be sampled and
digitized prior to encoding.

Types of CW Modulation

The Continuous Wave auxiliary signal (carrier), because the Message is the main
signal, can be characterized by the following three parameters.

1. The Amplitude: It is the maximum instantaneous magnitude.
2. The Frequency: It is the number of oscillations per second.
3. The Phase: It designates the point of the oscillatory cycle reached at a specified
reference time.


Amplitude Modulation

Here in VHF Airport Authority of India uses amplitude modulation for sending
signals.
Basic theory of AM
Message and information: We can define communication as the process of
transferring information (or Message) from one point in space and time, called the
source, to another point, the destination or user. A communication system is the
totality of mechanism that provides the information link between source and
destination. Information normally means knowledge or meaning. Information is the
well organized collection of data which conveys some meaning. Within the limited
scope of discussion, we are to restrict ourselves within the physical manifestation
of the information as produced by the source, that is, message. Normally the
message produced by a source is not electrical and hence an input transducer is
required to convert the message to a signal a time varying electrical quantity such
as voltage or current. Similarly, another transducer at the destination converts the
output signal to the appropriate message form. In many of the books signal and
message are used interchangeably since the signal, like the message, is also a
physical embodiment of information.

Amplitude Modulation and Carrier: Remembering again that modulation is the
systematic alteration of one waveform according to the characteristics of the
message waveform we are to be ready for some quantitative discussion and
analysis of modulation system. Let us start the discussion by taking an electrical

45

signal x(t) representing time varying voltage or current. If this signal is used to
alter the amplitude of a sinusoid cos {ct +(t)}

MARATHON Digital Voice Recorder (DVR)

Marathon Digital recorders are available in three models. They are as
follows:
a) Marathon Pro capable of handling up to 128 Analog inputs in
increments of 4 and up to 120 Digital inputs.
b) Marathon Advanced capable of handling up to 64 Analog inputs
c) Marathon compact capable of handling up to 32 Analog inputs.
Marathon Digital Recorders are based on a Standard PC Architecture and are
designed as Standalone Systems, with all System Controls integrated on to the
Front Panel. The System consists of all necessary Hardware Components for
Recording and Storage of Voice Calls and Fax Messages. The system is also
capable of simultaneous Replay during Online Recording or replay at a later time.
The Marathon System is based on Pentium Pro Processor and is having a Dual Bus
Architecture with both ISA and PCI slots for interface of system modules into the
motherboard or Backplane. An LCD type color display of 320x240 pixel resolution
is integrated into the System Front Panel for display of all related information
required for operation and supervision of the System. The Marathon System is
provided with data backup facilities by using Digital Audio Tape (DAT) device.
All System Recordings are done in parallel mode i.e. both in the Hard disk and in
any one of the Recording Devices such as DAT medium. The System is Password
protected and has facilities for individual Personal Access. The Marathon System
is controlled by a Front Panel IBM PC Key board compatible Control Panel. Also
the System functions can be accessed and supervised through an optional PC
connected to the System and is known as Marathon Workstation. For controlling
the system with an external PC, the PC should be loaded with Marathon
Workstation Software.






46

SECURITY EQUIPMENTS

DETECTION OF X-RAYS
DETECTION METHOD
X-rays are detected by scintillator crystals which convert X-rays into visible light,
photodiodes then convert this light into electrical current. In multi energy system
the single energy X-Ray beam is converted into dual energy by the following
arrangement of detectors.

Fig 8: conversion of X-ray to dual energy y
After the X-rays pass through the item, they are picked up by a detector. This
detector then passes the X-rays on to a filter, which blocks out the lower-energy
X-rays. The remaining high-energy
X-rays hit a second detector. A computer circuit compares the pick-ups of the two
detectors to better represent low-energy objects, such as most organic materials.

Conveyer system and luggage detection
Conveyer system
X-B is use a conveyer motor, which drives the conveyer belt to transport the
luggage or baggage into the inspection tunnel. This may be a single or three phase
motor depending upon the size of the machine. The conveyer motor must run at a
uniform speed, single motor is used for running the conveyer belt in forward and
the reverse direction by suitable phase shifting arrangement. The material of the
conveyer belt is transparent to the X-Rays.



47

Luggage detection
Light barriers
The light barriers serve to detect objects transported on the conveyor belt into the
inspection tunnel. As standard, a light barrier is installed at the tunnel entry so that
inspections can only be carried out in forward direction. X-ray units equipped with
the option Full-reverse mode provide another light barrier at the tunnel exit. In this
case, inspections can be carried out in both forward and reverse direction.
The light barriers operate with infrared beams. If an object interrupts a beam, the
output signal of the light barrier changes its state (logic level) and the object is
detected. A number of light barriers may be required at suitable locations so as to
detect objects of various shape and sizes.

METAL DETECTORS

INTRODUCTION TO AIRPORT METAL DETECTORS
Old metal detectors worked on energy absorption principle used two coils as
search coils; these were forming two loops of a blocking oscillator. When any
person carrying a metallic object or a weapon stepped through the door carrying
coils, some energy was absorbed and the equilibrium of the blocking oscillator got
disrupted. This change was converted into audio and visual indications. Size and
weight of the metallic object was determined by proper sensitivity settings. The
hand held metal detectors used the same technique. These types of metal detectors
carried various shortcomings and they have been superseded by new generation
multi zone equipments
Working on PI technology
TYPES- The metal detectors, used in aviation sector are generally of two types.
1. HAND HELD METAL DETECTORS
2. DOOR FRAME METAL DETECTORS

Hand Held Metal Detector
OPERATION
The coil is part of the oscillating circuit which operation frequency is 23.5 kHz.
When a metal object is inside the sensing area of the coil, it will effect to amplitude
of the oscillating signal. After a while the integrating control will set the amplitude
a constant value. Output of oscillator is rectified and it is connected through the
filter section to comparator. When the signal is lower than the adjusted reference
level (sensitivity setting) comparator generates alarm signal. It activates the alarm

48

oscillator and the audible alarm / the red alarm light. Battery voltage is controlled
with a low voltage circuit and constant alarm is activated when the battery voltage
is under 7V. The connector in the rear of the unit operates as headphone and
charger connections. The charger idle voltage is between 14 and 24 VDC. During
charging operation the green light is plinking and with full battery it lights
constantly. If headphone is connected, audible alarm is not operational.

DOOR FRAME METAL DETECTOR


FIGURE13: View of a Door Frame (WALK THROUGH) Metal Detector

Technical Description
FUNCTION
Metor 200 metal detector is designed to activate an alarm when the signal caused
by a metal object taken through the detector exceeds the preset alarm level. Due to
the multizone principle used in Metor 200 it discriminates reliably weapons from
innocuous item and indicates the height where a weapon was taken through the
gate.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The transmitter coils generate a pulsed magnetic field around them. Metal objects
taken through the detector generate a secondary magnetic field, which is converted
into a voltage level by the receiver coils. Metor 200 consists of eight separate
overlapping transmitter and receiver coil pairs. The signals received from each
receiver coil are processed individually thus the transmitter and receiver coil pairs
form eight individual metal detectors. The operation is based on electromagnetic
pulsed field technology as below in addition to the
Above explanation

49


BIBLIOGRAPHY


The information mentioned above is taken from the following
sources:

http://www.wikipedia.org

http://www.aai.aero

http://www.airport-technology.com

http://www.navfltsm.addr.com/gs.htm